Manufacturing Science

Module-1
Metal casting and Forming
processes:
 Metal casting and Forming processes
 Metal casting: Principle of casting processes Sand moulding,
Investment casting, Shell moulding Permanent mould casting
Advantages, limitations and applications Casting defects and
NDT inspection techniques Gating design: Sprue, feeder
shape and size, Filling and solidification time
 Metal Forming: Principle of forming processes, Hot working
and cold working
 Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Wire drawing: Principle,
classification, Advantages, limitations and applications. Force
calculation based on Von Mises failure criterion. Numerical
based on Axis symmetric Forging & wire drawing.
2
 Learning Resources:

Reference Books:
1. P.C.Sharma, Production Engineering, S.Chand Publication. Edition 1999.
2. O.P.Khanna, Foundry technology for Engineering Students, Dhanpat Rai Publication, 2017
3. O. P. Khanna, Welding technology, Dhanpat Rai Publication, 2012
4. S. K. Hajra Choudhury, Workshop Technology Vol-II Machine Tools, publishers – Media promoters,
Edition 2010.
5. Introduction to Jig and fixture design-M.H.A. Kempster
Supplementary Readings
6. E Paul DeGarmo, Materials and processes in manufacturing, Wiley students edition, 2008
SeropeKalpakjian, Manufacturing processes for engineering materials, Pearson publications, 2010
Web Resources:
7. Manufacturing Processes: http://nptel.ac.in
MOOCs:
8. https://www.coursera.org/
9. https://onlinecourses.nptel.ac.in
Principle of casting processes:
The casting process is the manufacturing process in which molten material such as metal is poured into the
casting cavity or mold of the desired shape and allowed to harden or solidify within the mold, after solidification
the casting is taken out by ejecting or by breaking the mold.

Application of Casting Process:

Manufacture different products in industries such as
• Cylindrical hollow cylinder
• Piston used in automobiles
• Pulley
• Engine manifolds
• Valves
• Nuts
• Defense equipment, etc.
The casting process is used in multiple industries like
• Aerospace,
• Defense,
• Automobile,
• Railways,
• Construction,
• Farming,
• Mining, chemical, etc.
• It is also used in the manufacturing of home decor and ornaments.
 Basic Terminologies Of Casting Process:
Riser: It is the reservoir of molten metal that supplies
additional metal in case of any reduction.
Runner: It is the passage from where the molten metal
can be regulated before reaching the mold cavity.
Pouring Cup: It is the cup or basin from where molten
metal is poured in the metal.
Pattern: It is the duplicate of the shape needed to form.
Sprue: It is the cavity through which molten metal flows
downward.
Parting Line: This is the line that separates the cope and
Sand Casting drag.
Flask: A metal or wood frame in which mold is formed.
Cope: The upper half of the flask is called cope.
Drag: The lower half of the flask is called drag.
Core: Core is used to create an internal hollow cavity in the final product.
Vents: These are the places created in the mold to carry off-gases produced when the molten metal comes in
contact with the sand.
Mold cavity: This is the hollow space in the mold where the metal part is formed.
Advantages of Casting Process:

• Complex and intricate shapes can be formed.

• We can cast any type of material.
• The tools and equipment used in the casting process are inexpensive.
• It is possible to make the casting of any shape and size.
• The casting of any size can be performed up to 200 tons.
• It is the cheapest way to produce shapes and sizes with different mechanical properties.

Disadvantages of Casting Process:

• High chances of defects.
• The dimensional accuracy of casting is not so good.
• Generally, sand casting the popular technique of casting is labor-intensive.
• In some cases, it is not possible to overcome defects.

Steps Involved in Casting Process:

• Pattern Forming
• Core Forming
• Mold Making
• Pouring Process and
• Solidification Process
 WHAT IS CASTING
Casting is process in which liquid molten metal is
poured in to casting cavity whose shape is same as
that of casting to be produced, allowed to solidified
and after solidification the casting can be taken out by
breaking the mould.

Steps in casting
• Pattern making
• Mold and core making
• Pouring and solidification
• Fittling
• Inspection 7
I. PATTERN
 I. PATTERN
It is the replica of the final object to be made.
Pattern is the solid form that is used to make mold cavity.
The quality of the castings produced depends on the design
of the pattern, its material and construction.
 One major requirement is that patterns (and therefore the
mold cavity) must be oversized
 (i) to account for shrinkage in cooling and solidification,
and
 (ii) to provide enough metal for the subsequence
machining operation(s).
COMMON PATTERN MATERIALS

 The common materials used for making patterns are

wood, metal, plastic, wax or mercury.

Pattern properties are

 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard, durable etc
 Resistance to wear and abrasion, chemical reaction
 Dimensionally stable
 Available at low cost
Pattern Materials
 Wood-pine (softwood),
 mahogany (hardwood),
 Metals and alloys
 Plaster of Paris
 Plastic and rubber
 Wax and resins
1. Wood- shisham, kail, Pine deodar, teak
and mahogany.
Advantages of wooden patterns
1 Wood can be easily worked.
2 It is light in weight.
3 It is easily available.
4 It is very cheap.
5 It is easy to join.
6 It is easy to obtain good surface finish.
7 Wooden laminated patterns are strong.
8 It can be easily repaired.

Disadvantages
1 It is susceptible to moisture.
2 It tends to warp.
3 It wears out quickly due to sand abrasion.
4 It is weaker than metallic patterns.
2. Metal- cast iron, brass and bronzes
and aluminum alloys.
 i). Cast Iron
Advantages
 1. It is cheap
 2. It is easy to file and fit
 3. It is strong
 4. It has good resistance against sand abrasion
 5. Good surface finish
Disadvantages
 1 It is heavy
 2 It is brittle and hence it can be easily broken
 3 It may rust
ii). Brasses and Bronzes
Advantages
 1. Better surface finish than cast iron.
 2. Very thin sections can be easily casted.
Disadvantages
 1. It is costly
 2. It is heavier than cast iron.
 Restricted to small size pattern
iii). Aluminum Alloys
Advantages
 1. Aluminum alloys pattern does not rust.
 2. They are easy to cast.
 3. They are light in weight.
 4. They can be easily machined.
Disadvantages
 1. They can be damaged by sharp edges.
 2. They are softer than brass and cast iron.
 3. Their storing and transportation needs proper care.
 Iv). White Metal (Alloy of
Antimony, Copper and Lead)
 Advantages
 1. It has low melting point around
260°C
 2. It can be cast into narrow cavities.
 Disadvantages
 1. It is too soft.
 2. Its storing and transportation needs
proper care
 3. It wears away by sand or sharp
edges.
3. Plastic
 Advantages
 lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant,
non sticky to molding sand, durable and they are
not affected by the moisture of the molding sand.
 Moreover they impart very smooth surface finish
on the pattern surface.
Disadvantages
 These materials are somewhat less resistant to
sudden loading and their section may need metal
reinforcement.

 The plastics used for this purpose are

thermosetting resins.
 Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.
4. Plaster
 It is preferred for production of small
size intricate castings and making core
boxes.

 preferable for producing highly

intricate casting.
5. Wax

 The commonly used waxes are

paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees-
wax, cerasin wax, and micro-
crystalline wax.

 used in the process of investment

casting where accuracy is linked
with intricacy of the cast object.
TYPES OF PATTERN

1. One piece or solid pattern

2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Cope and drag pattern
4. Three-piece or multi- piece pattern
5. Loose piece pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Gated pattern
8. Sweep pattern
9. Skeleton pattern
10. Segmental or part pattern
1.Solid Pattern/single piece pattern
 Solid pattern is made of single piece
without joints, partings lines or loose
pieces. It is the simplest form of the
pattern.
 It is an easy pattern to manufacture,
but determining the parting line
between cope and drag is more
difficult for the foundry worker.
2. Self core patterns:
 Self core type solid patterns are patterns having a
hollow portion with straight draft which is used for
producing its own core during moulding process
itself.
 This type of pattern eliminates the need for core
box.
3. Split Pattern:
 The split pattern is comprised of two separate
parts that when put together will represent the
geometry of the casting.
 Split pattern is made in two pieces which are
joined at the parting line by means of dowel
pins.
 The splitting at the parting line is done to
facilitate the withdrawal of the pattern.
4. Match Plate Pattern:
 -- high production.
 In the match plate pattern, however,
each of the parts are mounted on a
plate.
 The plates come together to assemble
the pattern for the casting process.
 - more proficient and makes alignment
of the pattern in the mold quick and
accurate.
5. Cope and Drag Pattern:
 Each of the two halves are mounted on a
separate plate for easy alignment of the
pattern and mold.
 The cope and drag pattern enables the
cope section of the mold, and the drag
section of the mold to be created
separately and latter assembled before
the pouring of the casting.
6. Shell patterns:
 --used for piping work or for producing drainage
fittings.
 This pattern consists of a thin cylindrical or curved
metal piece parted along the center line.
 The two halves of the pattern are held in alignment by
dowels.
6. Gated patterns:
 Gated patterns are number of loose patterns connected
with a gating system.
 They are molded like a single pattern and withdrawn
from the mould in one piece thus reducing moulding
time.
 Gated patterns are useful when a number of small
castings are to be produced
7. Sweep pattern
 Sweep patterns are used for forming large
circular moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a
sweep attached to a spindle.
 Actually a sweep is a template of wood or metal
and is attached to the spindle at one edge and
the other edge has a contour depending upon
the desired shape of the mould.
 The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal in
the center of the mould.
8. Skeleton pattern
 When only a small number of large and heavy castings
are to be made, it is not economical to make a solid
pattern.
 In such cases, however, a skeleton pattern may be used.
 This is a ribbed construction of wood which forms an
outline of the pattern to be made.
 This frame work is filled with loam sand and rammed.
 The surplus sand is removed by stickle board.
 For round shapes, the pattern is made in two halves
which are joined with glue or by means of screws etc.
9. Three-piece or multi-piece
pattern
 Some patterns are of complicated
kind in shape and hence can not be
made in one or two pieces because of
difficulty in withdrawing the pattern.
 Therefore these patterns are made in
either three pieces or in multi-pieces.
 Multi molding flasks are needed to
make mold from these patterns.
10. Segmental pattern
 Patterns of this type are generally used for
circular castings, for example wheel rim, gear
blank etc.
 Such patterns are sections of a pattern so
arranged as to form a complete mould by being
moved to form each section of the mould.
 The movement of segmental pattern is guided
by the use of a central pivot.
 PATTERN ALLOWANCES
Pattern size= casting size+/- Allowances
 The size of a pattern is never kept the same as
that of the desired casting because of the fact that
during cooling the casting is subjected to various
effects and hence to compensate for these effects,
corresponding allowances are given in the pattern.
 These various allowances given to pattern can be
enumerated as,
 allowance for shrinkage,
 allowance for machining,
 allowance for draft,
 allowance for rapping or shake,
 allowance for distortion
Solidification and cooling
Shrinkage
1. Shrinkage Allowance
 In practice it is found that all common cast metals
shrink a significant amount when they are cooled from
the molten state.
The total contraction in volume
 1. Liquid contraction, i.e. the contraction during the period
in which the temperature of the liquid metal or alloy falls
from the pouring temperature to the liquidus temperature.
 2. Contraction on cooling from the liquidus to the solidus
temperature, i.e. solidifying contraction.
 3. Contraction that results there after until the temperature
reaches the room temperature. This is known as solid
contraction.
 The first two of the above are taken care of by proper
gating and riser.
 Only the last one, i.e. the solid contraction is taken
care by the pattern makers by giving a positive
shrinkage allowance.
 The contraction allowances for
different metals and alloys such as

 Cast Iron 10 mm/mt..

 Brass 16 mm/mt.,
 Aluminium Alloys. 15 mm/mt.,
 Steel 21 mm/mt.,
 Lead 24 mm/mt.
2. Machining Allowance

 It is a positive allowance given to

compensate for the amount of material that
is lost in machining or finishing the casting.
 If this allowance is not given, the casting
will become undersize after machining.
 The amount of this allowance depends on
the size of casting, methods of machining
and the degree of finish.
 the value varies from 3 mm. to 18 mm.
3. Draft or Taper Allowance
 Taper allowance is also a positive
allowance and is given on all the vertical
surfaces of pattern so that its withdrawal
becomes easier.
 The normal amount of taper on the
external surfaces varies from 10 mm to
20 mm/mt. On interior holes and
recesses which are smaller in size, the
taper should be around 60 mm/mt.
4. Rapping or Shake Allowance

 Actually by rapping, the external

sections move outwards increasing the
size and internal sections move inwards
decreasing the size.
 This movement may be insignificant in
the case of small and medium size
castings, but it is significant in the case
of large castings.
 This allowance is kept negative and hence
the pattern is made slightly smaller in
dimensions 0.5-1.0 mm.
5. Distortion Allowance

 This allowance is applied to the castings which

have the tendency to distort during cooling due
to thermal stresses developed.
 For example a casting in the form of U shape will
contract at the closed end on cooling.
 Therefore, to avoid the distortion, the legs of U
pattern must converge slightly so that the sides
will remain parallel after cooling.
II. CORE
 II. Core

 Cores serve to produce internal surfaces in castings, in some

cases, they have to be supported by chaplets for more stable
positioning.
 For producing hallow casting.
 The core is normally a disposable item that is destroyed to get it
out of the piece.
CORE PRINTS
 When a blind hole or through hole is needed in
the casting, a core is placed in the mould cavity
to produce the same.
 The core has to be properly located or positioned
in the mould cavity on pre-formed recesses or
impressions in the sand.
 To form these recesses or impressions for
generating seat for placement of core, extra
projections are added on the pattern surface at
proper places.
 These extra projections on the pattern (used for
producing recesses in the mould for placement of
cores at that location) are known as core prints.
 Fig. Vertical core

Fig. Balancing core

 CORE MAKING

 Core making basically is carried out in

four stages namely
 1. core sand preparation,
 2. core making,
 3. core baking and
 4. core finishing.
 i. CORE sand characteristics / properties
 It is special kind of molding sand.
 Those considerations involves
 (i) The cores are subjected to a very high temperature
and hence the core sand should be highly refractory in
nature
 (ii) The permeability of the core sand must be sufficiently
high as compared to that of the molding sands so as to
allow the core gases to escape through the limited area
of the core recesses generated by core prints
 (iii) The core sand should not possess such materials
which may produce gases while they come in contact
with molten metal and
 (iv) The core sand should be collapsible in nature, i.e. it
should disintegrate after the metal solidifies, because
this property will ease the cleaning of the casting.
 Properties of core material

1.It is produced by using Non-metal

2.Core should be free from moisture
3. It should have High strength
4. It should have high collapsibility
 Core Material

 The main material of the core is refractory, either a

natural or a synthetic sand.
 A natural binder (sometime called as core-gum) is
linseed oil. A synthetic binder is a synthetic resin.
 The main constituents of the core sand are pure
silica sand and a binder
 Silica sand is preferred because of its high
refractoriness.
 For higher values of permeability sands with coarse
grain size distribution are used.
 The main purpose of the core binder is to hold the
grains together, impart strength and sufficient
degree collapsibility.
1.Core blowing machines

 The basic principle of core blowing machine comprises

of filling the core sand into the core box by using
compressed air.
 The velocity of the compressed air is kept high to obtain
a high velocity of core sand particles, thus ensuring
their deposit in the remote corners the core box.
 On entering the core sand with high kinetic energy, the
shaping and ramming of core is carried out
simultaneously in the core box.
2. Core ramming
 Cores can also be prepared by ramming core sands in
the core boxes
3. Core baking

 Once the cores are prepared, they will

be baked in a baking ovens or furnaces.
 The main purpose of baking is to drive
away the moisture and harden the
binder, thereby giving strength to the
core.
 After baking of cores, they are
smoothened using dextrin and water
soluble binders.
Core Box
 Any kind of hollowness in form of holes and
recesses in castings is obtained by the use
of cores.
 Cores are made by means of core boxes
comprising of either single or in two parts.
 Core boxes are generally made of wood or
metal and are of several types.
 The main types of core box are
 half core box,
 dump core box,
 split core box,
 strickle core box.
1. Half core box

 This is the most common type of core box.

The two identical halves of a symmetrical
core prepared in the half core box.
 Two halves of cores are pasted or cemented
together after baking to form a complete
core.
2. Dump core box
 Dump core box is similar in construction to half
core box.
 The cores produced do not require pasting,
rather they are complete by themselves.
 If the core produced is in the shape of a slab,
then it is called as a slab box or a rectangular
box.
 A dump core-box is used to prepare complete
core in it. Generally rectangular cores are
prepared in these boxes.
3. Split core box
 Split core boxes are made in two parts.
 They form the complete core by only one
ramming.
 The two parts of core boxes are held in position
by means of clamps and their alignment is
maintained by means of dowel pins and thus core
is produced.
4. Strickle core box
 This type of core box is used when a core with
an irregular shape is desired.
 The required shape is achieved by striking of
the core sand from the top of the core box with
a wooden piece, called as strickle board. The
strickle board has the same contour as that of
the required core.
 MOLDING SAND
 The general sources of receiving molding
sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes,
granular elements of rocks, and deserts.
 The common sources of molding sands
available in India are as follows:
 1 Batala ( Punjab)
 2 Damodar and Barakar (Bengal- Bihar Border)
 3Londha (Bombay)
 4 Gigatamannu (Andhra Pradesh)
 5 Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
 Kanpur,Jabalpur,Rajkot,Guntur.
 Molding sands may be of two types
namely natural or synthetic.
 Natural molding sands contain sufficient
binder.
 Whereas synthetic molding sands are
prepared artificially using basic sand
molding constituents (silica sand in 88-
92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture
content 3-6%) and other additives in
proper proportion by weight with perfect
mixing and mulling in suitable
equipments.
CONSTITUENTS OF MOLDING SAND

1. Silica sand
 Silica sand in form of granular quarts is the main
constituent of molding sand having enough
refractoriness which can impart strength, stability and
permeability to molding and core sand.
 Silica sand contains from 80 to 90 per cent silicon
dioxide
 It is a product of the breaking up of quartz and feldspar
 But along with silica small amounts of iron oxide,
alumina, lime stone, magnesia, soda and potash are
present as impurities.
 The silica sand can be specified according to the size
(small, medium and large silica sand grain) and the
shape (angular, sub-angular and rounded).
2. Binder
 In general, the binders can be either inorganic or organic substance.
 The inorganic group includes clay, sodium silicate and port land
cement etc.
 In foundry shop, the clay acts as binder which may be Kaolonite, Ball
Clay, Fire Clay, Limonite, Fuller’s earth and Bentonite.
 Binders included in the organic group are dextrin, molasses, cereal
binders, linseed oil and resins like phenol formaldehyde, urea
formaldehyde etc.
 Organic binders are mostly used for core making.
 Among all the above binders, the bentonite variety of clay is the
most common.
 However, this clay alone can not develop bonds among sand grains
without the presence of moisture in molding sand and core sand.
3. Moisture

 The amount of moisture content in the molding sand varies

generally between 2 to 8 percent.
 This amount is added to the mixture of clay and silica sand
for developing bonds.
 This is the amount of water required to fill the pores
between the particles of clay without separating them.
 This amount of water is held by the clay and is mainly
responsible for developing the strength in the sand.
 The effect of clay and water decreases permeability with
increasing clay and moisture content.
 The green compressive strength first increases with the
increase in clay content, but after a certain value, it starts
decreasing.
4 Additives

 Additives are the materials generally added to

the molding and core sand mixture to develop
some special property in the sand.
4.1 wood powder /saw dust-used for porosity
property of moulding sand.
4.2 Coal powder- to increase the refractoriness of
moulding sand
4.3 Starch/ Dextrin -to improve strength or
resistance to deformation
Above additives is added up to maximum 2%
each.
Moulding Sand/ Foundry Sand
 Moulding Sands:
 Most sand casting operations use Silica sand
(SiO2). Usually sand used to manufacture a
mould for the casting process is held together
by a mixture of water and clay. A typical
mixture by volume could be 89% sand, 4%
water, 7% clay.
 Types Of Moulding Sands

 Classification of moulding sands:

1. Green sand:
 It is sand used in the wet condition for making
the mould. It is mixture of silica sand with 18-30
per cent clay and 6-8 per cent water
 It is fine,soft,light, and porous

This sand is used for

producing small to
medium sized moulds
which are not very
complex
2. Dry sand:

 Dry sand is the green sand that has been dried

or baked after preparing the mould.
 Drying sand gives strength to the mould so that
it can be used for larger castings
3. Loam sand:

 Loam sand is high in clay, as much as 50 per

cent and dries hard.
 This sand is used for loam sand moulds for
making very heavy castings usually with the help
of sweeps and skeleton patterns.
4. Parting sand:
 This sand is used during making of the mould to ensure
that green sand does not stick to the pattern and the
cope and drag parts can be easily separated for
removing the pattern without causing any damage to
the mould.
 Parting sand consists of fine grained clay free dried
silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand with some parting
compounds.
 The parting compounds used include charcoal, ground
bone and limestone, groundnut shells, talc and
calcium phosphate.
 5. Facing sand:
 Facing sand is the sand which covers the pattern all
around it. The remaining box is filled with ordinary
floor sand.
 Facing sand forms the face of the mould and comes in
direct contact with the molten metal when it is
poured.
 High strength and refractoriness are required for this
sand.
 It is made of silica sand and clay without the addition
of any used sand.
 Thickness of the sand layer varies from 20 to 30 mm.
6. Backing sand:
 Backing sand is the bulk of the sand used to back
up the facing sand and to fill up the volume of the
flask.
 It consists mainly of old, repeatedly used moulding
sand which is generally black in colour due to
addition of coal dust and burning on contact with
hot metal.
 Because of the colour backing sand is also
sometimes called black sand.
 The main purpose for the use of backing sand is to
reduce the cost of moulding.
 7. System sand:
 This is the sand used in mechanized foundries for
filling the entire flask.
 No separate facing sand in used in a mechanized
foundry.
 Sand is cleaned and reactivated by the addition of
water and binders is used to fill the flask. Because
of the absence of any fresh sand, system sand
must have more strength, permeability and
refractoriness compared to backing sand.
8. Core sand:
 Core sand is the sand used for making cores. This
is silica sand mixed with core oil. That is why it is
also called oil sand.
 The core oil consists of linseed oil, resin, light
mineral oil with some binders.
 For larger cores, sometimes pitch or flour and
water may also be used to save on cost.
Important characteristics are:

 1. These sands are refractory in nature and can

withstand temperature of the metal being poured,
without fusing.
 2. The moulding sands do not chemically react or
combine with molten metal and can therefore be
used repeatedly.
 3. The sands have a high degree of permeability
and thus allow the gases formed during pouring
to escape.
 4. The strength, permeability and hardness of the
sand mix can be varied by changing the structure
or ingredients of sand.
Properties of moulding sands:

 1. Strength
 2. Permeability
 3. Grain Size and Shape
 4. Thermal stability
 5. Refractoriness
 6. Flow ability
 7. Collapsibility
 8. Adhesiveness
 9. Reusability
 10. Easy of preparation and control
 11. Conductivity
1.Strength:
 The sand should have adequate strength in its green,
dry and hot states
 Green strength is the strength of sand in the wet state
and is required for making possible to prepare and
handle the mould.
 If the metal is poured into a green mould the sand
adjacent to the metal dries and in the dry state it
should have strength to resist erosion and the pressure
of metal.
 The strength of the sand that has been dried or basked
is called dry strength.
 At the time of pouring the molten metal the mould
must be able to withstand flow and pressure of the
metal at high temperature otherwise the mould may
enlarge, crack, get washed or break
Strength of the moulding sand depends on:

 1. Grain size and shape

 2. Moisture content
 3. Density of sand after ramming
 The strength of the mould increases with a
decrease of grain size and an increase of clay
content and density after ramming.
 The strength also goes down if moisture content
is higher than an optimum value.
 2. Permeability:
 The moulding sand must be
sufficiently porous to allow the
dissolved gases, which are evolved
when the metal freezes or moisture
present or generated within the
moulds to be removed freely when
the moulds are poured.
 This property of sand is called
porosity or permeability.
3. Grain size and shape:

 The size and shape of the grains in the sand

determine the application in various types of
foundry. These are three different sizes of sand
grains.
 1. Fine
 2. Medium
 3. Coarse
 Fine sand is used for small and intricate castings.
 Medium sand is used for benchmark and light floor
works.
 If the size of casting is larger coarse sand is used
 Sand having fine, rounded grains can be closely
4. Thermal stability:
 The sand adjacent to the metal is
suddenly heated and undergoes
expansion.
5. Refractoriness:

 Refractoriness is the property of withstanding

the high temperature condition moulding sand
with low refractoriness may burn on to the
casting.
 It is the ability of the moulding material to
resist the temperature of the liquid metal to be
poured so that it does not get fused with the
metal.
 The refractoriness of the Silica sand is highest.
6. Flowability:
 Flowability or plasticity is the property of the
sand to respond to the moulding process so that
when rammed it will flow all around the pattern
and take the desired mould shape. High
flowability of sand is desirable for the sand to
get compacted to a uniform density and to get
good impression of the pattern in the mould.

Flowability is also
very important in
machine moulding
Flowability of sand
increases as clay
and water content
are increased.
 7. Collapsibility:

 The moulding sand should collapse

during the contraction of the solidified
casting it does not provide any
resistance, which may result in cracks in
the castings.
 Besides these specific properties the
moulding material should be cheap,
reusable and should have good thermal
conductivity
8. Adhesiveness:

 The sand particles must be capable of

adhering to another body, then only the
sand should be easily attach itself with the
sides of the moulding box and give easy of
lifting and turning the box when filled with
the sand.

Cohesiveness
9. Reusability:
 Since large quantities of sand are used in a foundry
it is very important that the sand should be
reusable otherwise apart from cost it will create
disposal problems
10. Easy of preparation and control:
 Sand should lend itself to easy preparation and
control by mechanical equipment
11. Conductivity:
 Sand should have enough conductivity to permit
removal of heat from the castings.
Advantages and disadvantages of sand casting

Advantages: Can produce very large parts

Can form complex shapes
Many material options
Low tooling and equipment cost
Scrap can be recycled
Short lead time possible
Disadvantages: Poor material strength
Poor surface finish and tolerance
Secondary machining often required
Low production rate
High labor cost

Applications: Engine blocks and manifolds, machine

bases, gears, pulleys, crankshafts,
connecting rods, and propellers, cylinder
heads, and transmission cases
 III. Gating System
 In order for mold to be functional to
manufacture a casting, in addition to the
impression of the part, the mold cavity will
also need to include a gating system.
 Sometimes the gating system will be cut by
hand or in some manufacturing procedures the
gating system will be incorporated into the
pattern along with the part.
 Basically a gating system functions during the
metal casting operation to facilitate the flow of
the molten material into the mold cavity.
Pouring Basin:
 This is where the molten metal employed to
manufacture the part enters the mold.
 The pouring basin should have a projection
with a radius around it to reduce turbulence.
Down Sprue:
 From the pouring basin the molten metal for
the casting travels through the down sprue.
 This should be tapered so its cross-section is
reduced as it goes downward.
Sprue Base:
 The down sprue ends at the sprue base. It is
here that the casting's inner cavity begins.
Gate
 It is a small passage or channel being
cut by gate cutter which connect runner
with the mould cavity and through
which molten metal flows to fill the
mould cavity.
 It feeds the liquid metal to the casting
at the rate consistent with the rate of
solidification.
Choke
 It is that part of the gating system which
possesses smallest cross-section area.
Chaplets
 Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould
either to prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
 The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of
parent metal of which the casting is.
 These are placed in mould cavity suitably which positions
core and to give extra support to core and mould surfaces.
 Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould
and core surfaces and to achieve directional solidification.
 When the molten metal is poured in the mould cavity, the
chaplet melts and fuses itself along with molten metal
during solidification and thus forms a part of the cast
material.
Chills
 At that particular position, the special mould
surface for fast extraction of heat is to be made.
 The fast heat extracting metallic materials known
as chills will be incorporated separately along
with sand mould surface during molding.
 Thus, the main function of chill is to provide a
hard surface at a localized place in the casting by
way of special and fast solidification and to
achieve directional solidification.
Runners:
 Runners are passages that distribute the
liquid metal to the different areas inside
the mold.

Main Cavity:
 The impression of the actual part to be cast
is often referred to as the main cavity.

Vents:
 Vents help to assist in the escape of gases
that are expelled from the molten metal
during the solidification phase of the metal
casting process.
 Risers:
 Risers are reservoirs of molten material. They feed this
material to sections of the mold to compensate for shrinkage
as the casting solidifies.

Top Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the top.
Side Risers: Risers that feed the metal casting from the
side.
Blind Risers: Risers that are completely contained within
the mold.
Open Risers: Risers that are open at the top to the outside
environment.

Figure . Illustrates the

difference between top
risers and side risers.
 Why Riser?
The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from pouring to liquidus
temperature
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops from freezing to room
temperature
The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by providing
shrinkage allowance on pattern, while the shrinkage
during stages 1 and 2 are compensated by providing risers.
The riser should solidify in the last otherwise liquid metal
will start flowing from casting to riser. It should promote
directional solidification. The shape, size and location of
the risers are important considerations in casting design
 Classification of Casting Process:
• Expendable Mold
• Permanent Mold
• Composite Mold Casting
Expendable Mold Casting:
• Molds are made of sand and cannot be reused.
• This method is used to produce equipment at less cost.
• These are also called temporary mold.
• As this is a temporary mold so, the surface finish & accuracy is not so
clean.
Permanent Mold Casting:
• Mold is made of metal and it can be reused again & again.
• This process is used for the bulk production of the product.
• In this process, the product produced has a smooth & accurate finish.
• The product produced has more strength.
• The cost of the die will be more.
Composite Mold Casting:

• This casting is the combination of the permanent and

expandable mold casting where some part of the mold is
made up of sand that is temporary and some part is made up
of permanent metal.
Special casting processes

I. INVESTMENT CASTING
II. DIE CASTING
III. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
IV. CONTINUOUS CASTING
The casting process ( Special Casting process)

1 - Expendable mold casting

(sand, plastic, shell, and investment (lost-wax technique)
mouldings.)

2 - Nonexpendable mold casting

(permanent, die, centrifugal, and continuous casting).

Classification of die casting:

(a)Gravity Die Casting (also called permanent mould process)

(b)Pressure Die Casting

Precision or investment casting
(lost wax casting)
 Investment (lost wax) casting is a method of
precision casting complex near-net-shape details
using replication of wax patterns.

 Precision or investment casting employed techniques

that enable very smooth highly accurate castings to
be made from both ferrous and non-ferrous alloys
 In investment casting, the pattern is made of wax,
which melts after making the mold to produce the
mold cavity.
Ceramic
particles,
wet Investment
plaster , up to 3-5
mm
Ceramic slurry
materials

Mullite: Al2O3 44-48%,

SiO2 47-51%, Fe2O3
max. 1%, TiO2 max. 1%.
Zircon flour.

Binders: Colloidal Silica

SiO2 25-45%, Na2O
max.1% in distilled
water;
sodium silicate
NaO*nSiO2*mH2O; ethyl
silicate Si(OC2H5)4.
Investment casting process
 The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment casting wax.
 The wax patterns are commonly prepared by injection molding technology which
involves injection of wax into a prefabricated die having the same geometry of the cavity
as the desired cast part.
 The wax patterns are then attached to a gating system (a set of channels through which a
molten metal flows to the mold cavity).
 The next stage is the shell building - the wax assembly is immersed into refractory
ceramic slurry of hardening mixtures followed by drying. This operation is repeatedly
carried out resulting in formation of a solid ceramic shell of 1/4” -3/8” (6mm – 9mm)
thick.
 The next stage is dewax. At this stage the assembly is heated in an autoclave where the
most of the wax is melted out. This operation is followed by burning out the residual wax
in a furnace.
 The mold is then preheated to 1830°F (1000°C). Now the mold is ready for filling with a
molten metal.
 Casting stage is conventional operation involving pouring a molten metal into the shell
through the gating system.
 After the metal has solidified and cooled to a desired temperature, the shell is broken and
the castings are cut away from the gates and sprue.
 The last stage is finishing carried out by sandblasting or machining.
Advantages and disadvantages of investment
casting
Advantages:

 Excellent surface finish.

 Tight dimensional tolerances.
 Complex and intricate shapes may be produced.
 Capability to cast thin walls.
 Wide variety of metals and alloys (ferrous and non-
ferrous) may be cast.
 Draft is not required in the molds design.
 Low material waste.
Disadvantages:

 Individual pattern is required for each casting.

 Limited casting dimensions.
 Turbine blades

Turbine blades, pipe fittings,

lock parts, hand tools,
Applications: art pieces, jewelry, dental
fixtures, automotive, aircraft,
and military industries.
Die Casting

A permanent mold casting process in which

molten metal is injected into mold cavity
under high pressure up to 200 MPa
 Pressure is maintained during solidification,
then mold is opened and part is removed
 Molds in this casting operation are called
dies; hence the name die casting
 Use of high pressure to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other
permanent mold processes
Die Casting Machines
 Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity
 Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine

(1)Cold-chamber Die Casting:

 Material to be cast is molten outside the machine.
 Used for materials having high melting temperature Tm>
550°C, i.e. brass, aluminum, and magnesium.

(2) Hot-chamber Die Casting:

 Materials to be cast is molten inside the machine.
 Used for materials having low melting temperature Tm<
550°C, i.e. zinc, tin, and lead.
Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid metal

under high pressure into the die

 High production rates - 500 parts per hour not uncommon

 Applications limited to low melting ‑ point metals that do not

chemically attack plunger and other mechanical components

 Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium

Hot-Chamber Die Casting

Figure. Cycle in hot‑chamber casting: (1) with die closed and

plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the chamber
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
Cold Chamber Die Casting Machine

 Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal under
high pressure into die cavity

 High production but not usually as fast as hot chamber

machines because of pouring step

 Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys

Cold‑Chamber Die Casting

Figure 11.14 Cycle in cold‑chamber casting: (1) with

die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is
poured into the chamber
Molds for Die Casting

 Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging steel

 Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory qualities)
used to die cast steel and cast iron
 Ejector pins required to remove part from die when it
opens
 Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking Common metals
for die casting.
Alloys of
aluminum
Zinc
Magnesium
Lead
Copper
Tin
 Die casting
Can produce large parts
Can form complex shapes
High strength parts
Advantages: Very good surface finish and accuracy
High production rate
Low labor cost
Scrap can be recycled
Trimming is required
High tooling and equipment cost
Disadvantages:
Limited die life
Long lead time
Engine components, pump components,
automobile components, household
Applications:
appliances, railway and aircraft fittings, bath
room hardware,, locks, pullers
Centrifugal casting

 Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having axial

symmetry.
 The method involves pouring molten metal into a cylindrical
mold spinning about its axis of symmetry.
 The mold is kept rotating till the metal has solidified.

 As the mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite or sand may

be used.

 The rotation speed of centrifugal mold is commonly about

1000 RPM (may vary from 250 RPM to 3600 RPM).
 Centrifugal casting steps
 The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating
(applying ceramic slurry, spinning, drying and baking).
 Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.
 Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold (no gating system
is employed).
 The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.
 Extraction of the casting from the mold.

The centrifugal group includes:

 A. True centrifugal casting
 B. Semi-centrifugal casting
 C. Centrifuge casting
A. True Centrifugal Casting
Fig. Setup for true centrifugal casting.
 Non-metallic and slag
inclusions and gas bubbles
being less dense than the
melt are forced to the
inner surface of the
casting by the centrifugal
forces.
 This impure zone is then

removed by machining.

 used for manufacturing of

iron pipes, bushings,
wheels, pulleys bi-metal
steel-bronze bearings and
other parts possessing
axial symmetry.
B. Semi-centrifugal Casting

Centrifugal force is used to produce solid

castings rather than tubular parts

 Molds are designed with risers at center

to supply feed metal

 The process is suitable for large axis-

symmetrical castings like gear blanks,
fly wheels and track wheels.
Semi-centrifugal casting
C. Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities
located away from axis of rotation, so
that molten metal poured into mold is
distributed to these cavities by
centrifugal force
 Used for smaller parts
 Radial symmetry of part is not
required as in other centrifugal
casting methods
Centrifuge Casting
 Continuous casting
 Continuous casting is a casting method, in which the steps of
pouring, solidification and withdrawal (extraction) of the casting from
an open end mold are carried out continuously.
 Cross-sectional dimensions of a continuous casting are constant along
the casting length and they are determined only by the dimensions of
the mold cavity.
 Continuous casting technology is used for both ferrous and non-
ferrous alloys.
Depending on the mold position (vertical or horizontal) continuous casting
machines may be vertical or horizontal:
 Vertical continuous casting
 Horizontal continuous casting
Vertical continuous casting

 Molten metal is continuously supplied from the ladle

to the intermediate ladle (tundish) from which it is
continuously poured into the mold at a controllable
rate keeping the melt level at a constant position.
 The water-cooled copper mold (primary cooling
zone) extracts the heat of the metal causing its
solidification. The mold oscillates in order to
prevent sticking with the casting.
 When the casting goes out from the mold it is
cooled in the secondary cooling zone by water
(or water with air) sprayed on the casting surface.
 The casting is continuously extracted from the mold
by the withdrawal unit followed by a cut-off unit.
 Then a molten metal is poured into the mold where
129
 CO2 Molding:

• This method is used to increase the strength &

hardness of the large-size molding.
• In this technique, the strength of the casting is
increased by passing CO2 gas through the mold.
• While preparing the mold we add a special type of
additive called sodium silicate.
• This is added about 2%-6%.
• And when CO2 gas is passed through the mold this
additive reacts with CO2 and forms silica gel.
• And this silica gel has better bonding properties
which further increases the strength & hardness of
mold.
• Hence CO2 molding is used to produce a casting of
the larger shape which requires good strength.
• It Is also called sodium silicate moulding.
• Pure Dry Sand (Clay free) + Sodium Silicate (Binder)+ Moisture (less than 3 %) + additives
 Casting Defects
Casting defects
Surface Internal Visible
Defect Defect defects
Blow Blow holes Wash
Scar Porosity Rat tail
Blister Pin holes Swell
Drop Inclusions Misrun
Scab Dross Cold shut
Penetration Hot tear
Buckle Shrinkage/
Shift
Casting Defects: Misrun
A casting that has solidified before
completely filling mold cavity
Casting Defects: Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion
due to premature freezing
Casting Defects: Cold Shot
Metal spatters during pouring and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting
Casting Defects: Shrinkage Cavity

Depression in surface or internal void

caused by solidification shrinkage that
restricts amount of molten metal
available in last region to freeze
Sand Casting Defects: blow holes
Balloon‑shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold gases during
pouring
Sand Casting Defects: Pin Holes and porosity
Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles, while
porosity indicates a large number of uniformly distributed
tiny holes. Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just
below the casting surface.
Sand Casting Defects: Hot tears
 Hot tears are ragged irregular internal or external cracks occurring
immediately after the metal have solidified.
 Hot tears occur on poorly designed castings having abrupt section
changes or having no proper fillets or corner radii. Wrongly placed
chills.
Sand Casting Defects: Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate into sand
mold or core, causing casting surface to consist of a mixture
of sand grains and metal
Sand Casting Defects: Mold Shift/ Mismatch
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag
Sand Casting Defects: Sand Inclusions

Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal

matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting
surface are dross.
Sand Casting Defects: Wash and swell

 Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by

erosion of sand by the flowing metal. Swell is the
deformation of vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic
metal pressure
 Inspection of Castings

 Inspections may be in process inspections or finished product

inspections.
 In process inspections are carried out before a lot of castings have
been completed to detect any flaws that may have occurred in the
process so that corrective measures can be taken to remove the defect
in the remaining units.
 Finished product inspections are carried out after the castings have all
been completed to make sure that the product meets the requirements
specified by the customer.
 Two types of methods- destructive or non-destructive
 Destructive methods generally relate to sawing or
breaking off of parts of the castings at places where
voids or internal defects are suspected. Castings may
The prominent non destructive methods
Visual Inspection:
 It consists of inspecting the
surface of the casting with
naked eye or sometimes with
a magnifying glass or
microscope.
 It can only indicate surface
defects such as blow holes,
fusion, swells, external cracks,
and mismatch.
 Almost all castings are
subjected to certain degree of
visual inspection.
Dimensional Inspection

 Dimensional inspection
is carried out to make
sure that the castings
produced have the
required overall
dimensions including
allowances for
machining.

 It may sometimes be
necessary to break a
part of the casting to
take measurements of
inside dimensions.
 Sound Test
 This is a rough test to indicate a flaw or
discontinuity in a casting.
 The casting is suspended from a suitable
support, free of all obstructions and tapped at
various places on its surface with a small
hammer.
 Any change in the tone produced indicates the
existence of a flaw.
 The method cannot indicate the exact location
and extent of the discontinuity.
Impact Test
 In this test the casting
is subjected to a blow
from a hammer of
known weight striking
or falling on the
casting.
 Defective castings fail
under the impact of
the blow but the
method is unreliable.
Pressure Test
 This test is carried out on
castings required to be leak
proof.
 All openings of the castings are
closed and a gas or fluid under
pressure is introduced in it.
 The leakage may be detected
by submerging the casting in a
water tank or using a soap film
if the pressure is applied by
compressed air.
 If a liquid is used for applying
pressure the leakage can be
found by visual inspection.
Radiography:
 Radiography uses X-rays or
gamma rays penetrating
through the castings and
giving a shadow picture on a
photographic film placed
behind the work piece.
 Any defects in the casting
can easily be identified from
this picture.
 Because of their shorter
wave length gamma rays
have a better penetration
through the metal and are
more commonly used.
Magnetic Particle Testing:
 This test is used for detecting
cracks in metals like cast iron and
steel which can be magnetized.
 For carrying out the test the casting
is magnetized and then fine
particles of iron or steel are spread
on its surface.
 Presence of a crack or void in the
casting results in interruption of the
magnetic field and leakage of
magnetic flux at the place of the
crack.
 Very small cracks or voids at or
near the surface which may not
even be detected by radiography
are easily revealed by this method.
Penetrant Testing:

 This method also is used for

detecting very small surface cracks
and has the advantage over the
magnetic particle method that it can
be used for any material.
 The parts to be tested are either
dipped into or covered with a
penetrant testing liquid which has
very good wetting and penetrating
ability.
 The liquid is drawn into the cracks or
voids by capillary action.

 After the penetrant has been applied

to the surface to be tested extra
penetrant is wiped off the surface is
dried and a developer applied to it.
Ultrasonic Testing:
 Ultrasonic testing is used to detect
defects like cracks, voids or porosity
within the interior of the casting.
 The method uses reflection and
transmission of high frequency sound
waves.
 Ultrasonic sound waves much higher
than the audible range are produced
and made to pass through the casting.
 Any crack or void in the casting results
in reflection or some of the ultrasonic
waves which appear as peaks upon
the cathode ray oscilloscope receiver
 The size of peak seen on the
receiving tube is some indication of
the size of defect.
Gating System
 Riser Design
Condition satisfied by riser

Necessary Condition:
Vr≥Vsc

Vr = volume of riser
Vsc = shrinkage volume

Vsc=a/100* Vc

a = % shrinkage of material
Vc = volume of casting

Sufficient condition:
Tr ≥ Tc

Tr = solidification time of riser

Tc = solidification time of casting
165
166
Types of gates in casting: (3 types of gate according to gate type)
Types of gates in casting: (3 types of gate according to gate type)

Top gate: The gate is in the cope mold part.

Limitation:
Top gate are high metal flow turbulence, poor casting surface.
Bottom gate: the gate is in the drag mold part. In the bottom gate, liquid metal fills the lower part of
the mold cavity and gradually increases into the mold wall.

Advantages over Top gate:

The bottom gate has the advantage of less chaos and sand erosion than the top gate.

Limitation:
The downside of the bottom gate is that the metal flow can be clogged due to solidification before
the mold is full. The temperature range generated by the bottom gate is difficult to reach the
standard causing uneven solidification.

Parting line side gate: is the gate located along the parting line. The compartment below the parting
line is filled with liquid metal through top gating, while the compartment above the parting line is
filled with the bottom gating.

This gate type solves the disadvantages of the two types above.
 Bernoulli’s Equation
• Based on conservation of energy
• Used to calculate flow velocities
• Assumptions: steady state, incompressible flow

P1/g + V12/ 2g + h1 = P2/g + V22/ 2g + h2

P = pressure
r= density
v = velocity
h = height above the datum plane
Metal Flow Rate & Velocity
Calculation
 Studies of Gating system have been
based upon two Laws of Fluid
Dynamics.
 1) Law of Continuity
 2) Bernoulli's Theorem
Bottom Gating Analysis

176
Bottom Gating Analysis

177
178
179
 Numerical
• Design a sprue for avoiding aspiration to
deliver iron at rate of 20kg/s. Neglecting
frictional and orifice effects. Take density of
molten iron as 7800 kg/ m3 The height of
pouring basin is 9cm and height of sprue is
25cm.
 Design a down sprue avoiding aspiration as shown in
figure to deliver CI ( density = 7800 kg/ m3 at rate of 10
kg/s against no head at the base of sprue. Neglect
friction effect.

NOTE
This means that the metal settles more quickly upon pouring and that slag, foam and
air are not purged into the mold due to suction from the sprue channel: all this
depends on the basic requirement that the basin is appropriately sized and designed and
that it can be kept full at the given pouring volume of the ladle.
 Solidification Time

[1] In the casting of steel under certain mold conditions, the mold constant in
Chvorinov's Rule is known to be 4.0 min/cm2 based on previous experience. The
casting is a flat plate whose length =30 cm, width = 10 cm, and thickness = 20
mm. Determine how long it will take for the casting to solidify.
[2]A disk-shaped part is to be cast out of aluminum. The diameter of the disk
= 500 mm and its thickness = 20 mm. If the mold constant = 2.0 sec/mm 2 in
Chvorinov's Rule, how long will it take the casting to solidify?

[3] In casting experiments performed using a certain alloy and type of sand mold,
it took 155 sec for a cube-shaped casting to solidify. The cube was 50 mm on a
side. (a) Determine the value of the mold constant in Chvorinov's Rule. (b) If the
same alloy and mold type were used, find the total solidification time for a
cylindrical casting in which the diameter = 30 mm and length = 50 mm.

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Gating ratio

Gating ratio is the ratio between the cross-sectional area of the sprue to the total cross-sectional area
of the runners to the total cross-sectional area of the ingates.

The formula for the gating ratio is As: Ar: Ag.

With the Pressurized Gating System, the gating ratio is usually 1: 2: 1 or 1: 0.75: 0.5. This system is
called a “Gate control system” because ingates control the flow of the metal.

With the Unpressurized Gating System, the gating ratio is usually 1: 2: 2 or 1: 3: 3 or 1: 1: 3. This system
is called a “Choke control system” because the choke controls the flow of the metal.
THANK YOU

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