Foundry Technology

• Foundry Industry
• Patent practices
– Types of patent
– Patent materials
– Mould materials
– Core making
– Gating system
• Casting practices
– Fundamentals of casting
– Sand casting
– Types of casting
• Melting and Pouring
– Cupola furnace
– Crucible furnace
– Electric arc furnace
– Induction furnace
– Metal pot furnace
 FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
• 8 to 10 thousand years old
• Presently there are 40 to 50 thousand
foundries in the world
• World annual production is about 90
million tonnes of castings worth about
250 billion US$
• About 2 million people are working in
the foundries globally.
 FOUNDRY INDUSTRY

• First foundry was set up in China during

the Shang dynasty about 3500 years ago.
• First cast iron foundry was established in
England by Abraham Darby in 1709 AD.
• John Wilkinson of England obtained a
Patent on cupola furnace in the year 1794
AD.
 FOUNDRY INDUSTRY IN INDIA

• Castings were made in the Indus Valley

Civilization in the middle ages.
• Presently there are about 4500
foundries in India.
• India’s annual production exceeds
about 7 million tons of castings.
• India ranks fourth in the world in terms
of annual production.
• India’s annual production is about 15
billion US$.
 FOUNDRY INDUSTRY
• Global average casting productivity: 34
tons/man.year.
• Casting productivity in Japan: 97
tons/man.year.
• Casting productivity in India: 16
tons/man.year
 Patternmaking :
In pattern making, a physical model
of casting, i.e. a pattern is used to
make the mold. The mold is made
by packing some readily formed
aggregated materials, like molding
sand, around the pattern. After the
pattern is withdrawn, its imprint
leaves the mold cavity that is
ultimately filled with metal to
become the casting.
n case, the castings is required to
be hollow, such as in the case of
pipe fittings, additional patterns,
known as cores, are used to
develop these cavities.
 Patent practices
• Also called lost-wax process
• First used 4000 – 3000 BC
• The pattern is made of wax or of a plastic by molding or
rapid prototyping techniques
• Term investment derives from the fact that the pattern is
invested with the refractory material
• Need careful handling because they are not strong
enough to withstand the forces involved in mold making
• Wax can be recovered and reused
 Types of Patterns
• Types of patterns used in sand casting: (a) solid
pattern, (b) split pattern, (c) match-plate pattern,
(d) cope and drag pattern
 Patterns Materials
• Properties:-
– Easy to work, shape and join
– Strong hard and durable to resist wear
– Light in weight
– Dimensionally stable
– Cheap and easily available
– Resistant to corrosion and chemical action
– Able to take good finish
 Patterns Materials
• Factor considered for selection of Pattern
Material:-
– Number of casting to be produced
– Shape, complexity and size of the casting
– Degree of accuracy and surface finish required
– Design of casting
– Casting method to be used
 Different Patterns Materials
• Wood:-
– It is most commonly used material for making patterns.
– Most economical, readily available strong and durable.
– It can work easily.
– Can join by glue no need to use nails or screws.
– It can be repaired easily.
– Ex: sal, walnut, sheesham, pine, deodar, mahagony
etc.
 Different Patterns Materials
• Metals:-
– It is used when number of casting is very large.
– It hold dimensions, do not wrap and not affected by
moisture and are more wear resistant.
– It is expensive compared and heavier to wooden
patterns.
– Ex-Aluminium, cast iron, brass and mild steel.
– Al have advantage of light weight.
– Cast iron is strong, resistant to abrasion.
– Brass is strong, take god surface finish and can resist
abrasive action of sand but heavier and costlier.
 Different Patterns Materials
• Plastics:-
– They are intermediate between wood and metal.
– They can be cast in plaster mould and finished easily.
– They have reasonably good wear resistance, and not
affected by moisture.
– Due to its glossy surface, it can be withdrawn very
easily.
– They are mainly use when production volume is large
but not as large enough to use metal patterns.
– Min disadvantage is that it needs metal reinforcement
for light section.
 Different Patterns Materials
• Plaster:-
– Plaster of paris or gypsum is also used for making
patterns and core box.
– It can prepared by pouring the plaster slurry in mould
prepared with the help of a master pattern.
– Main advantage of plaster is that it expand on
solidification, so no need to provide shrinkage.
• Some other disposable patterns are also used in
some special processes like
– Wax
– Mercury
– Polystyrene
• CORE MAKING
• Core
• is a body made of refractory material (sand or metal,
metal cores being less frequently used), which is set
into the prepared mould before closing and pouring it,
for forming through holes, recesses, projections,
undercuts and internal cavities.
• Core Prints.
• Core prints are the projections on a pattern and are
used to make recesses (core seats) in the mould to
locate the core
• Core made of sand aggregates
• Possess:
• Strength
• Permeability
• Ability to withstand heat
• Collapsibility
– Anchored by core points
– Chaplets are used to keep the core from moving
 Gating System
• The main elements needed for the gating
system are as follows
– Pouring basin : This is otherwise called as bush or cup. It is
circular or rectangular in shape. It collects the molten metal,
which is poured, from the ladle.
– Sprue : It is circular in cross section. It leads the molten metal
from the pouring basin to the sprue well.
– Sprue Well : It changes the direction of flow of the molten metal
to right angle and passes it to the runner.
– Runner : The runner takes the molten metal from sprue to the
casting. Ingate: This is the final stage where the molten metal
moves from the runner to the mold cavity.
– Slag trap : It filters the slag when the molten metal moves from
the runner and ingate. It is also placed in the runner.
 Types of Gating Systems
• Horizontal Gating System : This is used most widely. This type is
normally applied in ferrous metal's sand casting and gravity die-
casting of non-ferrous metals. They are used for flat casting, which
are filled under gravity.
• Vertical Gating System : This is applied in tall castings were high-
pressure sand mold, shell mold and die-casting processes are done.
• Top Gating System : this is applied in places where the hot metal is
poured form the top of the casting. It helps directional solidification
of the casting from top to bottom. It suits only flat castings to limit the
damage of the metal during the initial filling.
• Bottom Gating System : it is used in tall castings where the molten
metal enters the casting through the bottom.
• Middle Gating System : It has the characteristics of both the top
and bottom.
 Casting practices
• Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid
material is usually poured into a mould, which contains a
hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify.
• The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is
ejected or broken out of the mould to complete the
process.
• Casting is most often used for making complex shapes
that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to
make by other methods.
 Sand Casting
• Sand casting, the most widely used casting process,
utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal
parts that can be made of nearly any alloy.
• Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to
remove the part, called the casting, sand casting
typically has a low production rate.
• The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace,
metal, pattern, and sand mold. The metal is melted in the
furnace and then ladled and poured into the cavity of the
sand mold, which is formed by the pattern. The sand
mold separates along a parting line and the solidified
casting can be removed.
 Process cycle
1. Mold-making
2. Clamping
3. Pouring
4. Cooling
5. Removal
6. Trimming
 Types of Casting
• Molten materials which solidify on
cooling
– Metals, ceramics, glasses
• Liquids which solidify by reactions with
light, activators/hardeners or moisture
– Plastics
• Slurries which solidify by the extraction
of the suspending medium (usually
water)
– Ceramics
 Casting Fundamentals for
Molten Material
• Factors affecting solidification
characteristics from the molten state:
– Fluidity
• Flow of molten material into the cavity
– Heat transfer effects
• During solidification and cooling
– Solidification effects
– Influence of the type of mould material
Kalpakjian p 265
 Fluidity of Molten Metal

• Fluidity is dependent on:

– Characteristics of the fluid
– Casting parameters
 Fluidity - Characteristics of the
fluid
• Basically, Fluidity is the ability of the
liquid to flow into the mould

If these increase:
• Temperature sensitivity of
then
viscosity Fluidity Reduces
• Surface tension
• Inclusions
• Freezing range

Kalpakjian pp 274-275
 Theory of Fluid Flow
• Theory has three components:
– Bernoulli's theorem
– Continuity law
– Laminar vs turbulent flow

Kalpakjian pp 272-275
 Bernoulli's theorem

v2
p
h + ---- + ---- = constant
g 2g
where h is the elevation above a reference plane, p is the pressure at
that elevation, v is the velocity of the liquid at that elevation,  is the
density of the liquid and g is the gravitational constant
 Continuity Law
For an incompressible liquid:

• Av = constant, called the flow rate

where A is the cross sectional area and v is the velocity
 Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow
• Laminar flow is preferred
– Reynolds number (Re) less than 2000
• Turbulent flow (Re >4,000) can cause
air entrapment and dross (oxide)
formation
– results in defects
Re = VD/
where V and D are a fluid characteristic
velocity and distance;  is density and  is
viscosity.
 Parts of casting mould to be
included in fluid flow analysis
• Pouring basin
– where the molten metal enters the mould
• Gating system
– connects the pouring basin to the rest of
the mould through
• Sprue (connects the pouring basin to the
runners)
• Runners (carry the molten metal to the mould)
• Risers
– act as reservoirs to supply molten material
as it solidifies and shrinks
 Fluidity - Casting parameters

• Mould design
• Mould material
• Mould surface characteristics
• Degree of superheat
• Rate of pouring
• Heat transfer

Kalpakjian p 275
 Casting Fundamentals for
Molten Material
• Factors affecting solidification
characteristics from the molten state
– Fluidity
• Flow of molten material into the cavity
– Heat transfer effects
• During solidification and cooling
– Solidification effects
– Influence of the type of mould material
Kalpakjian p 265
 Heat Transfer
• Very complex phenomenon
• Very simple process
– A cold mould extracts heat from the melt
causing it to solidify
• Critical to design of mould
• Can compute a relative time for
solidification

Kalpakjian p 275
 Heat Transfer - solidification
time
• Solidification time is proportional to the
square of the volume divided by the
surface area
– A sphere will have a much longer
solidification time than a complex shape of
the same volume
 Effect of Cooling Rate
– Rate of cooling is critical for the structure of
the material and hence its properties
• Slow cooling (~0.1K/s) gives large grain sizes
• Fast cooling (~10 K/s) gives small grain sizes
• Very fast cooling rates (>10 K/s) produce
amorphous materials
– Implications:-
• Should design artifact to be thin and not
massive
• Require "chills" to control cooling rate
 Casting Fundamentals for
Molten Material
• Factors affecting solidification
characteristics from the molten state
– Fluidity
• Flow of molten material into the cavity
– Heat transfer effects
• During solidification and cooling
– Solidification effects
– Influence of the type of mould material
Kalpakjian p 265
 Solidification Effects

• This is where the material becomes

important
– Plastics
• Not as critical as for metals
– Semiconductors
• Specialty crystal growing
• Single crystal so no microstructures
– Glass
• No microstructure (amorphous)
Kalpakjian pp 263-277
 Solidification Effects - Metals

• Molten metal solidification events

depend on the type of material
– Pure metals
– Alloy
 Solidification of Pure Metals
• Solidification occurs at one temperature
• Solidification occurs from the mould
walls to the center in a plane front
• Grains tend to be equiaxed in the centre
of the casting, but grow outward from
the mould wall in a columnar structure
• Nucleation agents can cause a more
equiaxed structure (more uniform grains
and size distribution)
 Solidification of Alloys

• Eutectics behave similarly to pure

metals
• Cast grain structure depends on phase
diagram
Copper-Nickel Phase Diagram

Kalpakjian p 120
 Solidification of Alloys
• Alloys with liquidus and solidus temperatures have a
physical “mushy zone”
• “Mushy zone” has solid particles and liquid co-existing
• Solid particles tend to be dendritic (tree like) in nature
that grow from the mould wall
• Microstructure highly dependent on cooling rate
• Freezing range is the temperature difference between
the liquidus and solidus temperatures
• Ferrous alloys tend to have small freezing ranges
• Aluminium and magnesium alloys tend to have wide
freezing ranges
 Crystallization Phenomena

Kalpakjian p 267
 Why is solidification so
important for metals?
• The solidification events determine the
microstructure of the product:
– Grain size
– Grain distribution
– Grain morphology
– Grain boundaries
– Grain composition
– Porosity content and type
 Influence of grain size and
microporosity

• Strength and
If these decrease: then Ductility increase
• Grain size • Cracking tendency
• Microporosity decreases

Kalpakjian p 269
 Structure-Property
• Relationships
Slow cooling- uniform composition
• Normal cooling- micro and macro
segregation
• Microsegregation
– Segregation of alloying elements within the
grains or dendrites
– Dendrite surface has higher concentration
of alloying elements than core
• Macrosegregation
– Segregation of alloying elements across
the casting itself
 Structure-Property
• Relationships
Types of macrosegregration
– Normal
• Constituents with lower melting temperature are
driven away from the mould wall to leave a higher
concentration at casting center
– Inverse
• Melt enters the cavities among the dendrites
formed at the surface
– Gravity
• Heavy elements sink to the bottom
• Macrosegregation gives rise to
inhomogeneous microstructures and
Avoidance of Macrosegregation
• Use
– Nucleation agents
– Create more grains and better chemical
homogeneity by mechanical means
• Rheocasting - stir the metal while it is in the
mushy zone
• Vibration
• Electromagnetic stirring
Solidification Effects - Shrinkage
• The metal shrinks as it cools
– in the melt
– as it solidifies as a solid (largest)
Volume Solid Contraction of some metals:
Aluminium 6.6%
Carbon Steel 2.5-3%
Copper 4.9%
Gray iron -2.55

Kalpakjian p 279
Impact of Shrinkage on mould
Design
• Dimensions of mould
• moulds must be constructed to be larger
than the final product because the metal
shrinks as it cools
– Patternmakers ruler
• Warpage due to differential shrinkage
• Defects due to induced stresses
• Porosity
 Part Porosity
• Caused by shrinkage or gases
• Detrimental to the strength and ductility
of the metal, the surface finish and
pressure integrity of the part
 Shrinkage Porosity
• Caused by differential cooling
• Thin sections cool faster than thick
sections leading to too little material in
the thick sections
• When the thick sections begin to
solidify, porosity develops due to the
lack of feed metal which is often cut off
by already solidified thin sections
• mould designers avoid this by the use of
chills and proper flow channels and riser
placement
 Gas Porosity
• Liquid metals have greater solubility for
gases than solid metals
• Any gas in the melt appears as
spherical cavities
• Melt treatment must include various
degassification processes
• Can also have gases arising from
reactions (melt - mould)
 List of other defect classes
• Projections
– fins, flash, swells (massive), rough
surfaces
• Cavities
– internal, exposed, blowholes, pinholes
• Discontinuities
– cracks, cold and hot tearing, cold shuts
• Defective surface
– folds, laps, scars, adhering sand, oxide
scale See Kalpakjian pp 279-281

• Incomplete casts
 Casting Fundamentals for
Molten Material
• Factors affecting solidification
characteristics from the molten state
– Fluidity
• Flow of molten material into the cavity
– Heat transfer effects
• During solidification and cooling
– Solidification effects
– Influence of the type of mould material

Kalpakjian p 265
Influence of the mould material
• Mould material impacts on:
– the heat transfer rate
– the surface finish
– the number of and hence grain size of the
microstructure
• Selection of the mould material is
strongly influenced by the process
 Melting and Pouring
• Melting:
– Different types of furnaces are used in foundry for
melting of metals depending upon the metal to be
melted, quality of metal desired, types of fuel
available and production volume.
– These furnaces essentially consist of a refractory
lined chamber which contains the heat and the
molten metal.
– The heat required for melting is obtained by
burning a solid or liquid fuel, electric arc, electric
resistance or induction.
 Melting and Pouring
• Pouring
– Pouring of molten metal into the mould is carried
out with the help of several types of containers
known as ladles.
– Usually, the molten metal from the furnace is first
collected in a large receiving bucket or pit from
where it is distributed to smaller ladles.
– Pouring of the metal into the mould required
careful control. Pouring should be done
continuously, at uniform rate till the riser is full
– During pouring care should be taken to see that
slag does not enter the mould otherwise defective
casting will produce
 Cupola Furnace
• For many years, the cupola was the primary method
of melting used in iron foundries. The cupola furnace
has several unique characteristics which are
responsible for its widespread use as a melting unit
for cast iron.

• Cupola furnace is employed for melting scrap metal

or pig iron for production of various cast irons. It is
also used for production of nodular and malleable
cast iron. It is available in good varying sizes. The
main considerations in selection of cupolas are
melting capacity, diameter of shell without lining or
with lining, spark arrester.
• Shape
• A typical cupola melting furnace consists of a water-
cooled vertical cylinder which is lined with refractory
material.
• Construction
• The construction of a conventional cupola consists of
a vertical steel shell which is lined with a refractory
brick.
• The charge is introduced into the furnace body by
means of an opening approximately half way up the
vertical shaft.
• The charge consists of alternate layers of the metal
to be melted, coke fuel and limestone flux.
• The fuel is burnt in air which is introduced through
tuyeres positioned above the hearth. The hot gases
generated in the lower part of the shaft ascend and
preheat the descending charge.
 Crucible Furnace
• Crucible furnace is for the melting of non ferrous
metals.
• Its capacity may range from 30 to 150 kg.
• The types of crucible furnace are:
1) Pit furnace
2) Coke fired stationery furnace
3) Oil fired tilting furnace
4) Pot furnace
 Crucible Furnace
• Crucible furnace is for the melting of non ferrous
metals.
• Its capacity may range from 30 to 150 kg.
• The types of crucible furnace are:
1) Pit furnace
2) Coke fired stationery furnace
3) Oil fired tilting furnace
4) Pot furnace
 Crucible Furnace
1) PIT FURNACE
• The crucible is placed in a pit below the floor
level, it is fired with coke.
• The charge to be melted is placed in crucible;
coke is packed around the crucible. Natural
draft is provided by a tall chimney.
• Many crucibles can be placed in a single pit.
• After the metal is melted, the covers are
removed, the crucibles are lift out with the
help of tongs and taken to pouring placed.
• This furnace is used for melting non ferrous
metals.
Crucible Furnace
 Crucible Furnace
2) COKE FIRED STATIONERY FURNACE
• This furnace is used for melting non ferrous
metals in small quantity.
• This furnace is placed above the floor level.
• The crucible is placed in the heating chamber.
• The heating chamber is lined
with refractories.
• Coke is used as fuel.
• Forced draft is used.
• A blower is used for supply of air.
 Crucible Furnace
3) OIL FIRED TILTING FURNACE
• This furnace is used for melting non ferrous metals in
small quantity and is fired by oil.
• This furnace is mounted on two pedestals above the
floor level.
• For pouring the molten metal, the furnace is rotated
by the geared hand wheel.
• Oil and air are admitted with pressure through a
nozzle.
• The crucible is placed in the heating chamber and is
heated by the flame.
• The furnace can be stopped
 Crucible Furnace
4) POT FURNACE
• Pot furnace is used for melting non ferrous
metals like aluminum, magnesium, tin, lead etc.
• The pot is made up of cast iron or steel.
• The furnace may be fired by gasoline oil or coke.
• The molten metal is taken out of the pot furnace by
using ladles.
• Normally the capacity of pot furnace is around 500
kg.
POT FURNACE
 Electric arc Furnace
Typical Uses
• Metal Recycling
• Used to reclaim iron, nickel and cobalt alloy
• Scrap is generally 100% of the charge
• With computer control is used to separate various
mixed scrap to specific compositions
 Arc Furnace
Benefits:
• Cost per ton of final product is less
(taking into account all expendables)

• Can melt almost any type of metallic scrap

• Good for smaller production runs requiring
less capacity.
Basic Electric Arc Furnace
 Current Carrying Capacity
Nominal Diameter Electrode Type

mm inch Regular Power High Power Ultra High Power

75 3 1,000 ~ 1,400

100 4 1,500 ~ 2,400

150 6 3,000 ~ 4,500

200 8 5,000 ~ 6,900 5,400 ~ 9,000

250 10 7,000 ~ 10,000 8,000 ~ 12,000

300 12 10,000 ~ 13,000 13,000 ~ 17,400 18,000 ~ 22,000

350 14 13,500 ~ 18,000 17,400 ~ 24,000 20,000 ~ 30,000

400 16 18,000 ~ 23,500 21,000 ~ 31,000 25,000 ~ 40,000

450 18 22,000 ~ 27,000 25,000 ~ 40,000 32,000 ~ 45,000

500 20 25,000 ~ 32,000 30,000 ~ 48,000 38,000 ~ 55,000