Manufacturing processes

Metal casting

Metal Joining Machining Metal Forming

Metal Casting Processes

What is a Foundry?

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

A foundry is: a factory that pours molten metal into molds, producing cast metal objects. Casting is one of the oldest industrial processes There are different casting processes. The focus here is: GREEN SAND CASTING Some typical cast metal objects:
Aluminum pots

Engine blocks, axles

low tech

Turbine blades in jet engines

high tech

 CASTING Casting process involves melting the metal and pouring it into a mold where it solidifies as casting MOLDING The process of making the cavity

of desired shape and size on a medium.

MEDIUM Molding sand or resin bonded

sand.

Classification of casting processes

Advantages
The parts of most intricate shapes can be made Extremely large as well as small objects can be cast. Mass production Certain properties are obtained only in catings

Dis -advantages
Melting of metal is high energy process Labour intensive Time required is higher

Molding Sand
Major part of Molding material in sand casting are
1. 70-85% silica sand (SiO2) 2. 10-12% bonding material e.g., clay cereal etc. 3. 3-6% water

Types of Molding Sand

Green Sand Sand in its natural more or less moist state Dry sand For making large castings mold is dried Loam sand high clay content(50%) Facing sand is used directly next to the pattern Backing sand Used to back up the facing sand Parting sand Clean clay free silica sand. It is used to prevent green sand sticking to the pattern

Ingredients of Molding sand

Refractory sand grains + Binder + Water + Additives REFRACTORY SAND GRAINS Mixture of silica sand, Alumina and Magnesium oxide. It provides Refractoriness, Chemical resistivity and permeability

Ingredients of Molding sand

BINDERS clay, Kaolinite or fire clay , Bentonite. It provides necessary binding strength WATER 2 to 8% It develops necessary plasticity

Ingredients of Molding sand

ADDITIVES to enhance the properties of molding sand.
Coal dust for protecting mold surface against action of molten metal, surface finish Dextrin for increasing toughness & collapsibility Iron oxide powder for hot strength & Anti metal penetration property. Molasses for dry strength and collapsibility

Properties of molding sand

Refractoriness with stand high temperature of molten metal Strength sufficient strength to retain shape of the mold Flowability Aquire the required shape Permeability to allow the gases picked up by the molten metal or for escape or trapped gases in the mold

Properties of molding sand

Cohesiveness ability of molding sand to adhere to each other. Adhesive ness to adhere to the walls of molding sand Collapsibility readiness of molding sand to get collapsed after solidification Chemical resitivty Durability

Production steps in sand casting including pattern making and mold making

Pattern - A pattern is made of wood or metal, is a replica of

the final product and is used for preparing mould cavity

Pattern Materials
Wood Metal [ CI, AL, Brass, ]White metal] Plastics Plasters Waxes

Types of Patterns
Variety of patters are used in casting and the choice depends on the configuration of casting, method of molding and number of casting required
Single-piece pattern Split pattern Cope and drag pattern Match plate pattern Loose-piece pattern Follow board pattern Sweep pattern Skeleton pattern

Single piece pattern

A pattern that is made as a single piece is known as Single piece or solid pattern. It is used for large castings of simple shapes

Split pattern
Many pattern cannot be made as a single piece because of difficulties in molding. Pattern made of two parts is called as Split pattern

Match plate pattern

When split patterns are mounted with one half on one side of a plate and other half directly opposite

on other side of the plate,

the pattern is called match plate pattern

It is used for producing

small castings in large quantities

Cope and Drag pattern

In production of large castings the complete moulds are too heavy to be handled by a operator. The separate cope and drag pattern are mounted on individual plate or board.

Gated Pattern
Provision for easy passage of flowing metal into the mould is called gating. For high volume production it is time consuming Group of patterns with gate formers attached to the pattern are called gatted pattern Used for mass production.

Loose-piece pattern
Pattern produced as assemblies of loose pieces is called Loose-piece pattern. It is needed where the pattern cannot be removed with out destroying the mold as one piece. In this case main pattern is first removed and the loose piece is moved and removed

Sweep pattern
Symmetrical moulds particularly in large size are shaped by means of sweep patterns. It consist of a board having the shape corresponding to he shape of casting and arranged to rotate about an axis. It eliminates expensive pattern construction

Segmental Pattern
Segmental or part pattern are used for producing rings, wheel rims, gears etc., They are sections of a pattern so arranged to form a complete mold by being moved to form each section of the mould

 Skeleton pattern give the general contour and size of the desired casting. It is ribbed construction with square or rectangular openings between the ribs. The frame work if filled and rammed with sand and strike off board (Strickle board) is used to scrape the excess sand.

Skeleton pattern

Strickle board

Shell pattern
It is used for large drainage fittings and pipe work It is hollow construction like a shell and the outside shape is used as a pattern to make the mold while the inside is used as core box for making cores.

Follow board pattern

Pattern that have thin sections tend to become distorted under stress of ramming . This is overcome by constructing a block which fits inside the pattern to serve as a support. This support block is known as follow board

Pattern allowances
Dimension of pattern is always greater than that of the casting. Shrinkage allowance(10-20 mm/m) Draft allowance(1 3 deg) Machining allowance(2mm) Distortion allowance Rapping or shake allowance

Molding tools

Riddle

Shovel

Rammer

Strike off bar Trowel

Vent wire

Molding Tools

Lifter

Slick

Swab

Draw Spike

Gate Cutter

Green Sand Molding Procedure

SAND-CASTING
Pattern
(a copy of the shape you want to produce, made of wood, plastic or metal)

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

Basic materials & equipment for green sand-casting

Sand,
mixed with clay binder & water (so it will hold its shape) plus coal dust to improve surface finish Container of molten (filled from furnace)

metal

Top and bottom mold forms (made of metal, open at top and bottom)

Rammer (tool to compact the sand;

often a pressing machine is used)

SAND-CASTING
First of all, mix the sand.

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

A very basic summary of the sand casting process. . .

THEN

MOLDING:
Sand placed into bottom mold form & compacted

1 MOLDING:
Pattern placed into mold

SAND-CASTING
3 Add the top
mold form
MOLDING:

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

A tube or pipe provides a path to pour the metal in

Pattern is still inside!

MOLDING: Fill top form with compacted sand.

SAND-CASTING
5
MOLDING: Take the top mold off and remove pattern & pipe or post

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

In the middle of the sand is a cavity shaped like the pattern! Pouring hole

MOLDING: Replace the top mold and fasten securely!

 SAND-CASTING

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

8
7
CASTING: Pour the metal (container is filled from furnace immediately before you are ready to pour)

Wait for the metal to cool (minutes to days, depending on the size of the casting)

SAND-CASTING
A copy of the pattern has now been made in metal

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

9
CLEANING. Sand is cleaned off the part, the tab where metal flowed in must be removed.

SHAKE OUT: Break apart the two halves of the mold & take out the partusually requires vibrating or striking the mold to break apart the sand

10 Mold forms are reused

Sand is broken up, 11 screened to remove debris and clumps, and sent for remixing

SAND-CASTING

Midland Metals CASE STUDY

Sand-casting is simple in concept, but demanding in execution. It is a process essential to making basic and advanced products. . . it is also hazardous and energy-intensive!

Cleaning and Finishing

1. 2. 3. Casting is taken out of the mould by shaking and the Moulding sand is recycled often with suitable additions. The remaining sand, some of which may be embedded in the casting, is removed by means of Shot blasting. The excess material in the form of sprue, runners, gates etc., along with the flashes formed due to flow of molten metal into the gaps is broken manually in case of brittle casting or removed by sawing and grinding in case of ductile grinding. The entire casting is then cleaned by either shot blasting or chemical pickling. Sometimes castings are heat treated to achieve better mechanical properties.

4. 5.

Molding Machine

Types of Molding Machine

Squeeze Machine
Top Squeeze Machine Bottom Squeeze Machine

Jolt molding Machine Jolt and Squeeze Machine Sand Slinger

Top Squeeze Machine

Squeezer Head
Platen Frame Flask Pattern Table Mold Board

Bottom Squeeze Machine

Squeezer Head Flask Frame Pattern Mold Board Table

Jolting Machine

Jolting and Squeezing Machine

Sand Slinger
Opening
Blade

Housing Outlet

500 -2000 Kg/min

Core
Hollow castings are obtained by using sand cores which are made in boxes known as core boxes

Cores are separate shape of sand that are required to form hollow interior of the castings or a hole in casting Core Box is essentially a type of pattern made of wood or metal into which sand is rammed or packed to form core For supporting the core in mold an impression in the form of recess is made in the mold with the help of projection in the pattern. This Projection on the pattern is called as core print.
Core Print

Core Requirement
It must be strong to retain its shape Permeable to allow the gases to escape Highly refractory to withstand high temperature of the molten metal Stable i.e with minimum of contraction and expansion Collapsible after the metal solidifies Smooth surface Minimum generation of gases when heated by the pour.

Core Sand
( Sand + Binder)
( sand containing more than 5 % of clay are not used for cores)

Sand
Zircon Olivine Carbon

Binders
oils, cereals, dextrine, resins, molasses and protein

Chamotte

Types of Cores

Core Making

Core sand preparation Core molding Baking Core finishing

Core sand preparation

Mix and prepare the sand properly Mixing should be homogeneous so that core is having uniform strength Core sands are mixed
Roller mills the action of mullers and plough give uniform mixing specially for cereal binders Core mixers all types of binders

Core molding
Green sand cores are made by ramming the sand mixtures into the boxes, the interiors of which have desired shapes and dimensions. Methods to ram the core are by machines
Core blowing machines Core ramming machines [ jolting , squeezing, slinging]

Cores are often reinforced with steel wires and rods to have sufficient stregth.

Core baking
After cores are prepared they are placed on metal plates or core carriers and they are baked to remove the moisture [ 150 400 deg c] Core plates called driers are usually perforated to permit the circulation of gases and to lessen the sticking

Core drying ovens

Core ovens
Batch type Continuous type

Dielectric bakers

Core ovens
Batch type ovens are used for baking variety of cores in batches. Cores are placed in drawers or portable racks which are finally placed in ovens Continuous type ovens - are preferred for high rate production .
The core racks move slowly through these ovens on continuous chain or rail. The loading and unloading is continuous with baking time controlled by the rate of travel of the conveyor The oven is operated steadily at fixed temperature

 Dielectric Bakers- can bake cores in small fraction of time than the conventional ovens Specially for cores made from resin binder The material to be heated dielectrically is placed between the parallel cement bonded asbestos or electrodes and a high frequency current is passed through it. Faster in operation and good temperature control.

Core finishing / Core dressing

After baking cores are given finishing operations The rough places and unwanted fins are removed by filing Cores are also coated with refractory or protective materials by brushing, dipping or spraying. This coating prevents the metal from penetrating and gives smooth surface to the casting

Graphite ,Silica, Mica, Zircon, Four and rubber base chemical spray

Use of chaplets to avoid shifting of cores

Chaplets are used to support the cores which tend to sag or sink. These are made of same materials being cast.

The Gating System Pouring basin, Sprue, Runner, and Gate

1. Minimize turbulent flow so that absorption of gases, oxidation of metal and erosion of mould surfaces are less Regulate the entry of molten metal into the mould cavity Ensure complete filling of mould cavity, and Promote a temperature gradient within the casting so that all sections irrespective of size and shape could solidify properly Avoiding erosion Removing inclusions Minimizing scrap and secondary operations

2.

3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

Runner
Runner is commonly a horizontal channel which connects the sprue with the gates thus allowing the molten metal to enter into the cavity.

RISER - Feeder Head

Riser is used to provide a passage in molding sand to compensate for shrinkage and eliminate cavity. Purpose
Compensate for shrinkage cavities Permit the escape of air and gases as the cavity is filled with molten metal Promote directional solidification Sound castings

Solidification of castings proceed in two ways 1.Progressive solidification

2.Directional solidification Progressive solidification
Intermediate rate
Slow rate Fast rate

Riser

Temperature gradient rising toward riser

Directional solidification

Chivorinovs Expression
Solidification time (V/A)2 To promote directional solidification, Solidification time of riser is equal to or greater than that of casting.

Use of chills
Chills are metal inserts which are placed in the mold to induce directional solidification.
If a casting consists of section of uneven thickness, the thin section tends to solidify quicker than thick. This difficulty is removed by providing chill at thicker section and thus promoting uniform solidification. (i.e to speed up the process of cooling of thick sections )

Use of exothermic material

These serve to promote directional solidification by the generation of heat Which are a mixture of the oxides of the metal to be cast and Aluminum metal in powder form which produce large amount of heat when come in contact with molten metal They may be added to the surface of molten metal in the riser / mixed with molding sand in the riser walls.

Draft in Pattern

Patterns

Mold

Casting Defects
Defects may occur due to one or more of the following reasons:
Fault in design of casting pattern Fault in design on mold and core Fault in design of gating system and riser Improper choice of moulding sand Improper metal composition Inadequate melting temperature and rate of pouring

Classification of casting defects

Surface Defect Blow Scar Blister Drop Scab Penetration Buckle Casting defects Internal Defect Blow holes Porosity Pin holes Inclusions Dross Visible defects Wash Rat tail Swell Misrun Cold shut Hot tear Shrinkage/Shift

Surface Defects These are due to poor design and quality of sand molds and general cause is poor ramming

 Blow is relatively large cavity produced by gases which displace molten metal from convex surface.

Surface Defects
Scar is shallow blow generally occurring on a flat casting surface.

Surface Defects
A scar covered with a thin layer of metal is called blister.

Surface Defects
Drop is an irregularlyshaped projection on the cope surface caused by dropping of sand. Caused by Low strength and soft ramming

Surface Defects
A scab when an up heaved sand gets separated from the mould surface and the molten metal flows between the displaced sand and the mold.
Caused by too fine sand, low permeability, moisture content, uneven ramming

Surface Defects
Penetration occurs when the molten metal flows between the sand particles in the mould. These defects are due to inadequate strength of the mold and high temperature of the molten metal adds on it.

Surface Defects
Buckle is a vee-shaped depression on the surface of a flat casting caused by expansion of a thin layer of sand at the mould face. A proper amount of volatile additives in moulding material could eliminate this defect by providing room for expansion.

Internal Defects - The internal defects found in the castings are mainly due to trapped gases and dirty metal. Gases get trapped due to hard ramming or improper venting. These

defects also occur when excessive moisture or excessive gas

forming materials are used for mould making.

Internal Defects
Blow holes are large spherical shaped gas bubbles
Caused by excessive moisture, low permeability, too fine grains, too hard ramming, proper venting is insufficient

Internal Defects
porosity indicates a large number of uniformly distributed tiny holes.

Internal Defects
Pin holes are tiny blow holes appearing just below the casting surface. Caused by absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gasses, or high moisture content

Internal Defects
Inclusions are the non-metallic particles in the metal matrix, Lighter impurities appearing the casting surface are dross. Caused by slag particles.

Visible Defects - Insufficient mould strength, insufficient metal, low pouring temperature, and bad design of casting are some of the common causes.

Visible Defects
Wash is a low projection near the gate caused by erosion of sand by the flowing metal

Visible Defects
Rat tail is a long, shallow, angular depression caused by expansion of the sand.

Visible Defects
Swell is the deformation of vertical mould surface due to hydrostatic pressure caused by moisture in the sand.

Visible Defects
Misrun is a casting that has solidified before fillingthe mold cavity causes - Fluidity is insufficient, pouring temp too low, pouring slowly, too thin sections

Visible Defects
Cold shut occurs when two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of fusion between them due to premature freezing.

Visible Defects
Hot tear is the crack in the casting caused by high residual stresses.

Visible Defects
Shrinkage is essentially solidification contraction and occurs due to improper use of Riser.

Visible Defects
Shift is due to misalignment of two parts of the mould or incorrect core location.

SUMMARY
Sand Casting Molding sand Ingredients, Types, Properties Pattern Pattern materials Types of Pattern Pattern allowances Molding tools Green sand molding procedure

SUMMARY
Molding Machine Core Requirement of core Core making Chaplet Gating system Runner Riser Chill Exothermic material Casting Defects