UNIT I CASTING

1.1 Casting terms

1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed. Depending
upon the position of the flask in the
molding structure, it is referred to by various names such as drag
lower molding flask, cope upper molding flask, cheek
intermediate molding flask used in three
piece molding.
2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help of
pattern.
3.

Parting line: This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the mold.

4. Molding sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is a
mixture of silica sand, clay, and moisture in
appropriate proportions.
5. Facing sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of the mold
cavity to give a better surface finish
to the castings.
6. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create openings
and various shaped cavities in
the castings.
7. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten metal is
poured.
8. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the mold cavity.
In many cases it controls the flow
of metal into the mold.
9.

Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.

10. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
11. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic
force.

12. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and solidifies.
Also known as feed head.
13. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.

1.2 Steps in Making Sand Castings

There are six basic steps in making sand castings:
1. Patternmaking
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning
Pattern making
The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mold. The mold is made by packing some
readily formed aggregate material, such as molding sand, around the pattern. When the pattern is
withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled with metal to become the
casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe fittings, additional patterns, referred to as
cores, are used to form these cavities.
Core making
Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mold cavity to form the interior surfaces of
castings. Thus the void space between the core and mold-cavity surface is what eventually becomes the
casting.
Molding
Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal. Molding
usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting frame, withdrawing
the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and finishing and closing the
mold.
Melting and Pouring
The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. Melting is usually done in a
specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the pouring area where
the molds are filled.
Cleaning
Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from the
casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improved the surface appearance of the casting. Excess
metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed. Inspection of the casting for
defects and general quality is performed.
1.3 Pattern
The pattern is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications. The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances,
and the provision of core prints. If the casting is to be hollow, additional patterns called cores are used to
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create these cavities in the finished product. The quality of the casting produced depends upon the material
of the pattern, its design, and construction. The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected
in the cost of the casting. The use of an expensive pattern is justified when the quantity of castings required
is substantial.
Functions of the Pattern
1.

A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the casting requires a core and need to be
made hollow.
3. Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the mold cavity may form a part of the
pattern.
4.

Patterns properly made and having finished and smooth surfaces reduce casting defects.

5.

A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the castings.

Pattern Material
Patterns may be constructed from the following materials. Each material has its own advantages,
limitations, and field of application. Some materials used for making patterns are: wood, metals and
alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, plastic and rubbers, wax, and resins. To be suitable for use, the pattern
material should be:
1.

Easily worked, shaped and joined

2.

Light in weight

3.

Strong, hard and durable

4.

Resistant to wear and abrasion

5.

Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

6.

Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity

7.

Available at low cost

The usual pattern materials are wood, metal, and plastics. The most commonly used pattern material is
wood, since it is readily available and of low weight. Also, it can be easily shaped and is relatively cheap.
The main disadvantage of wood is its absorption of moisture, which can cause distortion and dimensional
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changes. Hence, proper seasoning and upkeep of wood is almost a pre-requisite for large-scale use of
wood as a pattern material.

1.4 Pattern Allowances

Pattern allowance is a vital feature as it affects the dimensional characteristics of the casting. Thus, when
the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given on the sizes specified in the finished component
drawing so that a casting with the particular specification can be made. The selection of correct
allowances greatly helps to reduce machining costs and avoid rejections. The allowances usually
considered on patterns and core boxes are as follows:
1.

Shrinkage or contraction allowance

2.

Draft or taper allowance

3.

Machining or finish allowance

4.

Distortion or camber allowance

5.

Rapping allowance

Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance

All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal shrinkage is of two types:
i.
Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from liquid state
to solid state at the solidus
temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the
liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
ii.
Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses temperature in
solid state. To account for this,
shrinkage allowance is provided on the patterns.

The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel contracts to a
higher degree compared to aluminum. To compensate the solid shrinkage, a shrink rule must be used in
laying out the measurements for the pattern. A shrink rule for cast iron is 1/8 inch longer per foot than a
standard rule. If a gear blank of 4 inch in diameter was planned to produce out of cast iron, the shrink rule
in measuring it 4 inch would actually measure 4 -1/24 inch, thus compensating for the shrinkage. The
various rate of contraction of various materials are given in Table 1.
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Draft or Taper Allowance

By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it
can be removed from the sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without excessive
rapping by the molder. Figure 3 (a) shows a pattern having no draft allowance being removed from the
pattern. In this case, till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in contact with the walls
of the mold, thus tending to break it. Figure 3 (b) is an illustration of a pattern having proper draft
allowance. Here, the moment the pattern lifting commences, all of its surfaces are well away from the
sand surface. Thus the pattern can be removed without damaging the mold cavity.

Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in general inner details of the pattern
require higher draft than outer surfaces. The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side
of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the method of molding; and pattern
material. Table 2 provides a general guide lines for the draft allowance
.

Machining or Finish Allowance

The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore when the casting is
functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by
subsequent machining. Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the pattern dimension. The
amount of machining allowance to be provided for is affected by the method of molding and casting used
viz. hand molding or machine molding, sand casting or metal mold casting. The amount of machining
allowance is also affected by the size and shape of the casting; the casting orientation; the metal; and the
degree of accuracy and finish required. The machining allowances recommended for different metal is
given in Table 3.

Distortion or Camber Allowance

Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their typical shape. For example, if the
casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the
vertical legs to look slightly inclined. This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped

pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion will have its sides vertical ( (Figure
4).
The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These internal stresses are caused on account
of unequal cooling of different section of the casting and hindered contraction. Measure taken to prevent
the distortion in casting include:
i.

Modification of casting design

ii.

Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion affect

iii.
Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion allowance (inverse
reflection)

Rapping Allowance
Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around the vertical faces to enlarge the
mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its removal. Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable
that the original pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this increase. There is no sure way of
quantifying this allowance, since it is highly dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. It is a
negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions that are parallel to the parting plane.

1.5 Core and Core Prints

Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various sizes and shapes. These impressions can
be obtained by using cores. So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the core
inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this purpose. The core print is an added projection on
the pattern and it forms a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of the mold. The
core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can support the weight of the core during the
casting operation. Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal, vertical and can be

hanged inside the mold cavity. A typical job, its pattern and the mold cavity with core and core print is
shown in Figure 5.

1.6Types of Pattern
Patterns are of various types, each satisfying certain casting requirements.
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split or two piece pattern
3. Match plate pattern
Single Piece Pattern
The one piece or single pattern is the most inexpensive of all types of patterns. This type of pattern is used
only in cases where the job is very simple and does not create any withdrawal problems. It is also used for
application in very small-scale production or in prototype development. This type of pattern is expected to
be entirely in the drag and one of the surface is is expected to be flat which is used as the parting plane. A
gating system is made in the mold by cutting sand with the help of sand tools. If no such flat surface
exists, the molding becomes complicated. A typical one-piece pattern is shown in Figure 6.

Split or Two Piece Pattern

Split or two piece pattern is most widely used type of pattern for intricate castings. It is split along the
parting surface, the position of which is determined by the shape of the casting. One half of the pattern is
molded in drag and the other half in cope. The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by
making use of the dowel pins, which are fitted, to the cope half of the pattern. These dowel pins match
with the precisely made holes in the drag half of the pattern. A typical split pattern of a cast iron
wheel Figure 7 (a) is shown in Figure 7 (b).

1.7 Classification of casting Processes

Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR categories:
1.

Conventional Molding Processes

a.

Green Sand Molding

b.

Dry Sand Molding

c.

Flask less Molding

2.

Chemical Sand Molding Processes

a.

Shell Molding

b.

Sodium Silicate Molding

c.

No-Bake Molding

3.

Permanent Mold Processes

a.

Gravity Die casting

b.

Low and High Pressure Die Casting

4.

Special Casting Processes

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a.

Lost Wax

b.

Ceramics Shell Molding

c.

Evaporative Pattern Casting

d.

Vacuum Sealed Molding

e.

Centrifugal Casting

Green Sand Molding

Green sand is the most diversified molding method used in metal casting operations. The process utilizes a
mold made of compressed or compacted moist sand. The term "green" denotes the presence of moisture in
the molding sand. The mold material consists of silica sand mixed with a suitable bonding agent (usually
clay) and moisture.
Advantages
Most metals can be cast by this method.
Pattern costs and material costs are relatively low.
No Limitation with respect to size of casting and type of metal or alloy used
Disadvantages
Surface Finish of the castings obtained by this process is not good and machining is often required to
achieve the finished product.
1.8 Sand Mold Making Procedure
The procedure for making mold of a cast iron wheel is shown in (Figure 8

(a), (b), (c)).

The first step in making mold is to place the pattern on the molding board.

The drag is placed on the board ((Figure 8 (a)).

Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.

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Molding sand is then riddled in to cover the pattern with the fingers; then the drag is completely
filled.

The sand is then firmly packed in the drag by means of hand rammers. The ramming must be
proper i.e. it must neither be too hard or soft.

After the ramming is over, the excess sand is leveled off with a straight bar known as a strike rod.

With the help of vent rod, vent holes are made in the drag to the full depth of the flask as well as to
the pattern to facilitate the removal of gases during pouring and solidification.

The finished drag flask is now rolled over to the bottom board exposing the pattern.

Cope half of the pattern is then placed over the drag pattern with the help of locating pins. The
cope flask on the drag is located aligning again with the help of pins ( (Figure 8 (b)).

The dry parting sand is sprinkled all over the drag and on the pattern.

A sprue pin for making the sprue passage is located at a small distance from the pattern. Also, riser
pin, if required, is placed at an appropriate place.

The operation of filling, ramming and venting of the cope proceed in the same manner as
performed in the drag.

The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a pouring basin is scooped out at the top to pour the
liquid metal.

Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed and facing sand in the form of paste is applied all
over the mold cavity and runners which would give the finished casting a good surface finish.

The mold is now assembled. The mold now is ready for pouring (see ((Figure 8 (c)

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1.9 Molding Material and Properties

A large variety of molding materials is used in foundries for manufacturing molds and cores. They include
molding sand, system sand or backing sand, facing sand, parting sand, and core sand. The choice of
molding materials is based on their processing properties. The properties that are generally required in
molding materials are:
Refractoriness
It is the ability of the molding material to resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it
does not get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica sand is highest.
Permeability
During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a large amount of gases and steam is generated.
These gases are those that have been absorbed by the metal during melting, air absorbed from the
atmosphere and the steam generated by the molding and core sand. If these gases are not allowed to
escape from the mold, they would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting defects. To overcome
this problem the molding material must be porous. Proper venting of the mold also helps in escaping the
gases that are generated inside the mold cavity.
Green Strength
The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green sand. The green sand particles must have the
ability to cling to each other to impart sufficient strength to the mold. The green sand must have enough
strength so that the constructed mold retains its shape.
Dry Strength
When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around the mold cavity is quickly converted into
dry sand as the moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten metal. At this stage the
molding sand must posses the sufficient strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the
same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid material.
Hot Strength
As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a high temperature when the metal in the
mold is still in liquid state. The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of the cavity is called
hot strength.
Collapsibility
The molding sand should also have collapsibility so that during the contraction of the solidified casting it
does not provide any resistance, which may result in cracks in the castings.Besides these specific
properties the molding material should be cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity.
1.10Molding Sand Composition
The main ingredients of any molding sand are:

Base sand,

Binder, and

Moisture
Base Sand
Silica sand is most commonly used base sand. Other base sands that are also used for making mold are
zircon sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand. Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is
easily available.
Binder
Binders are of many types such as:
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1. Clay binders,
2. Organic binders and
3. Inorganic binders
Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed with the molding sands to provide the
strength. The most popular clay types are:
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O) and Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its bonding power.
Moisture
Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the required amount of moisture. When water is
added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the
clay. The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is because a part of the water, which
coats the surface of the clay flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving the
plasticity. A typical composition of molding sand is given in (Table 4).

1.11 Dry Sand Molding

When it is desired that the gas forming materials are lowered in the molds, air-dried molds are sometimes
preferred to green sand molds. Two types of drying of molds are often required.
1. Skin drying and
2. Complete mold drying.
In skin drying a firm mold face is produced. Shakeout of the mold is almost as good as that obtained with
green sand molding. The most common method of drying the refractory mold coating uses hot air, gas or
oil flame. Skin drying of the mold can be accomplished with the aid of torches, directed at the mold
surface.
1.12 Special Casting Process
1.12.1 Shell Molding Process
It is a process in which, the sand mixed with a thermosetting resin is allowed to come in contact with a
heated pattern plate (200 oC), this causes a skin (Shell) of about 3.5 mm of sand/plastic mixture to adhere
to the pattern.. Then the shell is removed from the pattern. The cope and drag shells are kept in a flask
with necessary backup material and the molten metal is poured into the mold.
This process can produce complex parts with good surface finish 1.25 m to 3.75 m, and dimensional
tolerance of 0.5 %. A good surface finish and good size tolerance reduce the need for machining. The
process overall is quite cost effective due to reduced machining and cleanup costs. The materials that can
be used with this process are cast irons, and aluminum and copper alloys.

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1.12.2Molding Sand in Shell Molding Process

The molding sand is a mixture of fine grained quartz sand and powdered bakelite. There are two methods
of coating the sand grains with bakelite. First method is Cold coating method and another one is the hot
method of coating.
In the method of cold coating, quartz sand is poured into the mixer and then the solution of powdered
bakelite in acetone and ethyl aldehyde are added. The typical mixture is 92% quartz sand, 5% bakelite, 3%
ethyl aldehyde. During mixing of the ingredients, the resin envelops the sand grains and the solvent
evaporates, leaving a thin film that uniformly coats the surface of sand grains, thereby imparting fluidity
to the sand mixtures.
In the method of hot coating, the mixture is heated to 150-180 o C prior to loading the sand. In the course
of sand mixing, the soluble phenol formaldehyde resin is added. The mixer is allowed to cool up to 80
90 o C. This method gives better properties to the mixtures than cold method.
Sodium Silicate Molding Process
In this process, the refractory material is coated with a sodium silicate-based binder. For molds, the sand
mixture can be compacted manually, jolted or squeezed around the pattern in the flask. After compaction,
CO 2 gas is passed through the core or mold. The CO 2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate to cure,
or harden, the binder. This cured binder then holds the refractory in place around the pattern. After curing,
the pattern is withdrawn from the mold.
The sodium silicate process is one of the most environmentally acceptable of the chemical processes
available. The major disadvantage of the process is that the binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs
water, which causes a porosity in the castings.. Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold
wall, shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can slow down production. Some of the advantages of the
process are:
A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which gives the casting good dimensional
tolerances;
good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable;

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Permanent Mold Process

In al the above processes, a mold need to be prepared for each of the casting produced. For large-scale
production, making a mold, for every casting to be produced, may be difficult and expensive. Therefore, a
permanent mold, called the die may be made from which a large number of castings can be produced. , the
molds are usually made of cast iron or steel, although graphite, copper and aluminum have been used as
mold materials. The process in which we use a die to make the castings is called permanent mold casting
or gravity die casting, since the metal enters the mold under gravity. Some time in die-casting we inject
the molten metal with a high pressure. When we apply pressure in injecting the metal it is called pressure
die casting process.
Advantages
Permanent Molding produces a sound dense casting with superior mechanical properties.
the castings produced are quite uniform in shape have a higher degree of dimensional accuracy than
castings produced in sand
The permanent mold process is also capable of producing a consistent quality of finish on castings
Disadvantages
The cost of tooling is usually higher than for sand castings
The process is generally limited to the production of small castings of simple exterior design, although
complex castings such as aluminum engine blocks and heads are now commonplace.

1.13 Centrifugal Casting

In this process, the mold is rotated rapidly about its central axis as the metal is poured into it. Because of
the centrifugal force, a continuous pressure will be acting on the metal as it solidifies. The slag, oxides and
other inclusions being lighter, get separated from the metal and segregate towards the center. This process
is normally used for the making of hollow pipes, tubes, hollow bushes, etc., which are axisymmetric with
a concentric hole. Since the metal is always pushed outward because of the centrifugal force, no core
needs to be used for making the concentric hole. The mold can be rotated about a vertical, horizontal or an
inclined axis or about its horizontal and vertical axes simultaneously. The length and outside diameter are
fixed by the mold cavity dimensions while the inside diameter is determined by the amount of molten
metal poured into the mold.Figure 9(Vertical Centrifugal Casting), Figure 10 ( Horizontal Centrifugal
Casting)

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Advantages
Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores
Less material required for gate
Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity
Disadvantages
More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
Inaccurate internal diameter

1.14 Investment Casting Process

The root of the investment casting process, the cire perdue or lost wax method dates back to at least the
fourth millennium B.C. The artists and sculptors of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia used the rudiments of
the investment casting process to create intricately detailed jewelry, pectorals and idols. The investment
casting process alos called lost wax process begins with the production of wax replicas or patterns of the
desired shape of the castings. A pattern is needed for every casting to be produced. The patterns are
prepared by injecting wax or polystyrene in a metal dies. A number of patterns are attached to a central
wax sprue to form a assembly. The mold is prepared by surrounding the pattern with refractory slurry that
can set at room temperature. The mold is then heated so that pattern melts and flows out, leaving a clean
cavity behind. The mould is further hardened by heating and the molten metal is poured while it is still
hot. When the casting is solidified, the mold is broken and the casting taken out.
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The basic steps of the investment casting process are ( Figure 11 ) :

1. Production of heat-disposable wax, plastic, or polystyrene patterns
2. Assembly of these patterns onto a gating system
3. Investing, or covering the pattern assembly with refractory slurry
4. Melting the pattern assembly to remove the pattern material
5. Firing the mold to remove the last traces of the pattern material
6. Pouring
7. Knockout, cutoff and finishing

Advantages
Formation of hollow interiors in cylinders without cores
Less material required for gate
Fine grained structure at the outer surface of the casting free of gas and shrinkage cavities and porosity
Disadvantages
More segregation of alloy component during pouring under the forces of rotation
Contamination of internal surface of castings with non-metallic inclusions
Inaccurate internal diameter
1.14.1Ceramic Shell Investment Casting Process
The basic difference in investment casting is that in the investment casting the wax pattern is immersed in
a refractory aggregate before dewaxing whereas, in ceramic shell investment casting a ceramic shell is
built around a tree assembly by repeatedly dipping a pattern into a slurry (refractory material such as
zircon with binder). After each dipping and stuccoing is completed, the assembly is allowed to thoroughly

17

dry before the next coating is applied. Thus, a shell is built up around the assembly. The thickness of this
shell is dependent on the size of the castings and temperature of the metal to be poured.
After the ceramic shell is completed, the entire assembly is placed into an autoclave or flash fire furnace at
a high temperature. The shell is heated to about 982 o C to burn out any residual wax and to develop a
high-temperature bond in the shell. The shell molds can then be stored for future use or molten metal can
be poured into them immediately. If the shell molds are stored, they have to be preheated before molten
metal is poured into them.

Advantages
excellent surface finish
tight dimensional tolerances
machining can be reduced or completely eliminated

1.15 Gating System

The assembly of channels which facilitates the molten metal to enter into the mold cavity is called the
gating system (Figure17). Alternatively, the gating system refers to all passage ways through which
molten metal passes to enter into the mold cavity. The nomenclature of gating system depends upon the
function of different channels which they perform.

Down gates or sprue

Cross gates or runners

Ingates or gates

The metal flows down from the pouring basin or pouring cup into the down gate or sprue and passes
through the cross gate or channels and ingates or gates before entering into the mold cavity.

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Goals of Gating System

The goals for the gating system are

To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold

To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify

To avoid shrinkage

Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if
occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.

Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions

1.15.1 Types of Gating Systems

The gating systems are of two types:
Pressurized gating system
Un-pressurized gating system
Pressurized Gating System
The total cross sectional area decreases towards the mold cavity
Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow
Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates
Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full

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Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more turbulence and chances
of mold erosion
Un-Pressurized Gating System
The total cross sectional area increases towards the mold cavity
Restriction only at the bottom of sprue
Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates
aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full
Less turbulence
1.16 Casting Defects (Figure19)

The following are the major defects, which are likely to occur in sand castings

Gas defects

Shrinkage cavities

Molding material defects

Pouring metal defects

Mold shift

Gas Defects
A condition existing in a casting caused by the trapping of gas in the molten metal or by mold gases
evolved during the pouring of the casting. The defects in this category can be classified into blowholes and
pinhole porosity. Blowholes are spherical or elongated cavities present in the casting on the surface or
inside the casting. Pinhole porosity occurs due to the dissolution of hydrogen gas, which gets entrapped
during heating of molten metal.
Causes
The lower gas-passing tendency of the mold, which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of
the mold or improper design of the casting. The lower permeability is caused by finer grain size of the
sand, high percentage of clay in mold mixture, and excessive moisture present in the mold.

Metal contains gas

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Mold is too hot

Poor mold burnout

Shrinkage Cavities
These are caused by liquid shrinkage occurring during the solidification of the casting. To compensate for
this, proper feeding of liquid metal is required. For this reason risers are placed at the appropriate places in
the mold. Sprues may be too thin, too long or not attached in the proper location, causing shrinkage
cavities. It is recommended to use thick sprues to avoid shrinkage cavities.
Molding Material Defects
The defects in this category are cuts and washes, metal penetration, fusion, and swell.
Cut and washes
These appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal, and are caused by erosion of molding sand by the
flowing metal. This is caused by the molding sand not having enough strength and the molten metal
flowing at high velocity. The former can be taken care of by the proper choice of molding sand and the
latter can be overcome by the proper design of the gating system.
Metal penetration
When molten metal enters into the gaps between sand grains, the result is a rough casting surface. This
occurs because the sand is coarse or no mold wash was applied on the surface of the mold. The coarser the
sand grains more the metal penetration.
Fusion
This is caused by the fusion of the sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance
on the casting surface. The main reason for this is that the clay or the sand particles are of lower
refractoriness or that the pouring temperature is too high.
Swell
Under the influence of metallostatic forces, the mold wall may move back causing a swell in the
dimension of the casting. A proper ramming of the mold will correct this defect.
Inclusions

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Particles of slag, refractory materials, sand or deoxidation products are trapped in the casting during
pouring solidification. The provision of choke in the gating system and the pouring basin at the top of the
mold can prevent this defect.
Pouring Metal Defects
The likely defects in this category are

Mis-runs and

Cold shuts.

A mis-run is caused when the metal is unable to fill the mold cavity completely and thus leaves unfilled
cavities. A mis-run results when the metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before
freezing. Long, thin sections are subject to this defect and should be avoided in casting design.
A cold shut is caused when two streams while meeting in the mold cavity, do not fuse together properly
thus forming a discontinuity in the casting. When the molten metal is poured into the mold cavity through
more-than-one gate, multiple liquid fronts will have to flow together and become one solid. If the flowing
metal fronts are too cool, they may not flow together, but will leave a seam in the part. Such a seam is
called a cold shut, and can be prevented by assuring sufficient superheat in the poured metal and thick
enough walls in the casting design.
The mis-run and cold shut defects are caused either by a lower fluidity of the mold or when the section
thickness of the casting is very small. Fluidity can be improved by changing the composition of the metal
and by increasing the pouring temperature of the metal.
Mold Shift
The mold shift defect occurs when cope and drag or molding boxes have not been properly aligned.

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