CASTING PROCESSES

CASTING PROCESSES

AIM
To extend the students understanding of Casting Process available
in the manufacturing industry.

OBJECTIVES
Student will be able to:
- Know what is casting process
- Know the existence of various casting processes
- Distinguish between different casting processes
- Know when to use casting processes
•INTRODUCTION

•HISTORY BACKGROUND

•CASTING PROCESSES

•EXPENDABLE MOULD

•PERMANENT MOULD

•WHEN TO USE CASTING PROCESSES

INTRODUCTION
What Is Casting?
Shaping of molten metal into a solid form.
Pouring molten metal into a prepared cavity and allowing it to solidify.
Molten metal is poured (teemed) from the ladle into a mould in which
the metal solidifies.

Ingot Molten Metal Mold

Examples of Components Being Cast.
 Advantages of Casting

• Complex shapes
• Parts can have hollow sections or cavities
• Very large parts
• Intricate shaping of metals that are difficult
to machine
• Different mold materials can be used
– Sand, metal, or ceramics
• Different pouring methods
 Basic Requirements of Casting
Processes
• Six basic steps of casting
– 1. Mold cavity is produced having the desired
shape and size of the part
• Takes shrinkage into account
• Single-use or permanent mold
– 2. Melting process
• Provides molten material at the proper temperature
– 3. Pouring technique
• Molten metal is poured into the mold at a proper rate to
ensure that erosion and or defects are minimized
 Six Basic Steps of Casting
• 4. Solidification process
– Controlled solidification allows the product to have desired
properties
– Mold should be designed so that shrinkage is controlled
• 5. Mold removal
– The casting is removed from the mold
• Single-use molds are broken away from the casting
• Permanent molds must be designed so that removal does
not damage the part
• 6. Cleaning, finishing, and inspection operations
– Excess material along parting lines may have to be
machined
 Casting Terminology
• Pattern- approximate duplicate of the part to be
cast
• Molding material- material that is packed around
the pattern to provide the mold cavity
• Flask- rigid frame that holds the molding aggregate
• Cope- top half of the pattern
• Drag- bottom half of the pattern
• Core- sand or metal shape that is inserted into the
mold to create internal features
 Casting Terminology
• Mold cavity- combination of the mold material and
cores
• Riser-additional void in the mold that provides
additional metal to compensate for shrinkage
• Gating system- network of channels that delivers the
molten metal to the mold
• Pouring cup- portion of the gating system that
controls the delivery of the metal
• Sprue- vertical portion of the gating system
• Runners- horizontal channels
• Gates- controlled entrances
 Casting Terminology
• Parting line- separates
the cope and drag
• Draft- angle or taper on
a pattern that allows
for easy removal of the
casting from the mold
• Casting- describes
both the process and
the product when
molten metal is poured Figure 11-2 Cross section of a typical two-part sand
mold, indicating various mold components and
and solidified terminology.
 CASTING PROCESSES

Shaping of molten metal into a solid form.

Pouring molten metal into a prepared cavity

and allowing it to solidify.

Molten metal is poured (teemed) from the

ladle into a mould in which the metal
solidifies.
 There are two categories:
• Expendable Mould.
It is made of sand, plaster, ceramics and similar
materials, which generally are mixed with various
BINDERS OR BONDING AGENTS. These materials are
refractories; that is, they have the capability to withstand
the high temperatures of molten metals. After casting
has solidified, the moulds in these processes are broken
up to remove the casting.
• Permanent Mould.
These moulds are used repeatedly and are designed so
that the casting can be easily removed and the mould
reused. These moulds are made of metals that maintain
their strength at high temperatures and thus can be used
repeatedly. In permanent mould casting, two halves of a
mould is made from materials such as cast iron, steel,
bronze, refractory metal alloys, or graphite
Expendable Mould.
• SAND CASTING
• It is used to make large parts (typically Iron, but
also Bronze, Brass, Aluminum). Molten metal is
poured into a mold cavity formed out of sand
(natural or synthetic). The usual sand that they
use is GREEN SAND. It consists of silica sand
and additives coated by rubbing the sand
grains together with clay uniformly wetted with
water. More stable and refractory sands have
been developed such as fused silica, zircon,
and mullite, which replace lower-cost silica
sand and have only 2% linear expansion at
ferrous metal temperature. Also, relatively
unstable water and clay bonds are being
replaced with synthetic resins, which are more
stable at elevated temperature.
• Green sand molding is used to produce a
wide variety of castings in sizes of less
than a pound to as large as several tons.
This versatile process is applicable to both
ferrous and nonferrous materials. It can be
used to produce intricate molds since it
provided rapid collapsibility. The sand is
rammed or compacted around the pattern
by variety of methods including hand or
pneumatic- tool ramming, jolting (abrupt
mechanical shaking), squeezing
(compressing the top and bottom mold
surfaces), and driving the sand into the
mold at high speed (sand slinging, this is
reserve for very large casting).
• For smaller casting a two-part metal box or flask
referred to as cope and drag is used. The process of
sand casting is as follows:
• 1. Pattern is position on a mold board and the drag or
lower half of the flask is position over it.
• 2. Parting powder is sprinkle on the pattern and the box
is filled with sand and compacted.
• 3. The flask is turned over and again parting powder is
dusted on it.
• 4. The cope is then positioned on the top half of the flask
and filled with sand and compacted.
• 5. The cope is removed from the drag, and the pattern is
carefully removed.
• 6. Then the molten metal is poured on the pouring basin.

• Sand castings generally have a rough surface

sometimes with surface impurities, and surface
variations. A machining (finish) allowance is made for
this type of defect.
Pattern
The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern (an approximate
duplicate of the real part), which are typically made out of wood,
sometimes metal.
Core is a sand shape inserted into the mold to produce the internal
features of the part such as holes or internal passages.
Draft is design on the pattern.
Sprues, Runners and Riser

Gate system.
• SHELL MOLDING
• This process offers
• (i) better surface finish
• (ii) better dimensional tolerances,
• (iii) higher throughput due to reduced cycle
times.
• The Process:
• A heated (200 °C /392 °F) metal pattern is
covered with a mixture of sand and thermoset
plastic. This causes a skin of about 3.5 mm
(0.125 in) of sand/plastic mixture to adhere to the
pattern. This skin is removed from the pattern to
form the “shell mold”. The two halves of the shell
mold are secured together and the metal is
poured in the shell to form the part. Once the
metal solidifies, the shell is broken.
• This process can produce:
(i) complex parts with good surface finish
1.25 m to 3.75 m
(ii) dimensional tolerance of 0.5 %.
(iii) Size limits of 30 g to 12 kg (1 oz to 25Ib).
(iv) Minimum thicknesses can be as low as
1.5 mm (0.062 in) to 6.25 mm (0.25 in),
depending on the material.
• A good surface finish and good size
tolerance reduce the need for machining.
• A fairly high capital investment is required, but
high production rates can be achieved. The
process overall is quite cost effective due to
reduced machining and cleanup costs.
• The materials that can be used with this process
are:
• cast irons
• aluminum and
• copper alloys.
• Typical parts made with this process are
connecting rods, gear housings, lever arms
etc.
• FULL-MOLD CASTING (Evaporative pattern casting
or Lost foam or Lost pattern)
• It is a technique similar to investment casting, but instead
of wax as the expendable material, polystyrene foam is
used as the pattern. The foam pattern is coated with a
refractory material such as a mixture of sand, bonding
agent and water. The pattern is encased in a one-piece
sand mold. As the metal is poured, the foam vaporizes,
and the metal takes its place. This can make complex
shaped castings without any draft or flash. However, the
pattern cost can be high due to the expendable nature of
the pattern.
• Minimum wall thicknesses are 2.5 mm
• Tolerances can be held to 0.3 % on dimensions.
• Surface finish can be held from 2.5µm to 25µm.
• Size limits are from 400 g (1 Ib) to several tons.
• No draft allowance is required.
• Typical materials that can be cast with this
process:
• (i) aluminum
• (ii) iron
• (iii) steels
• (iv) nickel alloys
• (v) copper alloys.
• Types of parts that can be made using
these processes are pump housings,
manifolds, and auto brake components.
FULL-MOLD CASTING (Evaporative pattern casting or Lost
foam or Lost pattern)
• PLASTER-MOULD CASTING
• In this casting, a plaster, usually gypsum or
calcium sulfate, is mixed with talc, sand, asbestos,
and sodium silicate and water to form a slurry. This
slurry is sprayed on the polished surfaces of the
pattern halves (usually brass). The slurry sets in
less than 15 minutes to form the mold. The mold
halves are extracted carefully from the pattern, and
then dried in an oven.
• The mold halves are carefully assembled, along
with the cores. The molten metal is poured in the
molds. After the metals cools down, the plaster is
broken and the cores washed out.
• Parts cast are usually:
• (i)small to medium size, ranging in weight from 30 g
(1 oz) to 7 kg (15 Ib).
• (ii) Thickness can be as small as 0.6 mm (0.025 in)
and tolerances are 0.2 % linear.
• (iii) The draft allowance is 0.5-1.0 degree.
• (iv) The surface finish is 1 .25 µm to 3 µm
• Low temperature melting materials can be cast
using this process such as:
• (i) aluminum,
• (ii) copper,
• (iii) magnesium and
• (iv) zinc.

This process is used to make quick prototype

parts as well as limited production parts.
PLASTER-MOULD CASTING
• CERAMIC-MOULD CASTING (Cope-and Drag
Investment Casting)
• Similar to plaster mold casting, the pattern used
in ceramic mold casting is made of plaster,
plastic, wood, metal or rubber. A slurry of fine-
grained zircon, aluminium oxide and fused silica
which are mixed with bonding agents is poured
over the pattern which as been placed in a flask.
It hardens rapidly and this can be peeled of the
pattern, reassembled as a mold. The volatiles
are removed using a flame torch or in a low
temperature oven, It is then baked in a furnace
at about 1000 °C (1832 °F) yielding a ceramic
mold, capable of high temperature pours.
Additionally, the pour can take place while the
mold is until hot.
• Tolerances can be held to 0.4 %,
• surface finishes can be better than 2 - 4 µm. Add
0.3 mm (.012 in) for parting line tolerances.
• Wall thickness can be as small as 1.25 mm (.050
in), and the
• weights can range from 60 g (2oz) to a ton.
• Draft allowance of 1° is recommended.
• This process is expensive, but can eliminate
secondary machining operations. Typical parts
made from this process include impellers made
from stainless steel, bronze, complex cutting
tools, plastic mold tooling.
CERAMIC-MOULD CASTING (Cope-and Drag Investment Casting)
• INVESTMENT CASTING (Lost-Wax Process)
• This process is one of the oldest manufacturing
processes. The Egyptians used it in the time of the
Pharaohs to make gold jewelry (hence the name
Investment) some 5,000 years ago. Intricate shapes
can be made with high accuracy. In addition, metals
that are hard to machine or fabricate are good
candidates for this process. It can be used to make
parts that cannot be produced by normal
manufacturing techniques, such as turbine blades
that have complex shapes, or airplane parts that
have to withstand high temperatures.
• The mold is made by making a pattern using wax or some
other material that can be melted away. This wax pattern is
dipped in refractory slurry such as very fine silica and
binders, ethyl silicate and acids, which coats the wax pattern
and forms a skin. This is dried and the process of dipping in
the slurry and drying is repeated until a robust thickness is
achieved. The term investment comes from investing the
pattern with the refractory material. After this, the entire
pattern is placed in an oven, heated to a temperature of
90°C — 175°C for about 4 hours and the wax is melted
away. A number of patterns can be joined to make one mold
called a tree, thus increasing the production rate. This leads
to a mold that can be filled with the molten metal. Because
the mold is formed around a one- piece pattern, (which does
not have to be pulled out from the mold as in a traditional
sand casting process), very intricate parts and undercuts
can be made. The wax pattern itself is made by duplicating
using a stereo lithography or similar model-which has been
fabricated using a computer solid model master.
• Just before the pour, the mold is pie-heated to
about 1000 °C (1832 °F) to remove any
residues of wax, harden the binder. The pour
in the pie-heated mold also ensures that the
mold will fill completely. Pouring can be done
using gravity, pressure or vacuum conditions.
Attention must be paid to mold permeability
when using pressure, to allow the air to
escape as the pour is done.
 This process can produce:
• Tolerances of 0.5 % of length are routinely possible, and as low as
0.15 % is possible for small dimensions.
• Castings can weigh from a few grams to 35 kg (0,1 oz to 80 lb),
although the normal size ranges from 200 g to about 8kg (7 oz to 15
Ib).
• Normal minimum wall thicknesses are about 1 mm to about 0.5 mm
(0.040-0.020 in) for alloys that can be cast easily.

The types of materials that can be cast are:-

• Aluminum alloys,
• Bronzes,
• Tool steels,
• Stainless steels,
• Stellite,
• Hastelloys, and
• Precious metals.
• Parts made with investment castings often do not require any further
machining, because of the close tolerances that can be achieved.
PERMANENT MOULD
• Instead of using sand as the mold material, a metal
is used as a mold. Typically cast iron or Meehanite
(a dense cast iron) is used as the mold material and
the cores are made from metal or sand. Cavity
surfaces are coated with a thin layer of heat
resistant material such as clay or sodium silicate.
• The molds are pre-heated up to 200 °C (392 °F)
before the metal is poured into the cavity. The cavity
design for these molds do not follow the same rules
for shrinkage as in sand casting molds, due to the
fact that the metal molds heat up and expand during
the pour, so the cavity do not need to be expanded
as much as in the sand castings. However, care has
to be taken to ensure proper thermal balance, by
using external water cooling or appropriate radiation
techniques.
• Permanent mold castings, while not as
flexible as sand castings in allowing the use
of different patterns (different part designs),
lower the cost of producing a part. At a
production run of 1000 or more parts,
permanent mold castings produce a lower
piece cost part. Of course, the break-even
point depends on the complexity of the part.
More complex parts being favored by the use
of permanent molds.
• The usual considerations of minimum wall
thicknesses (such as 3mm for lengths under 75
mm), radius (inside radius = nominal wall thickness,
outside radius = 3 x nominal wall thickness), draft
angles (1 to 3° on outside surfaces, 2 to 5° on
inside surfaces) etc all apply. Typical tolerances
are 2 % of linear dimensions. Surface finish ranges
from 2.5 pm to 7.5 pm (100 pin to 250 pin).
• Typical part sizes range from 50 g to 70 kg (1.5
ounces to 150 Ib). Typical materials used are small
and medium sized parts made from aluminum,
magnesium and brass and their alloys. Typical
parts include gears, splines, wheels, gear
housings, pipefittings, fuel injection housings, and
automotive engine pistons.
Products of Permanent Mould
Products of Permanent Mould
• SLUSH CASTING
• It is a special type of permanent mold
casting, where the molten metal is not
allowed to completely solidify. The molten
metal is poured into the mold. After the
desired wall thickness is obtained, the not
yet solidified molten metal is poured out by
inverting or slung the mold. The mold
halves are then opened and the casting is
removed. The process is suitable for
small production and this is useful for
making hollow ornamental objects such
as candlesticks, lamps, statues etc.
SLUSH CASTING
• PRESSURE CASTING (Low Pressure
Casting)
• Low Pressure Permanent Mold Casting is yet
another variation of the permanent mold casting.
Here, instead of using gravity to assist in the
metal pour and flow in the mold, a low pressure
of up to 1 atmosphere gas is applied to the
molten metal. This maintenance of pressure on
the melt causes complete fill of the mold and
compensates for any shrinkage on cooling. Thin
wall castings can be made. Mechanical
properties are about 5 % superior to permanent
mold casting. Since no riser is used (unlike a
regular casting), the yield is generally higher
since the metal in the pressurized feed tube is
still molten and the mold is ready for the next
shot right away.
PRESSURE CASTING (Low Pressure Casting)
• DIE CASTING
• It involves the injection of liquid metal into a
multipart die under high pressure of 10-
2lOMpa (1,450-30,500) psi. Pneumatically
actuated dies make the process almost
completely automated. Die-casting is best
known for its ability to produce high quality
products at very low unit costs. Very high
production rates offset the cost of the complex
heat-resisting tooling required; and with low
labor costs, overall casting costs are quite
attractive.
• Aluminum, Zinc and Copper alloys are the
materials predominantly used in die-casting. On the
other hand, pure Aluminum is rarely cast due to
high shrinkage, and susceptibility to hot cracking. It
is alloyed with Silicon, which increases melt fluidity,
reduces machinability. Copper is another alloying
element, which increases hardness, reduces
ductility, and reduces corrosion resistance. These
alloys can be die cast because they exhibit rapid
freezing, which is needed to complement the
process’s fast cycle times. Extremely rapid cooling
rates (dies are normally water cooled) results in
very fine grain sizes and good mechanical
properties.
• Highly intricate copper alloy products can
be made by die casting. Dimensional
accuracy and part to-part consistency are
unsurpassed in both small (<1 in, 25 mm)
and large castings. The attainable surface
finish, often as good as 30 gin (0.76 [ rms,
is better than with any other casting
process. Die casting is ideally suited to
the mass production of small parts.
Typical parts made by die casting are
carburetors, hand tools, toys and
motors.
• Hot-Chamber Process
• In a hot chamber process the pressure chamber
is connected to the die cavity is immersed
permanently in the molten metal. The inlet port
of the pressurizing cylinder is uncovered as the
plunger moves to the open (unpressurized)
position. This allows a new charge of molten
metal to fill the cavity and thus can fill the cavity
faster than the cold chamber process. The hot
chamber process is used for metals of low
melting point and high fluidity such as tin, zinc,
and lead that tend not to alloy easily with steel at
their melt temperatures.
Cold-Chamber Process
In a cold chamber process, the molten
metal is ladled into the cold chamber for
each shot. There is less time exposure of the
melt to the plunger walls or the plunger, This
is particularly useful for metals such as
Aluminum, and Copper (and its alloys) that
alloy easily with Iron at the higher
temperatures.
Die Casting Advantages
• High volume at high speed
• Duplicates intricate design details
• No pattern
• Long mold life: ~100,000 cycles
www.incastinc.com

www.aluminum.org
www.kurt.com
Die Casting Limitations
• Complex and large machinery: expensive
• Molds (dies) machined from hardened tool steel: expensive
• Molds cannot take extreme heat so “melt” limited to low-melting point
alloys: zinc, copper, aluminum, and zinc-aluminum alloys.
• Effects of high pressure  limited part size

samkwangprecision.en.ec21.com

www.atplonline.com
Die (Mold) Design
- alignment pins
- “slides” make holes
perpendicular to die-separation
direction.

www.toolingtec.com

www.toolingtec.com

www.toolingtec.com
Die Casting:
part and runners

NADCA
 SQUEEZE CASTING
This casting process is also known as Liquid
Metal Forging, is a combination of casting and
forging process. This interesting process aims to
improve product quality by solidifying the casting
under a metallostatic pressure head sufficient to
(a) prevent the formation of shrinkage defects
and (b) retain dissolved gases in solution until
freezing is complete. This method was originally
developed in Russia and has undergone
considerable improvement in the U.S. It is
carded out in metal molds resembling, the punch
and die sets used in sheet metal forming.
The molten metal is poured into the bottom
half of the pre-heated die. As the metal
starts solidifying, the upper half (punch”
portion) closes the die and applies
pressure during the solidification process.
The amount of pressure thus applied is
significantly less than used in forging, and
parts of great detail can be produced.
Coring can be used with this process to
form holes and recesses. The porosity is
low and the mechanical properties are
improved.
Proponents of squeeze casting claim that it
produces very low gas entrapment and that
castings exhibit shrinkage volumes
approximately one half those seen in sand
castings. Very high production rates,
comparable to die casting but with
considerably lower die costs, are also
claimed. The process produces the high quality
surfaces typical of metal mold casting, with good
reproduction of detail. Rapid solidification results
in a fine grain size, which in mm improves
mechanical properties. It is claimed that squeeze
casting can be applied to many of the copper
alloys, although die and permanent mold casting
alloys should be favored. Both ferrous and non
ferrous materials can be produced using this
method.
SQUEEZE CASTING
• CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
• This casting process has been known for several
hundred years, but its evolution into a sophisticated
production method for other than simple shapes has
taken place only in this century.
• Today, very high quality castings of considerable
complexity are produced using this technique.
• To make a centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured
into a spinning mold (300 to 3000 rpm). The mold may
be oriented horizontally or vertically, depending on the
casting’s aspect ratio. Short, squat products are cast
vertically while long tubular shapes are cast horizontally.
In either case, centrifugal force holds the molten metal
against the mold wall until it solidifies. Carefully weighed
charges insure that just enough metal freezes in the
mold to yield the desired wall thickness. In some cases,
dissimilar alloys can be cast sequentially to produce a
composite structure. The inside diameter has more
impurities and inclusions, which can be machined away.
• Centrifugal castings are made in sizes ranging from
approximately 2 in to 12 ft (50 mm to 3.7 m) in diameter
and from a few inches to many yards in length. Size
limitations, if any, are likely as not based on the
foundry’s melt shop capacity. Simple-shaped centrifugal
castings are used for items such as pipe flanges and
valve components, while complex shapes can be cast
by using cores and shaped molds. Pressure-retaining
centrifugal castings have been found to be mechanically
equivalent to more costly forgings and extrusions.
Typical materials that can be cast with this process
are iron, steel, stainless steels, and alloys of
aluminum, copper and nickel. Two materials can be
cast by introducing a second material during the
process. Typical parts made by this process are pipes,
boilers, pressure vessels, flywheels, cylinder liners
and other parts that are axi-symmetric.
• Semi-Centrifugal Casting
• The molds used can be permanent or
expendable, can be stacked as necessary.
The rotational speeds are lower than those
used in centrifugal casting. The center axis of
the part has inclusion defects as well as
porosity and thus is suitable only for parts
where this can be machined away. This
process is used for making wheels, nozzles
and similar parts where the axis of the part is
removed by subsequent machining.
• Centrifuging
• Centrifuging is used for forcing metal from a
central axis of the equipment into individual
mold cavities that are placed on the
circumference. This provides a means of
increasing the filling pressure within each
mold and allows for reproduction of intricate
details. This method is often used for the
pouring of investment casting pattern.
Centrifugal casting as a category includes Centrifugal Casting, Semi-
Centrifugal Casting and Centrifuging.

Semi-Centrifugal Casting Centrifuging

• CONTINUOUS CASTING
• Continuous Casting is the process
whereby molten steel is solidified into a
“semifinished” billet, bloom, or slab for
subsequent rolling in the finishing mills.
Prior to the introduction of Continuous
Casting in the 1950s, steel was poured
into stationary molds to form “ingots”.
Since then, “continuous casting” has
evolved to achieve improved yield, quality,
productivity and cost efficiency
• Steel from the electric or basic oxygen furnace is
tapped into a ladle and taken to the continuous
casting machine. The ladle is raised onto a turret
that rotates the ladle into the casting position above
the tundish (pouring box). Referring to the figure
below liquid steel flows out of the ladle into the
tundish, and then into a water-cooled copper mold.
Solidification begins in the mold (solidification
occurs 20 to 30 s). the solidified shape is withdrawn
inch by inch by rolls that grips the section as it
emerges. Hollow rods or thick-walled tubing are
made by placing a graphite core centrally in the die
to a depth below the level at which solidification is
complete.
CONTINUOUS CASTING
Continuous Casting
Example of Typical Layout of Continuous casting in the Industry
Example of Continuous Cast Shapes (sizes in millimeters)
Different Casting Processes
Process Advantages Disadvantages Examples
Sand many metals, sizes, shapes, poor finish & engine blocks,
cheap tolerance cylinder heads
Shell mold better accuracy, finish, higher limited part size connecting rods,
production rate gear housings
Expendable Wide range of metals, sizes, patterns have low cylinder heads,
pattern shapes strength brake components
Plaster mold complex shapes, good surface non-ferrous metals, prototypes of
finish low production rate mechanical parts
Ceramic mold complex shapes, high small sizes impellers, injection
accuracy, good finish mold tooling
Investment complex shapes, excellent small parts, jewellery
finish expensive
Permanent good finish, low porosity, high Costly mold, simpler gears, gear
mold production rate shapes only housings
Die Excellent dimensional costly dies, small gears, camera
accuracy, high production rate parts, bodies, car wheels
non-ferrous metals
Centrifugal Large cylindrical parts, good Expensive, few pipes, boilers,
quality shapes flywheels
• WHEN TO USE CASTING PROCESSES.
• 1. Parts that require complex internal cavities such as
asymmetric parts or those that are quite inaccessible for
machining and also the cavities that are large and
necessitate considerable metal removal.
• 2. When a large number of parts are to be made out of
aluminium or zinc and have rather complex structures.
• 3. Parts requiring heavy, formed, cross-sectional areas.
Heavy sections can be fabricated if the part is relatively
simple, but forming poses many problems.
• 4. Castings allow bulk or metal mass to be placed
advantageously, as in machine bases.
• 5. Damping, both sound and mechanical, is often needed
in machine tools. Gray cast iron can provide this quality
better than any other metal.
 Casting Defects
that are common
to all casting
processes.
Misruns. A misrun is a casting that has solidified before
completely filling the mold cavity. Typical causes include (1)
fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient, (2) pouring
temperature is too low, (3) pouring is done too slowly,
and/or (4) cross section of the mold cavity is too thin.
Cold shut. A cold shut occurs when two portions of the
metal flow together, but there is a lack of fusion between
them due to premature freezing. Its causes are similar to
those of a misrun.
Cold shots. When splattering occurs during pouring, solid
globules of metal are formed that become entrapped in the
casting. Pouring procedures and gating system designs
that avoid splattering can prevent this defect.
Shrinkage cavity. This defect is a depression in the
surface or an internal void in the casting caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten
metal available in the last region to freeze. It often occurs
near the top of the casting, in which case it is referred to as
a pipe.The problem can often be solved by proper riser
design
Microporosity. This refers to a network of small voids
distributed throughout the casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the
dendritic structure. The defect is usually associated with
alloys, because of the protracted manner in which freezing
occurs in these metals.
Hot tearing. This defect, also called hot cracking, occurs when the casting is
restrained from contraction by an unyielding mold during the final stages of
solidification or early stages of codling after solidification. The defect is
manifested as a separation of the metal (hence the terms tearing or cracking)
at a point of high tensile stress caused by the metal's inability to shrink
naturally. In sand casting and other expendable mold processes, it is prevented
by compounding the mold to be collapsible. In permanent mold processes, hot
tearing is reduced by removing the part from the mold immediately after
freezing.
Some defects are related to the use
of sand molds, and therefore they
occur only in sand castings. To a
lesser degree, other expendable mold
processes are also susceptible to
these problems. Defects found
primarily in sand castings are shown
below
Sand blow. This defect consists of a balloon-shaped gas
cavity caused by release of mold gases during pouring. It
occurs at or below the casting surface near the top of
the casting. Low permeability, poor venting, and high
moisture content of the sand mold are the usual causes.
Pinholes. A defect similar to a sand blow involves the
formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly below the
surface of the casting.
Sand wash. A wash is an irregularity in the surface of the
casting that results from erosion of the sand mold during
pouring. The contour of the erosion is imprinted into the
surface of the final cast part.
Scabs. This is a rough area on the surface of the casting
due to encrustations of sand and metal. It is caused by
portions of the mold surface flaking off during solidification
and becoming embedded in the casting surface.
Penetration. When the fluidity of the liquid metal is high, it
may penetrate into the sand mold or sand core. After
freezing, the surface of the casting consists of a mixture of
sand grains and metal. Harder packing of the sand mold
helps to alleviate this condition.
Mold shift. This is manifested as a step in the cast product
at the parting line caused by sidewise displacement of the
cope with respect to the drag.
Core shift. A similar movement can happen with the core,
but the displacement is usually vertical. Core shift and mold
shift are caused by buoyancy of the molten metal
Mold crack. If mold strength is insufficient, a crack may
develop into which liquid metal can seap to form a fin on
the final casting.
Porosity in Castings

- Turbulent injection entraps air

- Many solutions but still a common problem

NADCA

www.vidisco.com www.eng.ysu.edu
Costs Comparison for Different Casting Processes
Casting process is not suitable for:
1. Parts that can be stamped out on a punch
press.
2. Parts that can be deep drawn.
3. Parts that can be made by extrusion.
4. Parts that can be made by cold-heading.
5. Parts made from highly reactive metals.
6. Parts fabricated by welding.
Summary of Casting Processes
Process Advantages Limitations
Expandable
Mould
Sand casting Almost any metal cast; no limit to Some finishing required; relatively
part size, shape, or weight; low coarse surface finish; wide
tooling cost tolerances

Shell molding Good dimensional accuracy and Part size limited; expensive patterns
surface finish; high production rate and equipment

Evaporative Most metals cast with no limit to Patterns have low strength and can
pattern size; complex part shapes be costly for low
quantities

Plaster mold Intricate part shapes; good Limited to nonferrous metals;

dimensional accuracy and surface limited part size and volume of
finish; low porosity production; mold-making time
relatively long

Ceramic mold Intricate part shapes; close-tolerance Limited part size

parts; good surface finish.

Investment Intricate part shapes; excellent Part size limited; expensive patterns,
surface finish and accuracy; almost molds, and labor
any metal cast
Permanent Good surface finish and dimensional High mold cost; limited part shape
mold accuracy; low porosity; high and complexity; not suitable for
production rate high-melting-point metals

Die Excellent dimensional accuracy and High die cost; limited part size;
surface finish; high production rate generally limited to nonferrous
metals; long lead time

Centrifugal Large cylindrical or tubular parts Expensive equipment; limited part

with good quality; high production shape
rate