Unit 3

Foundry- Pattern Making, Molding and Casting

Syllabus
➢ Sand casting, types of pattern material, pattern making
allowances
➢ Core print molding, sand properties and testing, hand
and machine molding, core boxes, core making
➢ Melting and pouring, melting furnaces- Cupola, electric
arc and induction furnaces.
➢ Cleaning, finishing and heat treatment of casting, defects
in casting
➢ Shell molding and investment casting. Permanent mold
dies casting- Die-casting, low-pressure permanent mold
casting, hot and cold chamber processing, centrifugal
casting, semi centrifugal casting and continuous casting.
 Introduction
➢Casting or founding is the process of producing
metal or alloy parts.
➢The parts of desired shapes are produced by
pouring the molten metal or alloy into a cavity
inside a prepared mould and then allowing the
metal or alloy to cool and solidify.
➢This solidified piece of metal or alloy is called as
casting.
➢This process is used to manufacture a range of
products varying in terms of shape, size and
complexity.
Steps involved in the casting process
Steps involved in the casting process
 Advantages of casting process
➢ It is one of the most versatile manufacturing processes.
➢ It provides the greatest freedom of design in terms of
shape, size and quality of product.
➢ Casting provides uniform directional properties and better
vibration damping capacity to the cast components.
➢ Complex and uneconomical shapes which are difficult to
produce by other processes can be easily produced by
casting process.
➢ It gives one piece product hence there is no need of metal
joining processes.
➢ Very heavy and bulky parts can be manufactured.
➢ Casting process can be mechanised and generally used for
mass production of components.
 Applications of casting process
➢Transportation vehicles (in automobile engine and
tractors)
➢Machine tool structures
➢Turbine vanes and power generators
➢Mill housing
➢Pump filter and valve
➢Railway crossings and aircraft jet engine blades
➢Agricultural parts and sanitary fittings
➢Construction, communication and atomic energy
applications, etc.
Applications of casting process
 Types of casting process

CONSUMABLE PERMANENT SPECIAL

MOLD MOLD PROCESSES

Permanent Expendable Centrifugal

Die casting
pattern pattern casting

Green sand Investment casting Gravity die True

Centrifugal

Dry sand Lost foam Low pressure Semi

casting centrifugal

No bake sand High pressure Centrifuging

Shell Mold Hot chamber Cold chamber Semi solid Continuous

casting casting
 Pattern making
➢ A pattern is defined as a model or replica of the object
to be cast.
➢ It exact resembles the casting to be made except for
the various allowances.
➢ It is a model or form around which sand is packed to
give rise to a cavity called as mould cavity, in which
molten metal is poured and the casting is produced.
➢ Functions of pattern
▪ To prepare mould cavity of appropriate shape and size.
▪ To produce seats for the cores in the mould in which cores can be
placed.
▪ To establish the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
▪ To minimize casting defects.
▪ To help positioning of a core before the mould sand is rammed.
 Pattern materials Dec 2009, May 2010

❑Factors affecting the selection of materials for

pattern:
➢The number of castings to be made.
➢Degree of accuracy in dimensions and the quality of
surface finish required.
➢Moulding method to be used.
➢Type of casting method to be used.
➢Shape, size and complexity of the casting.
➢Casting design parameters.
➢Type of moulding material to be used.
 Pattern materials
❑Wood (white pine, Mahogany, Maple, Cherry, teak,
Shisham)
➢Advantages
✓It is cheap and easily available in large quantities.
✓It can be easily shaped and machined to different configurations
and forms.
✓Good surface finish can be easily obtained.
✓Its manipulation and repairing is easy.
➢Limitations
✓Wood patterns are weak as compared to metal patterns.
✓They cannot withstand rough handling.
✓Poor wear resistance and hence abrades easily by sand action.
✓It absorbs moisture and hence get warped and change the shape
and size.
❑Metals
➢Advantages
✓They do not absorb moisture.
✓They are stronger and accurate hence has more life as compared to
wooden patterns.
✓They have greater resistance to abrasion and wear.
✓They can withstand rough handling.
➢Limitations
✓They are more expensive compared to wooden patterns.
✓They are heavier than wooden patterns.
✓Ferrous material patterns get rusted.
✓They cannot be repaired easily.
➢Various pattern metals
✓Aluminium and its alloys
✓Steel
✓Brass
✓Cast iron
✓White metal
❑Plastic
➢Advantages
✓Light weight and high strength.
✓Resistance to wear and corrosion.
✓Provides good surface finish.
✓They are easy to make and less costly also.
➢Limitations
✓They are fragile hence light sections may need metal
reinforcements.
✓They may not work well when subjected to conditions of
severe shock.
❑Plaster
➢Advantages
✓Complicated shapes can be cast without any difficulty.
✓It can be easily worked with the help of wood working
tools.
✓It has high compressive strength.
✓Unlike metals, it expands while solidifying.
❑Wax
➢Advantages
✓They provide good surface finish.
✓After being moulded, the wax pattern is not taken out
hence there is no chance of mould cavity getting damaged
while removing the pattern.
✓They provide high accuracy to the castings.
 May 2010, Dec 2010,
Pattern allowances Dec 2012,

➢A pattern is always made larger than the final

casting because it carries certain allowances due to
metallurgical and mechanical reasons.
➢Different pattern allowances are
▪ Shrinkage or contraction allowance
▪ Machining allowance
▪ Draft or taper allowance
▪ Distortion allowance
▪ Rapping or shake allowance

Pattern size = basic size + allowances

 Shrinkage allowance
➢ Almost all the metals used in the casting work shrink or
contract during cooling from Tp to Troom.
➢ This contraction takes place in three forms i.e.
▪ Liquid contraction
▪ Solidifying contraction
▪ Solid contraction
➢ To compensate liquid and solidifying contraction, gates and risers
are provided in the mould, whreas for solid contraction, adequate
allowances are provided on the pattern.
➢ This allowance is positive allowance and depends on the metal to
be cast, pouring temperature of the molten metal, dimensions of
the casting and method of moulding.
Metal GCI Steel Al Brass Bronze Magnesium Shrinkage
allowances
Allowance 6.95- 20.8 16.5 15.4 10.5-21 16.5 for different
(mm/metre) 10.4 metals
 Machining allowance
➢Machining or finish allowance is the amount of
dimensions on a casting which is made oversized
to provide stock for machining.
➢The amount of machining allowance depends upon
metal of casting, machining method used, casting
method used, shape and size of the casting and
amount of finish required on the machined
portion.
➢Machining allowance varies from 1.5 to 16 mm,
but 3 mm allowance is more common for small
and medium castings.
 Draft/Taper allowance
➢ Draft or taper allowance is given to all vertical faces of a pattern for
their easy removal from sand without damaging the mould.
➢ This slight taper inward or outward on the vertical faces is known as
draft.
➢ It depends on shape and size of the pattern, method of moulding
and material of moulding.
➢ This allowance varies from 10 to 25 mm per metre on external
surfaces and 40 to 65 mm per metre on internal surfaces.
 Distortion/camber allowance
➢The tendency of distortion is not common in all
the castings.
➢The casting will distort if it is of irregular shape, U
or V-shape and the arms having unequal thickness.
➢To eliminate this defect, an opposite distortion is
provided on the pattern so that the effect is
balanced and correct shape of the casting is
produced.
➢The amount of distortion allowance varies from 2
to 20 mm as per the size, shape and casting
material.
 Rapping or shake allowance
➢When a pattern is to be taken out from the mould,
it is first rapped or shaken by striking it with a
wooden piece from side to side.
➢This is done so that pattern surface becomes free
from adjoining sand of the mould.
➢Due to this, there slight increase in the size of the
mould cavity.
➢For this purpose, a negative allowance is provided
on the pattern.
➢It is generally provided to the large castings and
negligible for small and medium sized castings.
 Types of patterns May 2011

1. Single piece or solid pattern

2. Two piece or split pattern
3. Loose piece pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern
5. Gated pattern
6. Match plate pattern
7. Sweep pattern
8. Skeleton pattern
9. Segmental pattern
10.Follow board pattern
11.Lagged-up pattern
 Types of patterns

▪ Simplest and made in ▪ Complicated patterns are

one-piece. made in two pieces called as
▪ Generally used for split or two piece pattern.
making large sized ▪ Upper and lower parts are
castings. called as cope and drag
▪ Less expensive patterns respectively.
▪ Made up of wood or ▪ Dowel pins are used for
metal. keeping alignment between
two parts of the pattern.
 Types of patterns

▪ These patterns are made ▪ It is another form of split

with one or more loose pattern.
pieces for their easy ▪ The pattern is split about a
removal. suitable surface or line.
▪ These patterns consume ▪ Each half of the pattern is
more time for moulding fixed to a separate plate.
operation and require ▪ These patterns are used for
more labour work. producing large castings.
 Types of patterns

▪ These patterns are made in two

▪ By using gated patterns, number pieces on either side of a match
of small castings can be made at plate.
a time hence they are used in ▪ The plate is made up of wood,
mass production. aluminium, magnesium or steel.
▪ In this, sections connecting ▪ Match plate has runner and
various patterns serve as a gates attached with it.
runner and gates. ▪ They are generally used in
▪ This facilitates filling of mould in machine moulding for
better manner and reduces the producing accurate castings at
required time and labour work. faster rate.
 Types of patterns

▪ Sweep pattern is just a frame made ▪ When the casting size is very large,
on a wooden board which sweeps the it is not economical to make a large
casting shape into the sand all around solid pattern of that size.
the circumference. ▪ In such a cases, pattern consisting
▪ It consists of a base, placed in the of a wooden frame and strips is
sand, vertical spindle and a wooden made which is called as skeleton
template called as sweep. pattern.
▪ It saves a lot of time and labour work
as compared to making a full pattern.
 Types of patterns

▪ Working principle is similar to the ▪ A follow board is a wooden board and is

sweep pattern. used for supporting a pattern which is
▪ In this pattern, a portion of a solid very thin and fragile.
pattern mounted on a central pivot ▪ With the help of follow board support
and completes one portion of the under the weak pattern, the drag is
mould and then moves to the next rammed and then the follow board is
portion. removed.
▪ These patterns are used for ▪ It is used for making casting master
producing large circular castings patterns for many applications.
like big gears, wheel rim, etc.
 Pattern colours
➢Cast surfaces to be machined-Red
➢Surfaces to be left unmachined-Black
➢Core print seats-Yellow
➢Loose piece and seatings-Red strips on yellow base
➢Parting surfaces-clear or no colour
➢Supports or stop-offs-Black strips on yellow base
➢Core prints for machined castings-Yellow strips on
black background.
 Mould materials
➢ Mould material should be such that, the cavity of the
mould retains its shape till the metal has solidified.
➢ Casting can be made in permanent moulds (made of
ferrous metals and alloys) or temporary refractory
moulds (made from refractory sands and resins)
➢ Moulds can also be made up of wax, carbon, plaster
of paris, ceramics, etc.
➢ The choice of particular mould material depends on
the cost of material, quality of casting required,
number of castings, shape and size of the casting,
accuracy of casting and material to be cast.
 Types of moulding sand
➢Sand is widely used mould material for casting
ferrous and non ferrous metals.
➢The main reason is that sand fulfills service
requirements at reasonably lower cost than the
other materials.
➢Types of moulding sand are
1. Natural sand
2. Synthetic sand
3. Special sands
 Natural sand
➢Natural sand can be used directly for making
moulds.
➢It contains binding materials (5-10 % clay) and
needs only water (5-8 %) to mix before making
mould.
➢It can maintain moisture for a long time.
➢This type of sand permits easy patching and
finishing of moulds and hence is used for cast iron
and non ferrous castings.
 Synthetic sand
➢ Synthetic sand consist of natural sand with or
without clay, moisture and binder like bentonite.
➢ These types of sand are used for steel and other
ferrous and non-ferrous alloy casting.
➢ Advantages
▪ Requires less proportion of binder
▪ Higher refractoriness and permeability
▪ Properties can be easily controlled.
▪ Refractory grain size is more uniform.
▪ More suitable in mass production and mechanized
foundries.
▪ Requires less storage space.
 Special sands
a) Green sand
▪ It has 5 % water and 15 to 30 % clay.
▪ Green sand moulds are poured in the green condition
(not dried).
▪ It is preferred for producing simple, small and medium
sized casting.
b) Loam sand
▪ It contains more clay upto 50 %.
▪ It dries hard and ingredients are fine sand, finely
ground refractories, clay, graphite and fibrous
reinforcement.
▪ It is used for heavy and large parts.
 Special sands
c) Core sand
▪ It has very low clay content and their grain size is
larger to increase the permeability.
▪ It is silica sand mixed with core oil which is composed
of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other binding
materials.
▪ It is used for making cores.
d) Parting sand
▪ It consists of dried silica sand, sea sand or burnt sand.
▪ It is used to prevents green sand from sticking to the
pattern and also to allow the sand on the parting
surface of the cope and drag to separate without
clinging.
 Special sands
e) Facing sand
▪ It is fresh and specially prepared moulding sand which
forms the face of the mould cavity.
▪ It comes in direct contact with the molten metal being
poured; hence it should possess much improved
properties than other sands.
f) Backing sand
▪ It backs the facing sand and doesnot come in direct
contact with the pattern.
▪ This sand has black colour hence also called as black
sand.
 Characteristics of moulding sand
❑Flowability or plasticity May 2010, Dec 2010, May 2012, Dec 2012

▪ It is the ability of the moulding sand to get compacted

to a uniform density.
▪ It assists moulding sand to flow and pack all-around the
pattern and take up the desired shape.
❑Green strength
▪ It is the strength of the sand in green or moist
condition.
▪ It helps in making and handling the moulds.
▪ If the mould is hardened in contact with the pattern
surface with adequate green strength, then high degree
of dimensional accuracy and stability can be obtained.
 Characteristics of moulding sand
❑Dry strength
▪ It is the strength of the sand in dry state.
▪ A sand must have sufficient dry strength to withstand
erosion of the mould walls and enlargement of mould
cavity during the flow of molten metal.
❑Permeability or porosity
▪ The ability of sand to allow gases and steam generated
within the moulds to be moved freely is called as
permeability or porosity.
▪ This property will help in minimizing defects in casting
like blow holes, pores, etc.
 Characteristics of moulding sand
❑Refractoriness
▪ It is the ability of moulding sand to withstand high
temperatures without fusion, cracking and buckling.
▪ This property depends on the metal which is to be cast.
❑Adhesiveness
▪ It is the property of moulding sand because of which it
is capable of adhering to the surface of other materials.
▪ This property helps in withdrawing the pattern from
the mould without damaging the mould surfaces and
edges.
 Characteristics of moulding sand
❑Cohesiveness
▪ It is the property of sand due to which particles stick
together.
▪ Due to this property, the heavy sand mass is
successfully held in a moulding flask and manipulated
as required, without any risk of its falling down.
▪ It depends on the grain size, clay and moisture content.
❑Collapsibility
▪ It is the property due to which the sand mould
automatically collapses after freezing of the casting, to
allow the free contraction of the metal.
▪ Without this property, casting will result in tears and
cracks.
 Constituents of moulding sand
❑Sand May 2011, May 2012, May 2014
❑Binder
▪ Binder produce cohesion between the moulding sand
grains in the green or dry condition.
▪ Most commonly used binders are organic and inorganic
binders.
▪ Organic binders are mostly used for core making.
▪ Common binders used are Linseed oil, Dextrin, Molasses,
Pitch, Bentonite, fire clay, Limonite, Ball clay, Kaolonite, etc.
❑Additives
▪ The materials other than basic ingredients are called as
additives.
▪ These additives are added to enhance the existing sand
properties and to develop certain properties like resistance
to sand expansion defects, etc.
 Constituents of moulding sand
❑ Different additives May 2011, May 2012, May 2014

▪ Coal dust- Prevents oxidation of metal, reduces cohesiveness

and strength of the sand.
▪ Sea coal- It restricts the movement of the mould wall and
improves surface finish. It also reduces hot hardness and
permeability of the mould.
▪ Cornflour or cereals- It improves strength, toughness and
collapsibility and reduces permeability and flowability of the
sand.
▪ Silica flour- It increases hot strength and decreases metal
penetration into the mould. It also reduces expansion defects
and improves surface finish.
▪ Wood flour- It reduces expansion defects, increases
collapsibility, improves surface finish and thermal stability of the
mould.
▪ Pitch- It increases hot strength and surface finish on ferrous
castings.
▪ Dextrin and mollases- It increases dry strength of mould.
 Constituents of moulding sand
❑Water
▪ The amount of water varies from 1.5 to 8 %.
▪ Water added to sand mixture partly absorbed by clay
and partly remains free, which is called free water.
▪ The free water acts as a lubricant and increases
plasticity, improves mouldability and reduces the
strength of the sand.
▪ If the amount of water is less, it does not develop
proper strength and plasticity on the other hand if
water content is more, then it results in excessive
plasticity and dry strength.
 Sand preparation and conditioning
➢Sand preparation means mixing the moulding sand
ingredients such as sand, binder, moisture and
other additives.
➢This is done by manually or by using mechanical
mixers.
➢The operation in addition with sand preparation is
called as sand tempering, which is a process by
which adequate amount of moisture is added to
the moulding sand to make it workable.
➢Sand conditioning consists of preparing of the
moulding sand, so that it becomes suitable for
moulding purposes.
 Sand testing
1. Moisture content test
2. Clay content test
3. Permeability test
4. Grain fineness test
5. Mould hardness test
6. Refractoriness test
7. Compression strength
Moisture content test Dec 2011,
May 2012

▪ It consists of iron base, an

infrared heating bulb and
drying pan.
▪ 20 to 40 gms of prepared
sand sample is placed in the
pan and heated by an
infrared heater bulb for 2 to
3 min.
▪ The sample is then
reweighted and percentage
of moisture is calculated
from the difference in
weights of original moist and
dried sample of the sand.
 Clay content test Dec 2011,

➢ The clay particles are less than 20 μm in size and they fail to
settle one inch per minute when suspended in water.
➢ Take dry sand sample of 50 gm and dry it at 1050 C for an
hour.
➢ Place this sample in a wash bottle and add 475 ml of
distilled water and 2.5 to 3 % of NaOH and then stir this for
5 min.
➢ Fill the wash bottle with water upto the mark indicated on it
and allow it to settle for 10 min and then siphon out water
from wash bottle upto the depth of one inch.
➢ Repeat the above step until the water above the settled
sand is clean.
➢ This sand is then dried in an oven and then weighed to
calculate the clay content in original sand sample.
 Permeability test Dec 2011, Dec 2013

➢ Permeability is that property of

moulding sand which permits the
escape of water vapour and other
gases through it.
➢ It depends on grain size and shape,
grain distribution, binder and its
contents, moisture content and
degree of ramming.
➢ In this test, 2000 c.c. of air is held in
an inverted bell jar and forced to
pass through the sand specimen
and time for the same is recorded
𝑽×𝒉 by using stop watch.
Permeability number =
𝒂×𝒑×𝒕 V = vol. of air passing through the specimen (2000 c.c.)
𝟓𝟎𝟏.𝟐𝟖𝟐 h = height of specimen (5.08 cm)
= a = C/S areas of specimen in cm2 (20.268)
𝒑×𝒕 P = air pressure in gm/cm2
t = time taken by 2000 c.c. of air to pass through the
sand specimen in minutes
 Grain Fineness Test
➢ This test determines the
grain size, distribution and
grain fineness.
➢ It is performed on the dried
sand sample for which all
clay is removed.
➢ The apparatus consists of
number of standard sieves
mounted one above the
other on power driven
shaker with descending
order of size from the top.

American Foundry Association (AFA) finenes number,

𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒔
AFA grain finenes no. =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 % 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒂𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒊𝒆𝒗𝒆
Example
Grain Fineness Test Dec 2012

Mesh % retained Multiplier Product

6 0 3 0
12 0 5 0
20 0 10 0 Grain fineness
30 2 20 40 number
40 2.5 30 75
= 9815/90.5
50 3 40 120
= 108 (approx.)
70 6 50 300
100 20 70 1400
140 32 100 3200
200 12 140 1680
270 9 200 1800
Pan 4 300 1200
Total 90.5 9815
Compression Strength Test
 Core Dec 2012

➢ Core is a sand shape or form which makes contour of

a casting for which no provision has been made in the
pattern for moulding.
➢ Core is an obstruction which when positioned in the
mould, does not permit the molten poured metal to
fill the space occupied by core hence produce hollow
casting.
➢ Core may be made up of sand, plaster, metal or
ceramics.

Fig. Core
 Functions of core
➢It provides a means of forming the main internal
cavity for hollow casting.
➢It provides external undercut feature.
➢It can be inserted to obtain deep recesses in the
casting.
➢It can be used to increase the strength of the
mould.
➢It can be used as a part of gating assembly.
➢It can form a part of green sand mould and can
also be used to improve the mould surface.
 Essential characteristics of core
➢It should have sufficient strength to support itself
without breaking.
➢It should have high permeability and high
refractoriness.
➢It should have smooth surface to ensure a smooth
casting.
➢It should have high collapsibility to assist the free
contraction of the solidifying metal.
➢It should have those ingredients which does not
generate mould gases.
 Steps involved in Core making
1. Core sand preparation
2. Core making
▪ Small cores can be made manually in hand rammed
core boxes.
▪ Cores on mass scale are rapidly produced on various
core making machines namely jolt machine, shell core
machine, core blower, sand slinger, core roll over
machine and core extrusion machine.
3. Core baking
4. Finishing of cores
5. Setting the cores
 Types of cores Dec 2012

Vertical core

Balanced core
Types of cores
 Moulds
➢When the pattern is removed, a cavity
corresponding to the shape of the pattern remains
in the sand which is known as mould or mould
cavity.
➢Hence, mould is a sort of container which when
poured with molten metal produces a casting of
the mould shape.
➢The mould is made up of sand by packing sand
particles rigidly around the pattern.
 Essential characteristics of mould
➢It should have refractoriness to bear the high heat
of molten metal.
➢It should have sufficient strength to hold the
weight of the molten metal.
➢It should produce minimum amount of mould
gases.
➢It should be able to resist the erosive action of the
molten metal being poured.
➢It should resist metal penetration into the walls.
Steps in mould making
Example for steps in mould making

Required casting
Casting after being
knocked out
 Moulding processes
1. According to the method used
▪ Floor moulding
▪ Bench moulding
▪ Pit moulding
▪ Machine moulding
2. According to mould materials
➢Sand moulding
▪ Green sand moulding
▪ Dry sand moulding
▪ Loam moulding
▪ Shell moulding, etc.
➢Plaster moulding
➢Metallic moulding
 Shell moulding
(175-350 Deg.)

Fig. steps in
shell
moulding
process
 Shell moulding May 2010, Dec 2010

❑Advantages
➢Very high surface finish is obtained.
➢Sand handling is minimum.
➢Permeability of the shell is high.
➢Less floor area is required.
➢Casting defects are minimum.
❑Limitations
➢The pattern equipment cost is more.
➢Not economical for fewer casting.
➢Complicated jobs cannot be moulded.
➢Weight and size of casting are limited.
 Dec 2009, Dec 2010, May 2011,
Gating system May 2012

Components
are
▪ Pouring cups
and basins
▪ Sprue
▪ Runner
▪ Gates
▪ Riser, etc
 Components of gating system
❑Pouring cups
▪ It is funnel shaped cup which forms the top portion of
the sprue.
▪ It makes easier for the ladle or crucible operator to
direct the flow of metal from crucible to sprue.
❑Pouring basins
▪ It acts as a reservoir for molten metal from which it
moves smoothly into the sprue.
▪ It prevents the slag from entering the mould cavity.
▪ It holds the slag and dirt, which floats on the top and
allows only the clean metal to enter into the sprue.
 Components of gating system
❑Sprue
▪ It is the channel through which the molten metal is brought
into the parting plane where it enters the runner and gates.
▪ Sprue may be square or round and is generally tapered
downwards to avoid aspiration of air and metal damage.
▪ Rectangular sprue has less turbulence.
❑Runner
▪ In large casting, molten metal is generally carried from the
sprue base to several gates around the cavity through a
passage called as runner.
▪ Location of runner depends upon the shape of casting.
▪ It should be streamlined to avoid aspiration and
turbulence.
 Components of gating system
❑Gates
▪ A gate is a channel which connects runner with the
mould cavity through which molten metal enters into
the cavity.
▪ The location and size of gates are so arranged that they
can fill casting with consistent rate.
▪ Ingate is the end of the gate where it joins the mould
cavity.
▪ Gating ratio is the ratio of sprue base area to the
runner area and the total ingate area (As:Ar:Ag).
▪ Choke is that part of gating system which has the
smallest cross-sectional area. It controls the flow rate
of metal and to hold back slag, foreign particles, etc.
 Components of gating system
❑Types of gates
▪ Parting line gates
▪ Top gates
▪ Bottom gates
▪ Side gates
 Components of gating system
❑Riser or feeder head
▪ A riser or feeder is a passage of sand made in the cope
to permit the molten metal to rise above the highest
point in the casting after filling.
▪ This metal in the riser compensates the shrinkages as
the casting solidifies.
▪ Functions of riser are
✓To feed metal to the solidifying casting, so that shrinkage
cavities are got rid off.
✓It permits the escape of air and mould gases as the mould
cavity is being filled with the molten metal.
✓It permits the directional solidification.
✓It ensures that mould cavity is filled completely.
 Components of gating system
❑Types of Riser
▪ Top riser
▪ Side riser
▪ Open and blind riser
 Design of Riser
❑Shape of riser
▪ The risers are designed to solidify last so as to feed
enough metal to enough sections of the casting.
▪ The amount of heat and heat dissipation rate of riser
depends on its volume and surface area respectively.
▪ Hence for a given size, the riser should be designed
with a high volume to surface area ratio.
▪ To satisfy this condition, the riser is spherical or
cylindrical (most common) in shape.
▪ For riser design, Height of cyl. Riser = 1.5*dia. Of riser
 Design of Riser
❑Size of riser
▪ The freezing time of riser depends upon the amount of
heat in a casting and surface area of the casting.
▪ To determine the size of riser (casting) the following
relations are used
1. Chvorinov’s rule
2. Cain’s rule
 Chvorinov’s rule
▪ Acco. to this rule, solidification time (freezing
time) is a function of volume of casting and its
surface area.
Where, t = solidification time in sec.
𝑽 𝟐 V= volume of casting in m3
𝒕𝜶( ) SA = surface area of casting in m2
𝑺𝑨
C = constant which depends upon the mould
𝑽 𝟐
𝒕=𝑪( ) material and metal to be cast
𝑺𝑨
▪ To achieve directional solidification, the riser must
solidify at last.
▪ Generally, (V/SA)riser > (V/SA)casting
(V/SA)riser = 1.1 to 1.15* (V/SA)casting
 Caine’s rule
▪ Acco. to this rule
𝒂
𝑿= + 𝐜
𝒀−𝒃
Where,
(𝑺𝑨/𝑽)𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
𝑿= …….(freezing ratio)
(𝑺𝑨/𝑽)𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒓
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒆𝒓
Y= ……….(volume ratio)
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈
a = freezing characteristics constant
b= liquid to solidification contraction
c= relative freezing rate of riser and casting
 Heating and pouring
❑Heating of metal
▪ To perform casting operation, metals are heated in
furnace above melting point and then poured in mould
cavity to solidify.
▪ Heat required for the same is expressed as
H = sensible heat + latent heat + heat required to raise
temp. for pouring
H = mSs(ΔT)s + mL + mSl(ΔT)l
Where, H= total heat required to raise the temp. of metal to the pouring
temperature in J, m= mass of the metal being heated in kg, V= volume of metal
being heated in m3, Ss = specific heat of solid metal in J/kg0C, Sl = specific heat
of liquid metal in J/kg0C, (ΔT)s = change in temperature of solid metal = Tm - T0,
(ΔT)l = change in temperature of liquid = Tp - T0
 Heating and pouring
❑Pouring of molten metal
▪ Pouring is critical step in the casting process.
▪ The factors affecting pouring process are pouring
temperature, pouring rate and turbulence.
▪ The temperature difference between the pouring and
freezing begins is called as superheat.
▪ The volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured
into the mould is called as pouring rate.
▪ Turbulence is a fluid flow characterized by erratic variations
in magnitude and direction of velocity of molten metal
throughout the flow. Turbulence is also called as mould
erosion.
▪ Turbulence should be avoided during pouring to get defect
free casting.
 Analysis of pouring
▪ Applying Bernoulli’s theorem
𝒑𝟏 𝒗𝟏𝟐 𝒑𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒁𝟏 = + + 𝒁𝟐 ….neglecting losses
𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈

▪ 𝑽𝟐 = 𝟐𝒈𝒉
▪ Time required to fill the mould cavity,
t =volume/flow rate
= V/Q
𝑽
= ……..in sec.
𝑨× 𝟐𝒈𝒉
 Solidification of metals

▪ Solidification time (in sec.) acco. to Chvorinov’s rule,

𝑽 𝟐
t = C ( ) …………for casting
𝑺𝑨
 Hand moulding equipments

Shovel Sprue pin Strike off bar

Hand riddle Rammers

Vent rod Lifter

Trowels

Draw spike

Gate cutter

Slicks Smoothers Swab

 Moulding machines May 2010

❑Squeezing machine
 Moulding machines
▪ Jolt moulding machine
 Moulding machines
▪ Jolt-squeeze machine
 Moulding machines
▪ Sand slinger
 Different casting processes
❑Pressure Die-casting May 2010, Dec 2011, May 2013

Hot chamber pressure Cold chamber pressure

die-casting die-casting
(Al, Brass, Mg)
(Zn, Sn, Pb)
 Pressure Die-casting
❑Advantages
➢High production rates
➢Economical for large scale production
➢Close dimensional tolerances are possible.
➢Good surface finish
➢Thin sections upto 0.5 mm can be cast.
❑Limitations
➢Only suitable for smaller parts.
➢Only non-ferrous alloys and metals can be commercially cast.
➢High cost of equipments, dies.
➢Due to entrapped air, die castings are porous which reduces
mechanical properties of the component.
 Centrifugal casting
(a) True centrifugal casting May 2010, Dec 2010, Dec
2011, Dec 2012, May 2013
 Centrifugal casting
(b) Semi-centrifugal casting
 Centrifugal casting
(c) Centrifuging casting
 Dec 2009, May
Investment casting 2010, May 2013,
May 2014, Dec 2014

▪ Steps
a) Die making
b) Wax patterns
and gating
system
c) Assembling the
wax patterns
d) Precoating
e) Investing
f) Wax melting
g) Pouring
h) Cleaning and
inspection
 Investment casting
❑Advantages
▪ Better dimensional accuracy
▪ Complicated shapes and contours can be easily made.
▪ Extremely thin sections upto 0.75 mm can be cast.
▪ High surface finish
▪ Castings are sound and free from defects.
❑Limitations
▪ Size of casting is limited.
▪ Moulds used are single purpose only.
▪ Cost of investment material is high.
▪ It is time consuming process.
❑Applications
▪ Parts for aerospace industry, aircraft engines, frames, fuel systems, etc.
▪ Parts for food and beverage machinery, computer and data processing
equipments, machine tools and accessories.
▪ Nozzles, buckets, blades, etc. for gas turbines.
▪ Costume jewellery
Continuous casting
Dec 2009, May 2010
 Continuous casting
❑ Advantages
▪ The process is cheaper than rolling from ingots.
▪ There is no need of rough forming and breakdown rolling
operation.
▪ Casting surfaces obtained are better than the static ingots.
▪ Grain size and structure of the casting can be regulated by
controlling cooling rates.
▪ Casting is more dense and uniform than individual castings.
▪ Castings have improved quality.
❑ Applications
▪ This process can produce any shape of uniform cross-section
such as rectangular, square, hexagonal, gear toothed, etc. either
solid or hollow.
▪ Production of blooms, billets, slabs and sheets
▪ Materials like brass, zinc, copper and its alloys, aluminium and
its alloys, alloy steel may be cast.
 Cleaning of casting May 2013

❑Removal of dry sand cores

❑Removal of gates and risers
❑Removal of unwanted metal projections and fins
❑Removal of adhered sand and oxide scale
➢Wire brushing
➢Tumbling
➢Sand blasting
➢Shot blasting
➢Hydro blasting
➢pickling
Casting defects and remedies
Dec 2010,
May 2011,
May 2012,
Dec 2012,
May 2014
 Casting defects and remedies
Sr. No. Defects Possible causes Effective remedies
1. Blow holes ▪ Excess moisture in the ▪ Control moisture
moulding sand ▪ Use clean and rust free
▪ Rust and moisture on chills, chills, chaplets
chaplets used ▪ Bake the cores properly
▪ Cores are not sufficiently ▪ Provide adequate
baked venting in moulds and
▪ Moulds are not adequately cores
vented
2. Porosity ▪ High temperature of pouring ▪ Regulate pouring
▪ Gas dissolved in metal charge temperature
▪ Less amount of flux ▪ Control metal
▪ Slow solidification composition
▪ Increase flux proportion
▪ Modify gating and
risering
3. Shrinkage ▪ Faulty gating and risering and ▪ Ensure proper directional
improper chilling solidification by
modifying gating system.
 Casting defects and remedies
Sr. Defects Possible causes Effective remedies
No.
4. Inclusions ▪ Faulty gating system ▪ Modify gating system
▪ Faulty pouring ▪ Improve pouring to
▪ Soft ramming of mould minimize turbulence
▪ Rough handling of core and ▪ Provide harder ramming
mould ▪ Take care in handling
5. Hot tears or ▪ Lack of collapsibility ▪ Improve core
hot cracks ▪ Lack of mould collapsibility collapsibility
▪ Faulty design ▪ Improve mould
▪ Hard ramming of mould collapsibility
▪ Modify the design
▪ Provide harder ramming
6. Misrun and ▪ Lack of fluidity in molten ▪ Adjust proper pouring
cold shut metal temperature
▪ Faulty design and gating ▪ Modify the design and
gating system
 Casting defects and remedies
Sr. No. Defects Possible causes Effective remedies
7. Cuts and ▪ Low strength of mould and ▪ Improve mould and core
washes core strength
(Scabs) ▪ Faulty gating system ▪ Modify gating system
▪ Lack of binders in facing and ▪ Add more binders
core sand
8. Mismatch ▪ Worn out or bent clamping ▪ Repair or replace the
(shifts) pins pins
▪ Misalignment of two halves of ▪ Replace dowel causing
pattern misalignment
▪ Improper location and ▪ Provide adequate core
support of core support and locate it
▪ Faulty core boxes properly
▪ Replace the core boxes
9. Warpage ▪ Continuous large flat surfaces on ▪ Modify the casting design
casting , indicates poor design to break the continuity of
▪ No directional solidification of the large flat surfaces
casting ▪ Provide proper directional
solidification
 Inspection of casting
1. Destructive testing methods
2. Non-destructive testing methods
1. Visual inspection
2. Inspection for dimensional accuracy
3. Sound test
4. Impact test
5. pressure test
 Metals for casting
1. Ferrous casting alloys
▪ Cast iron
▪ Steel
2. Non-ferrous casting alloys
▪ Aluminium alloys
▪ Magnesium alloys
▪ Copper alloys
▪ Tin based alloys
▪ Zinc alloys
▪ Nickel alloys
▪ Titanium alloys