DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

U20ME301 / MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY I

NOTES OF LESSON

UNIT I METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting : Sand Mould – Type of patterns - Pattern Materials – Pattern allowances –
Moulding sand Properties and testing – Cores –Types and applications – Moulding
machines– Types and applications; Melting furnaces : Blast and Cupola Furnaces; Principle
of special casting processes : Shell - investment – Ceramic mould – Pressure die casting -
Centrifugal Casting - CO2 process – Stir casting; Defects in Sand casting.

1.1CASTING
” Foundry or casting is the process of producing metal/alloy component parts of
desired shapes by pouring the molten metal into a prepared mould (of that shape) and then
allowing the metal to cool and solidify. The solidified piece of metal is known as a
CASTING”.
Advantages and limitations:
 Complicated shapes can be manufactured easily because the molten metal can
flows in to any small section.
 Casting moulds are very simple and inexpensive
 For trial production or production of small lot, it is an ideal method.
 Casting of any size and weight, even up to 200 tons can be made.
 Sometimes the surface defects as well as inner defects can occur, due to poor
surface finish some secondary operation is required.
1.2 FUNCTION OF PATTERN:
 A Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.
 A Pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a
core and need to be made hollow.
 Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting
defects.
 Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
1.2.1The pattern material should be:
1. Easily worked, shaped and joined.
2. Light in weight.
3. Strong, hard and durable.
4. Resistant to wear and abrasion.
5. Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions.

1.3 PATTERN MATERIALS

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1. Wooden patterns:
Wood is the material commonly used for pattern. (Teak wood, rose wood)
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from same patterns.
Advantages:
 Inexpensive
 Easily available in large quantities
 Easy to fabricate
 Light in weight
 They can be repaired easily
 Easy to obtain good surface finish
Limitations:
 Susceptible to shrinkage and swelling
 Possess poor wear resistance
 Abraded easily by sand action
 Absorb moisture, consequently get wrapped
2.Metal patterns:
These are employed where large no. of castings have to be produced from same patterns.
Metal patterns are used in machine moulding.(Ex:Cast iron, brass, aluminium)
Advantages:
 Do not absorb moisture
 More stronger
 Possess much longer life
 Do not wrap, retain their shape
 Greater resistance to abrasion
 Accurate and smooth surface finish
 Good machinability
Limitations:
 Expensive
 Not easily repaired
 Ferrous patterns get rusted
 Heavy weight

3.Plastic pattern:
These are may not work well when subject to conditions of severe shock as in
machine molding (jolting).
Advantages:
 Durable
 Provides a smooth surface
 Moisture resistant
 Does not involve any appreciable change in size or shape
 Wear and corrosion resistance
 Abrasion resistance
 Goodresistance to chemical attack
Limitations:
 Plastic patterns are Fragile
4.Plaster Patterns:

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 Plaster may be made out of Plaster of paris or Gypsum cement. Plaster mixture is
poured into a mould made by a sweep pattern or a wooden master pattern, in order to obtain
a Plaster pattern.
Advantages:
 It can be easily worked by using wood working tools.
 Intricate shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
 It has high compressive strength.
5.Wax pattern:
In investment casting wax pattern is used. Paraffin, shellac wax are commonly used.
Advantages:
 Provide very good surface finish.
 Impart high accuracy to castings.

1.4 TYPES OF PATTERN

1. Single piece pattern:

 Made from one piece and does not contain loose pieces or joints.
 Inexpensive.
 Used for large size simple castings.
 Pattern is accommodated either in the cope or in the drag.
Examples:
a. Bodies of regular shapes.
b. Gears
2. Split piece pattern:
 Patterns having complicated geometry cannot be removed from mould if they are made by
a single piece pattern.
 The upper and the lower parts of the split piece patterns are accommodated in the cope and
drag portions of the mold respectively.
 Parting line of the pattern forms the parting line of the mould.
 Dowel pins are used for keeping the alignment between the two parts of the pattern.
Examples:
Bearings, pulleys and spheres.

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3.Loose Piece pattern:
Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the molding.
Certain patterns cannot be withdrawn once they are embedded in the molding sand. Such
patterns are usually made with one or more loose pieces for facilitating from the molding box
and are known as loose piece patterns

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 Loose parts or pieces remain attached with the main body of the pattern, with the help
of dowel pins.
 The main body of the pattern is drawn first from the molding box and thereafter as
soon as the loose parts are removed, the result is the mold cavity.

4.Match piece pattern:

 It consists of a match plate, on either side of which each half of split patterns is fastened.
 A number of different sized and shaped patterns may be mounted on one match plate.
 After the cope and drag have been rammed with the molding sand, the match plate pattern
is removed from in between the cope and drag.
 Match plate patterns are normally used in machine molding.

5.Sweep pattern:
 A sweep pattern is just a form made on a wooden board which sweeps the shape of the
casting into the sand all around the circumference. The sweep pattern rotates about the post.
(EX: Bell shape casting)
 Making a sweep pattern saves a lot of time and labour as compared to making a full
pattern.
 A sweep pattern is preferred for producing large casting of circular sections and
symmetrical shapes.

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6.Gated pattern:

 The sections connecting different patterns serve as runner and gates. This facilitates
filling of the mould with molten metal in a better manner and at the same time
eliminates the time and labour otherwise consumed in cutting runners and gates.
 A gated pattern can manufacture many casting at one time and thus it is used in mass
production systems. Gated patterns are employed for producing small castings.

7.Skeleton pattern: A skeleton pattern is the skeleton of a desired shape which may be S-
bend pipe or a chute or something else. The skeleton frame is mounted on a metal base
 The skeleton is made from wooden strips, and is thus a wooden work.
 The skeleton pattern is filled with sand and is rammed.

 A strickle (board) assists in giving the desired shape to the sand and removes extra
sand.
 Skeleton patterns are employed for producing a few large castings.

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  A skeleton pattern is very economical, because it involves less material costs. (EX:
turbines, water pipes).

8.Follow board pattern:

 A follow board is a wooden board and is used for supporting a pattern which is very thin
and fragile and which may give way and collapse under pressure when the sand above
the pattern is being rammed.
 With the follow board support under the weak pattern, the drag is rammed, and then the
fallow board is withdrawn. The rammed drag is inverted, cope is mounted on it and
rammed. During this operation pattern remains over the inverted drag and get support
from the rammed sand of the drag under it.

.
 Follow boards are also used for casting master patterns for many applications.
1.5 TYPES OF ALLOWANCES
1. Shrinkage Allowance:All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on
cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types:
1. Liquid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid
state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed
the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
2. Solid Shrinkage: It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature
in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.
 Different metals shrink at different rates because shrinkage is the property of the cast
metal/alloy.
 For example the white cast iron shrinks 21.0mm/m, Aluminium shrinks 13mm/m and
Copper shrinks 16mm/m during casting.
The metal shrinkage depends upon:
 The cast metal or alloy.
 Pouring temperature of the metal/alloy.
 Casted dimensions(size).
 Casting design aspects.
 Molding conditions(i.e., mould materials and molding methods employed)
2. Machining Allowance:
A Casting is given an allowance for machining, because:
 Castings get oxidized in the mold and during heat treatment; scales etc., thus formed
need to be removed.
 It is the intended to remove surface roughness and other imperfections from the
castings.

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  It is required to achieve exact casting dimensions.
 Surface finish is required on the casting.
 For cast iron the allowance will be
Machining allowance should be provided, depends on the factors listed below:
 Nature of metals.
 Size and shape of casting.
 The type of machining operations to be employed for cleaning the casting.
 Casting conditions.
 Molding process employed
3. Draft or Taper Allowance:
 It is given to all surfaces perpendicular to parting line.
 Draft allowance is given so that the pattern can be easily removed from the molding
material tightly packed around it without damaging the mould cavity.
The amount of taper depends upon:
 Shape and size of pattern in the depth direction in contact with the mould
cavity.
 Moulding methods, Mould materials.
 Draft allowance is imparted on internal as well as external surfaces; of course
it is more on internal surfaces.

Pattern having draft on vertical edges

4. Distortion or cambered allowance:

A casting will distort or wrap if :
 It is of irregular shape,
 All parts do not shrink uniformly i.e., some parts shrinks while others are
restricted
 It is u or v-shape,
 The arms possess unequal thickness,
 One portion of the casting cools at a faster rate as compared to the other.

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5. Shake allowance:
 A patter is shaken or rapped to detach it from the mould cavity. This is done
so that a little is loosened in the mold cavity and can be easily removed.
 In turn, therefore, rapping enlarges the mould cavity which results in a bigger
sized casting.
 Hence, a –ve allowance is provided on the pattern i.e., the pattern dimensions
are kept smaller in order to compensate the enlargement of mould cavity due
to rapping.
 The magnitude of shake allowance can be reduced by increasing the taper.
Sources of Molding Sand Molding
Sand used in foundries is available in (i) River beds. (ii) Sea. (iii) Deserts. (iv) Lakes.

1.6 KINDS OF MOULDING SAND

Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which are
described below.

1) Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of
silica sand with 18 to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8. It is commonly
employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings. It is used for small and medium
size castings.
2) Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores, is
called dry sand. It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. Mold prepared in
this sand are known as dry sand molds. It is mainly suitable for larger castings.
3) Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high
clay as much as 30-50% and 18% water. Loam sand becomes hard when it is dried. This is
particularly employed for loam molding used for large grey iron castings such as bell, pulley.

4) Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mold, gives surface finish to casting. It
is directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes into contact molten metal when the
mold is poured.. It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.
5) Backing sand

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Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole
volume of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose.
6) Parting sand
Parting sand without binder and moisture is used to keep the green sand not to stick to the
pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting surface the cope and drag to separate without
clinging.
7) Core sand
Core sand is used for making cores and it is sometimes also known as oil sand. This is highly
rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil which composed of linseed oil, resin,
light mineral oil and other bind materials.

1.7 Molding sand Properties

1. Refractoriness:
It is the ability of the molding material to with stand high temperatures (experienced during
pouring) with out
 Fusion,
 Cracking, buckling or scabbing,
 Experiencing any major physical change.
 Silica(SiO2) sand have high refractoriness.

Material Melting Point ˚C Coefficient of linear expansion

Silica 1710 16.2*106/˚C

Alumina 2020 8*106/˚C

Graphite 4200 (highest one) Nill

2. Permeability:
 During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases
and steam is generated.
 These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air
absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core
sand.
 If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they would be entrapped
inside the casting and cause casting defects.
 To overcome this problem the molding material must be porous.
 Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the gases that are generated
inside the mold cavity.
3. Green strength:
 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand.
 The green sand particles must have the ability to cling to each other to impart
sufficient strength to the mold.

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  The green sand must have enough strength so that the constructed mold retains
its shape.
 Green strength helps in making and handling the moulds.

4. Dry strength:

A mould may either intentionally be dried, or a green sand mould may lose its
moisture and get dried while when it comes in contact with molten metal being
poured.
The sand thus dried must have dry strength to
 Withstand erosive forces due to molten metal,
 Withstand pressure of molten metal,
 Retain its exact shape,
 Withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.

5. Hot strength:

The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called hot
strength.In the absence of adequate hot strength, the mold may
 Enlarge
 Break, Erode Or
 Get cracked.

6. Collapsibility:

 Collapsibility determines the readiness with which the molding sand

automatically gets collapsed after the casting solidifies, and
 If the mould or core does not collapse, it may restrict free contraction of
solidifying metal and cause the same to tear or crack.
7.Flowability:
 It is the ability of the molding sand to get compacted to a uniform density.
 Flowability assists molding sand to flow and pack all-around the pattern and
take up the required shape.

8. Adhesiveness:
It is the property of molding sand owing to which, it Sticks with the walls of molding boxes,

9. Fineness:
 Finer sand mould resist metal penetration and produce smooth casting surfaces.
 Fineness and permeability are in conflict with each other and hence they must be
balanced for optimum results.

1.8 SAND TESTING

Generally the following tests are performed to judge the molding and casting characteristics
of foundry sands:

 Moisture content Test

 Clay content Test

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  Chemical composition of sand
 Grain shape and surface texture of sand.
 Grain size distribution of sand
 Refractoriness of sand
 Strength Test
 Permeability Test
 Flowability Test
 Shatter index Test
 Mould hardness Test.
Moisture Content Test

 The moisture content of the molding sand mixture may determine by drying a
weighed amount of 20 to 50 grams of molding sand to a constant temperature up to 100°C in
a oven for about one hour.
 It is then cooled to a room temperature and then reweighing the molding sand. The
moisture content in molding sand is thus evaporated.
 The loss in weight of molding sand due to loss of moisture, gives the amount of
moisture which can be expressed as a percentage of the original sand sample.
 Speedy moisture teller instrument is based on the principle that when water and
calcium carbide react, they form acetylene gas which can be increase the pressure of the
chamber so this will be directly proportional to the moisture content.
 CaC2 + 2H2O--->C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

Clay Content Test: The amount of clay is determined by carrying out the clay content test in
which clay in molding sand of dried 50 grams( at 105˚C ) sample is mixed with 475ml of
distilled water and 25ml of 1% NaOH is thoroughly stirred for five minutes.

Then it is allowed to settle for 10mins. The sand is settled at the bottom. The clay is floating.
The floating clay is removed. Then it is washed with water, and once again remove the
floating clay.

Repeat the steps till the end of getting clear sand. Now it is dried in the oven and weighed the
difference in the weight (50gm) can be calculated and we can identify the percentage of the
clay content in the sand.

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Grain Fineness Test
The AFS Grain Fineness Number (AFS-GFN Grain Fitness Number) is one means of
measuring the grain fineness of a sand system. (American foundary society-grain fitness
number)

GFN is a measure of the average size of the particles (or grains) in a sand sample. The grain
fineness of molding sand is measured using a test called sieve analysis.

1. A representative sample of the sand is dried and weighed, then passed through a series of
progressively finer sieves (screens) while they are agitated and tapped for a 15-minute test
cycle. The series are placed in order of fineness from top to bottom.
2. The sand retained on each sieve (grains that are too large to pass through) is then weighed
and recorded.The weight retained on each sieve is carried out through calculations to get the
AFS-GFN.(American foundary society-grain fitness number)

Grain Finess No.=(Total product/Total percentage of sand retained on pan and each
sieve)

Strength Test
This is the strength of tempered sand expressed by its ability to hold a mold in shape. The
green compressive strength test and dry compressive strength is the most used test in the
foundry.

Compression tests
A rammed specimen of tempered molding sand is produced that is 2 inches in diameter and 2
inches in height. The rammed sample is then subjected to a load which is gradually increased
until the sample breaks. The point where the sample breaks is taken as the compression
strength.

Permeability Test

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The rate of flow of air through a compacted specimen under standard pressure conditions.
A cylinder sand sample is prepared by using rammer and die. This specimen (usually 2 inch
diameter& 2 inch height) is used for testing the permeability or porosity of molding and the
core sand.
The test is performed in a permeability meter consisting of the balanced tank, water tank,
nozzle, adjusting lever, nose piece for fixing sand specimen and a manometer.
 The permeability is directly measured.
 Permeability number P is volume of air (in cm 3) passing through a sand specimen of 1
cm2 cross-sectional area and 1 cm height, at a pressure difference of 1 gm/cm2 in one minute.
P = VH /ATp

Where, P = permeability, V = volume of air passing through the specimen in c.c.

H = height of specimen in cm, p = pressure of air in gm/cm 2, A = cross-sectional area of the
specimen in cm2 ,T = time in minutes.
1.9 TYPES OF MOULDING MACHINES
By using moulding mahine the uniformity of casting is improved, eliminate the need of
skilled molders, tolerances of casting is improved.
The following types of moulding machines are:
*Jolting machine *Squeezing machine *Sand slinger

Jolting machine:
 The pattern is placed in the flask on the table. The flask is filled up with moulding
sand. The table with flask is raised to about 80mm and suddenly dropped.
 The table will be operated pneumatically or hydraulically. The sudden dropping of
table from a height makes the sand pack evenly around the pattern.

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 Jolt-Squeeze machine:
 It operates jolt as well as squeeze operation.
 Sand is sprayed over the pattern. Sand is filled in the drag and it is jolted repeatedly.
(pneumatically or hydraulically)
 After jolting it is rolled over by hand. Parting agents are sprinkled over the cope surface.
 The squeezer board then squeezes the entire mould.
 This squeezing helps to make pouring basin and to show locations of riser, gate, sprue etc.
 Squeeze board is removed and gate, sprue and risers are cut with the help of sprue cutter.
Sandslinger:
 It consists of base, sand bin, bucket elevator, swinging arm, belt conveyor and sand
impeller.Elevator bucket is used to lift the sand and it passes it to conveyor.

 The sand is discharged into the molding box at a rate of 300 – 2000 kg/minute.
 This force is great enough to ram.

1.10 CORE
 A core is a device used in casting and molding processes to produce internal cavities.
 It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring.
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold cavity and the core to form
the castings external and internal surfaces
 May require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during pouring called
chaplets.
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1.11 TYPES OF CORES
Condition of core- Green sand core, Dry sand core
1. Nature of core material- Oil Bonded, Resin Bonded, Shell And Sodium Silicate
Cores
2. Core hardened process- CO2 process, Hot Box Process, Cold Set Process
3. Shape and position – Horizontal,Vertical,Cover Core, Balanced Core, Drop
Core, Kiss Core
Green sand cores:
These are obtained by the pattern itself during moulding. Though this is the most economical
way of preparing a core, the green sand being low in strength cannot be used for fairly deep
holes. Also a large amount of draft is to be provided so that the pattern can be withdrawn.

Dry sand cores:

It is made by special core sands in a separate core box, backed and then placed in the mould
before pouring.
Oil bonded core: silica + linseed oil.
Resin bonded cores: phenol resin bonded sand is rammed in a core box. Backing temp is
450˚F
Hot box core: It uses heated core boxes for the production of core. Cast iron, steel or
aluminium core box are used. Core box are heated to 500˚F.
Cold set process:while mixing the core-sand an accelerator is added to the binder. It is easily
rammed. A little heating make it harderns it. It is employed for large cores.
Horizontal core: It is positioned horizontally in the mould. Depends upon the cavity the
shape is prepared. It is supported at both ends.
Vertical core: Its axis is vertical. The two ends are supported in core seats in cope and drag.

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Cover core: It is supported from above and it hangs vertically in mold cavity.
Balanced core: It is supported and balanced from its one end only. Some times chaplets
used.
Drop core or Stop off core: It is employed to make a cavity which cannot be made with
other types cores. To make a cavity above or below the parting line it is used.
Kiss core: A kiss core does not require core seats for getting supported. A kiss core is held
in position between drag and cope due to the pressure exerted by cope on the drag. A number
of kiss cores can be simultaneously positioned inorder to obtain a number of holes in a
casting.

If a core is symmetrical then it can be made into two equal parts and then assembled together
by adhesives or fastened by wires. The nut and bolt are covered by the core plug.
Core positioning and supports:
To support the core a projection made in the pattern is called core print. It is used to form a
core seat in the mould.

Chaplets are metallic supports often kept inside the mould cavity to support the cores. These
are the same composition as that of the pouring metal so that themolten metal would provide
enough heat to complete melt them asd thus fuse with it during solidification.

1.13 FURNACE:

1.13.1 Blast furnace:

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This method is used to melt metal ore and to produce the pig iron that is the raw material for
wrought iron. The charge is placed a giant chimney called a blast furnace. The blast furnace
is around 30 metres high and lined with fireproof bricks. Hot air is blasted through the
bottom. This furnace is 30m high and 8m diameter.
Working process:
Unwanted impurities are light in weight so the melted pig iron will be in the bottom of the
chamber. The furnace surface is lined with refractory bricks. Coke, limestone and iron ore
are poured at the top. Air is blown in through tuyers near the base. Three substances are
needed to enable to extraction of iron from its ore. The combined mixture is called the
charge:
Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron oxide, Fe2O3.
Limestone (calcium carbonate).Coke - mainly carbon.

Several reactions take place before the iron is finally produced.

Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:

At 1500˚C the limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

The calcium oxide reacts with various acidic impurities in the iron, forming a slag calcium
silicate, which floats on the iron.
Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke to produce carbon monoxide:

The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the ore to give molten iron:

The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate):

Both the slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace. The pig iron produced
form the blast furnace is not very useful due to its high carbon content (around 4-5%) which
makes it brittle. It is used to make cast iron goods, often being remelted in a foundry cupola.
The slag is mainly used to build roads. The iron molten is poured into moulds and left to
solidify - this is called cast iron and is used to make railings and storage tanks. The rest of the
iron is used to make steel.

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1.14 CUPOLA DIFFERENT TYPES OF ZONES
1. Well
The space between the bottom of the tuyeres and the sand bed inside the cylindrical shell of
the cupola is called as well of the cupola. As the melting occurs, the molten metal is get
collected in this portion before tapping out.
2. Combustionzone
The combustion zone of Cupola is also called as oxidizing zone. It is located between the
upper of the tuyeres and a theoretical level above it. The total height of this zone is normally
from 15 cm. to 30 cm. The heat generated in this zone is sufficient enough to meet the
requirements of other zones of cupola. The heat is further evolved also due to oxidation of
silicon and manganese. A temperature of about 1540°C to 1870°C is achieved in this zone.
Few exothermic reactions takes place in this zone these are represented as :
C + O2 ——→ CO2 + Heat
Si + O2 ——→ SiO2 + Heat
3. Reducing zone
Reducing zone of Cupola is also known as the protective zone which is located between the
upper level of the combustion zone and the upper level of the coke bed. In this zone, CO 2 is
changed to CO through an endothermic reaction, as a result of which the temperature falls
from combustion zone temperature to about 1200°C at the top of this zone. The important
chemical reaction takes place in this zone which is given as

2Mn + O2 ——→ 2MnO + Heat

CO2 + C (coke) ——→ 2CO + Heat
Nitrogen does not participate in the chemical reaction occurring in his zone as it is also the
other main constituent of the upward moving hot gases. Because of the reducing atmosphere
in this zone, the charge is protected against oxidation.
4. Melting zone
The lower layer of metal charge above the lower layer of coke bed is termed as melting zone

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of Cupola. The metal charge starts melting in this zone and trickles down through coke bed
and gets collected in the well.
3Fe + 2CO——→ Fe3C + CO2
5. Preheating zone
This zone contains a number of alternate layers of coke bed, flux and metal charge. The main
objective of this zone is to preheat the charges from room temperature to about 1090°C
before entering the metal charge to the melting zone. The preheating takes place in this zone
due to the upward movement of hot gases. The empty portion of cupola above the preheating
zone is called as stack. It provides the passage to hot gases to go to atmosphere from the
cupola furnace.

1.14.1 WORKING OF CUPOLA FURNACE

Initially the furnace is opened to drop the existing earlier charge residue. The furnace is then
repaired using rich refractory lining. After the fire is ignited using firewood and then small
amount of coke is used to pick fire. The little oxygen is then supplied for combustion. Lime,
coke, and metal in balanced proportions are charged through the charging door upon the coke
bed and at proper time on starting the blower. Air is forced from wind box through tuyers into
furnace. The forced air rise upward rough the stack furnaces for combustion of coke. Besides
being fuel, the coke supports the charge until melting occurs. On increase of temperature, the
lime stone melts and forms a flux which protects the metal against from excessive oxidation.
The melting occurs and proceeds and molten metal is collected at the bottom.
Applications of Cupola
Cupola is most widely used for melting practices for production of grey cast iron, nodular
cast iron, malleable cast iron and alloy cast iron. It can be used for melting some copper-base
alloys, malleable cast iron and ductile cast iron.
1.15 SPECIAL CASTING PROCESS

1.15. 1 Shell Molding

 Shell mold casting is molding techniques for mass production, lower labor
requirement and smooth finish.
 It is a process in which, a thin mold is made around a heated metallic pattern plate.

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 The molding material is a mixture of dry, fine silica sand (clay content should be kept
very low), and 3-8% of a thermosetting resin like phenol formaldehyde or silicon grease.
 The shell mold casting process consists of the following six steps:
Pattern creation - Mold creation - Mold assembly - Pouring - Cooling - Casting
removal
 Fine silica sand that is covered in a thin (3–6%) thermosettingphenolic resin and
liquid catalyst is dumped, blown, or shot onto a hot pattern. The pattern is usually
made from cast iron and is heated to 230 to 315 °C. The sand is allowed to sit on the
pattern for a few minutes to allow the sand to partially cure.
 The pattern and sand are then inverted so the excess sand drops free of the pattern,
leaving just the "shell". Depending on the time and temperature of the pattern the
thickness of the shell is 10 to 20 mm
 The pattern and shell together are placed in an oven to finish curing the sand. The
shell now has a tensile strength of 2.4 to 3.1 MPa.
 The hardened shell is then stripped from the pattern.
 Two or more shells are then combined, via clamping or gluing using a thermoset
adhesive, to form a mold.
 For casting the shell mold is placed inside a flask and surrounded with shot, sand, or
gravel to reinforce the shell.
 The machine that is used for this process is called a shell molding machine. It heats
the pattern, applies the sand mixture, and bakes the shell.

Examples of shell molded items include gear housings, cylinder heads and connecting
rods. It is also used to make high-precision molding cores.

Advantages

1) High suitable for thin sections like petrol engine cylinder.

2)Excellent surface finish.
3)Dimensional accuracy of order of 0.002 to 0.003 mm.
4)Negligible machining and cleaning cost.
5)Occupies less floor space.
Disadvantages
1)Higher pattern cost, resin cost.
2) Not economical for small runs.
3) Dust-extraction problem.
4) Complicated jobs and jobs of various sizes cannot be easily shell molded.
5)Specialized equipment is required.
1.15.2 INVESTMENT CASTING or LOST WAX PROCESS

In investment casting, a pattern made of wax is coated with a refractorymaterial to make the
mold, after which the wax is melted away prior to pouringthe molten metal.
Steps in investment casting:
(1) Wax patterns are produced; with a help of special steel dies. Wax is injected at 150 0C at a
pressure range of 35 bar.

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(2) Several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree;
(3) The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material.
(4) The full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficientrefractory material to
make it rigid;
(5) The mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax andpermit it to drip
out of the cavity;

(6) The mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures that allcontaminants are
eliminated from the mold; it also permits the liquid metal toflow more easily into the detailed
cavity; the molten metal is poured; itsolidifies; and
(7) The mold is broken away from the finished casting. Parts are separatedfrom the sprue.
Applications:

 Nozzles, vanes,gas turbines

 Aerospace industry parts
 Scientific instruments
Disadvantages:
 Only small size is possible.
 More expensive.
 Location of hole is impossible.
Advantages:

 Complex shape can be made.

 Good surface finish.
 Unmachinable alloys can be cast.
 Number of castings can be made at a time.

1.15.3 CERAMIC MOULDING:

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 In this processes it use ceramics as the mould material. It is a combination of plaster
mould casting and casting. There are two types of ceramic mould casting: the Shaw process
and the Unicast process.
 These casting processes are commonly used to make tooling, especially drop
forgingdies, but also injection molding dies, die casting dies, glass molds, stamping dies, and
extrusion dies.
 Ceramic mold casting method uses a ceramic slurry prepared by mixing fine grained
refractory powders of Zircon (ZrSiO4), Alumina (Al2O3), Fused Silica (SiO2) and a liquid
chemical binder (Alcohol based Silicon Ester) for making the mold.
 The slurry fills up the cavity and recesses by itself and no ramming or vibration of the
mould is required.
 The pattern is withdrawn. After 3 to 5 minutes. Then the ceramic mass is removed
from the flask, treated with a hardener to promote chemical stabilization and heated to about
980˚C in a furnace to remove the liquid binder.
 The mould is then ready for pouring molten metal.

Advantages:
 Highest precision and extremely high finish are obtained.
 Suitable for all types of cast metals including highly reactive metals such as titanium
and uranium.
 The castings do not require any riser, venting and chilling as the cooling rate is very
slow.
 An ordinary wood metal or epoxy pattern enough.
Disadvantages:
 The process is expensive because the mould material is costly.
 Impractical to control dimensional tolerances across the parting line.
1.15.4 PRESSURE DIE CASTING:

It can be done by two methods 1.Hot chamber 2. Cold chamber pressure die casting. This
process is suitable for casting lead, magnesium, tin, brass.

1.15.4.1 Hot Chamber Die Casting:

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The heating chamber is provided for melting the metal. This chamber is heated by a burner. A
gooseneck vessel is submerged in the molten metal. A plunger is provided at the top of
gooseneck vessel.
When the plunger move upward the molten metal flows into the vessel through the port.
When the plunger moves downwards the molten metal forced into die under pressure 3–
5Mpa.
As the die is water cooled, the molten metal will solidify immediately, then

movable die is moved and castings are ejected.

This method is used for

casting low melting point
metals such as zinc, tin
and lead.

Products: car engine, golf

club heads, radiators.
Advantages: Simple machine, has no moving parts.
Disadvantages: Production rate is low compared to submerged plunger. Compressed air does
not produce pressure on molten metal so effectively as the plunger.

1.15.4.2 Cold chamber die casting: It is done in cold chamber machine. It is similar to hot
chamber process but there is no melting unit in the machine and the molten metal is poured
though a ladle.
The temperature of the molten metal is lower compared to the hot chamber casting, so that
the pressure applied is much higher (70-200Mpa) than the hot chamber casting.

Metal Pour- Ram Forces - 200 to

2000kg/m2 – Solidification – Die
Opens- Ejector

Application: To cast Aluminium,

brass, magnesium.

1.16.CENTRIFUGAL CASTING PROCESS:

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Centrifugal casting refers to several casting methods in which the mold is rotated at high
speed so that centrifugal force distributes the molten metal tothe outer regions of the die
cavity. The group includes (1) true centrifugalcasting, (2) semi-centrifugal casting, and (3)
centrifuge casting.
1.16.1 True Centrifugal Casting
De lavaud process:
 In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a
tubular part. Examples of parts made by this process include pipes, tubes, bushings,
and rings. One possible setup is illustrated in Figure Molten metal is poured into a
horizontal rotating mold at one end.
 The high-speed rotation results incentrifugal forces that cause the metal to take the
shape of the mold cavity.
 Thus, the outside shape of the casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal,and so on.
Without core manufacture of hollow section is possible.

Ladl

 This can be used to produce cylindrical casting such as bushings, gun barrels iron
pipes.
Advantages: Core is not required. High rate of production. Pattern, runner and riser are
not required. Thin casting can be made. Castings have uniform physical properties.
Wheels and pulleys are examples of castings that can be made by this process
Limitations: It is suitable for only cylindrical parts only. Cost of equipment is high.

1.17 CO2CASTING PROCESS:

This process is widely used for rapid hardening the molds & cores made up of green sand.
The mold making process is similar to conventional molding procedure except the
moldmaterial which comprises of pure dry silica sand free from clay, 3-5% sodium silicate as
binder and moisture content generally less than 3%.
 A small amount of starch may be added to improve the green compression strength and a
very small quantity of coal dust, sea coal, dextrin, wood floor, pitch, graphite and sugar can
also be added to improve the collapsibility of the molding sand.
 The prepared molding sand is rammed around the pattern in the mold box and mold is
prepared by any conventional technique.
 After packing, carbon dioxide gas at about 1.3-1.5 kg/cm2pressure is then forced all-round
the mold surface to about 20 to 30 seconds using CO2head or probe or curtain.
 Cores can be baked this way.
 The sodium silicate presented in the mold reacts with CO 2 and produce a very hard
constituents or substance commonly called as silica gel.

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  This hard substance is like cement and helps in binding the sand grains.
 This method is used to producing very strong mold and cores for high end applications.
 Molds and cores thus prepared can be used for pouring molten metal for production of both
ferrous and non-ferrous casting.
 The operation is quick, simple require semi-skilled worker.

Advantages:

 Compared to other casting methods cores and molds are strong

 Provides great dimensional tolerance and accuracy in production
 Moisture is completely eliminated from the molding sand
 This process can be fully automated.

1.18 STIR CASTING PROCESS:

Stir casting is a process is used to prepare an adequate homogenous particle distribution
throughout the molten material. The stainless steel stirrer blade was coated with zirconia to
avoid the reaction between stainless steel and Al alloys at higher temperatures.

The Argon gas was supplied into the near the crucible during the stirring to avoid the
formation of oxide layer on the surface of matrix melt. The Stirring speed 450 – 1000 rpm
was maintained throughout work. The mixture is allowed to solidify in the preheated (300°C)
steel die.(RHA- Rice Husk Ash)
Advantages: The cost of preparing composites materials using a casting method is about one
third to one half that of a competitive method. So the high volume of production is possible.

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Application: used to produce high strength metal matrix composites

1.19 CASTING DEFECTS

(DEFECTS CAUSES REMEDIES
BlowHoles:Group of Excess moisture content in the sand Control moisture content, ram
groundholes. Hard Ramming, properly Provide sufficient vent holes
Improper venting

Scabs: A sort of A portion of the mould Pouring pressure should be

projections on the falling in Erosion of a portion controlled.
casting. of mould Avoid rapid Pouring

Swells:Enlargementof Ramming is too soft, Avoid soft ramming Increase strength

castingsurface Mould not properly supported of mould sandcore

Lift Wornout clamping pin, Replace the pin

shift:Mismatching of Misaligment of two halves Locate the core properly
casting section of pattern

Cold shut: Mould Pouring temperature low ExcessPour at correct temperature

cavity not filled up sulphur content Reduce sulphur content
completely of metal, Fault gating

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Hot Tear: External Abrupt change in section, Improve Fillet and reduce change in
orinternal iscontinuity No proper fillet or radii section gradually.
in the casting

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