Casting Processes

By:
Akhtar Khan

Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIITDM Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh
 Casting
Introduction:

• Casting is one of the oldest manufacturing

process. It is the first step in making most of the
products.

• It is the industry of pouring liquid metal into a

mold cavity to achieve a desired shape.
• Casting process involves:

1. Making of mould cavity (Preparation of moulds)

2. Material is first liquefied by properly heating it in a
suitable furnace.
3. This molten metal is poured into a prepared mould
cavity.
4. Allow to solidify
5. Product is taken out of the mould cavity, trimmed
and made to shape.
Advantages of casting process:
• Can create complex part geometries that can not be made
by any other process
• Can create both external and internal shapes
• Some casting processes are net shape; others are near net
shape
• Can produce very large parts (with weight more than 100
tons), like m/c bed
• Casting can be applied to shape any metal that can melt
• Some casting methods are suited to mass production
• Can also be applied on polymers and ceramics
Limitations of casting process:

• Limitations on mechanical properties

• Poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish for
some processes; e.g., sand casting
• Safety hazards to workers due to hot molten
metals
• Environmental problems
Applications:
• Big parts
• Engine blocks and heads for automotive
vehicles, wood burning stoves, machine frames,
railway wheels, pipes, bells, pump housings
• Small parts
• Dental crowns, jewelry, small statues, frying
pans
• All varieties of metals can be cast -
ferrous and nonferrous
 The mould, used in casting process:

• Mould is a container with cavity Mould cavity

whose geometry determines
part shape
• Actual size and shape of
cavity must be slightly
oversized to allow for
shrinkage of metal during
solidification and cooling
• Molds are made of a variety
of materials, including sand,
plaster, ceramic, and metal
Types of mould, in casting process:

Cavity is closed
Cavity is open to
atmosphere

(a) Open mold: simply a container in the shape of the desired part;
and
(b) Closed mold: in which the mold geometry is more complex and
requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity.
Casting nomenclature (molding structure):

Fig. 1. Typical sand mould casting setup along with their nomenclature
Vent: Small opening in the mould, to facilitate escape of
air and gases.
 Classification of casting process

1. Expendable mold processes : uses an expendable

mold which must be destroyed to remove casting
Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus
binders
2. Permanent mold processes : uses a permanent
mold which can be used over and over to produce
many castings
Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory
material)
1. Expendable mold processes - mold is
sacrificed to remove part
– Advantage: more complex shapes possible
– Disadvantage: production rates often limited by
time to make mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is
made of metal and can be used to
make many castings
– Advantage: higher production rates
– Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to
open mold
Expendable Mold
Processes
Expendable Mold Processes:
1. Sand Casting
2. Shell Molding
3. Vacuum Molding
4. Expanded Polystyrene Process
5. Investment Casting
6. Plaster Mold and Ceramic Mold
Casting
 1. Sand Casting
• Sand casting uses natural or synthetic
sand (lake sand) which is mostly
refractory material, called silica (SiO2)

• The sand grains must be small enough

so that it can be packed densely.
However, the grains must be large
enough to allow gases formed during the
metal pouring to escape through the
pores.

• Larger sized molds use green sand (mixture of sand, clay and some water).

• Sand can be re-used, and excess metal poured is cut-off and re-used also.
Sand Casting Production Sequence:
Preparation of sand:
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand
around a pattern, then separating the mold into two
halves and removing the pattern
• The mold must also contain gating and riser system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core must be
included in mold
• A new sand mold must be made for each part produced
Pattern making:

A full-sized model of the part, slightly enlarged to

account for shrinkage and machining allowances in
the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to
work, but it warps
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much
longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
Types of Patterns:
Figure: Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match-plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) for an air
compressor frame
 Applications

Automobile parts manufactured using Sand Casting Process

 2. Shell-mould Casting
• In this process the moulds
and cores are prepared by
mixing the dry free flowing
sand with thermosetting
resins.

• Then heating the aggregate

(mixture of fine sand and
thermosetting resins) against a
heated metal plate.

• Due to the heat, the resin

cures, which causes the sand
Fig.2. Shell-mould Casting
grains to get bonded with each
other and it forms a hard shell
around the metallic pattern.
Steps in Shell-molding:

(1) A match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is

heated and placed over a box containing sand mixed
with thermosetting resin.
(2) Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure
on the surface to form a hard shell .
(3) Box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away
(4) Sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to
complete curing.
(5) Shell mold is stripped from the pattern
(6) Two halves of the shell mold are assembled,
supported by sand or metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished;

(7) The finished casting with sprue removed (Fig. 7).

• Sand:

•The dry free flowing sand used in the shell mould must be
completely free of clay content.

•The grain size of the sand used is generally in the range of

100-150 meshes.

• Resin:

• The resins most widely used, are the phenol

formaldehyde resins, which are thermosetting in nature.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:

•Good dimensional accuracy

•Good surface finish
• High productivity (Suitable for mass production)
•Low labor cost

• Disadvantages:

• Highly expensive
•Difficult to justify for small quantities
Applications

Shell-mold cast parts

 3. Vacuum - mould Casting
1. A thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn over a match-
plate or cope-and-drag pattern by vacuum-the pattern has
small vent holes to facilitate vacuum forming
2. A specially designed flask is placed over the pattern plate and
filled with sand, and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in
the sand
3. Another thin plastic sheet is placed over the flask, and a
vacuum is drawn that causes the sand grains to be held
together, forming a rigid mold.
4. The vacuum on the mold pattern is released to permit the
pattern to be stripped from the mold
5. This mold is assembled with its matching half to form the
cope and drag, and with vacuum maintained on both
halves, pouring is accomplished.

The plastic sheet quickly burns away on contacting the

molten metal. After solidification, nearly all of the sand
can be recovered for re-use.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages:
– Easy recovery of the sand, since no binders
– Sand does not require mechanical
reconditioning done when binders are used
– Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are absent
• Disadvantages:
– Slow process
– Not readily adaptable to mechanization
Vacuum-mold cast parts
 4. Expanded Polystyrene Process
(lost foam process)
It Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal
is poured into mold
• Other names: lost-foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative-foam process, and full-mold
process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections
Expanded polystyrene casting process:

Step (1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory

compound
Step (2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern
Step (3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the
pattern that forms the pouring cup and sprue. As the
metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized
ahead of the advancing liquid, thus the resulting mold
cavity is filled.

(3)
 Advantages and Disadvantages

• Advantages of expanded polystyrene

process:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and speeds mold-making, because
two mold halves are not required as in a
conventional green-sand mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns
 Applications
(a) (b) (c)

(a) Agricultural spare parts for tractor (b) Auto parts (c) Engine rocker cover

Most widely used for Mass production of castings for

automobile engines
 5. Investment Casting
(lost wax process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make mold, after which wax is melted
away prior to pouring molten metal
• "Investment" comes from a less familiar definition
of "invest" - "to cover completely," which refers to
coating of refractory material around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of
producing castings of high accuracy and intricate
detail
Steps in investment casting:
Step:(1) wax patterns are produced,

Step:(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a

pattern tree
Step: (3) The pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of
refractory material

Step: (4) The full mold is formed by covering the coated tree
with sufficient refractory material to make it rigid
Step:(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and
heated to melt the wax and permit it to drip out of the
cavity
Step:(6) the mold is preheated to a high
temperature, the molten metal is poured, and it
solidifies
Step:(7) the mold is broken away from the finished
casting and the parts are separated from the sprue.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of investment casting:
• Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be
cast
• Close dimensional control and good surface
finish
• Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
• Additional machining is not normally
required - this is a net shape process
• Disadvantages
• Many processing steps are required
• Relatively expensive process
 Applications

• Pump parts
• Valve parts
 6 (A). Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of plaster
of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
• In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and allowed to
set
– Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
• Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of plaster mold casting:
– Good accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections
• Disadvantages:
– Mold must be baked to remove moisture,
which can cause problems in casting
– Mold strength is lost if over-baked
– Plaster molds cannot stand high
temperatures, so limited to lower melting
point alloys can be casted
 6 (B). Ceramic Mold Casting

• Similar to Plaster Mold Casting except the material

of mold is refractory ceramic material instead of
plaster.

• The ceramic mold can withstand temperature of

metals having high melting points.

• Surface quality is same as that in plaster mold

casting.
 Applications
In industry parts such as valves, tooling, gears, and
lock components may be manufactured by plaster mold
casting.

Plaster mold casting products

Ceramic mold casting products
Permanent Mold Casting
Processes
Introduction:

• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold casting: a

new mold is required for every casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused many
times
• The processes include:
1. Basic permanent mold casting
2. Die casting
3. Centrifugal casting
 1. The Basic Permanent Mold Process

It uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed

for easy, precise opening and closing

• Molds used for casting lower melting-point alloys (Al,

Cu, Brass) are commonly made of steel or cast iron

• Molds used for casting steel must be made of refractory

material, due to the very high pouring temperatures
Steps in permanent mold casting:

Step: (1) Mold is preheated and coated

Step: (2) Cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed

Step: (3) Molten metal is poured into the mold, where it

solidifies.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of permanent mold casting:
• Good dimensional control and surface finish
• Very economical for mass production
• More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal mold
results in a finer grain structure, so castings are stronger
• Disadvantages:
• Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
• Complex part geometries can not be made because of
need to open the mold
• High cost of mold
• Not suitable for low-volume production
 Variations of Permanent Mold Casting:
(a) Slush Casting

• The basic procedure is same as used in Basic Permanent

Mold Casting
• After partial solidification of metal, the molten metal
inside the mold is drained out, leaving the part hollow
from inside.
• Statues, Lamp bases, Pedestals and toys are usually
made through this process
• Metal with low melting point are used: Zinc, Lead and
Tin
 (b) Low-pressure Casting
• In basic permanent and slush casting processes, metal in
cavity is poured under gravity. However, in low-pressure
casting, the metal is forced into cavity under low pressure
(0.1 MPa) of air.
 (c) Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting

• This is a variation of low-pressure permanent casting

• Instead of rising molten into the cavity through air

pressure, vacuum in cavity is created which caused
the molten metal to rise in the cavity from metal pool.
 2. Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal
is injected into mold cavity under high pressure

• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold

is opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence
the name die casting
• Use of high pressure (7-35MPa) to force metal into die
cavity is what distinguishes this from other permanent
mold processes
Die Casting Machines:
• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold
halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is
forced into cavity

• Two main types:

1. Hot-Chamber Machine
2. Cold-Chamber Machine
 1. Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container,
and a piston injects liquid
metal under high pressure into
the die
• High production rates - 500
parts per hour not uncommon
• Injection pressure: 7-35MPa
• Applications limited to low
melting-point metals that do
not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical
components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead,
and magnesium
Step: (1) With die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber
Step: (2) Plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.
 2. Cold-Chamber Die Casting

Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber from

external melting container, and a piston injects metal
under high pressure (14-140MPa) into die cavity

• High production but not usually as fast as hot-chamber

machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
• Advantage of cold chamber is that high melting point
metals can be casted.
Step: (1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten
metal is poured into the chamber
Step: (2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or maraging
steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) are used to make die for casting steel and
cast iron
• Ejector pins are required to remove part from die
when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to prevent
sticking
 Advantages and Disadvantages
• Advantages of die casting:
• Economical for large production quantities
• Good accuracy (±0.076mm)and surface finish
• Thin sections are possible
• Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
• Generally limited to metals with low metal points
• Part geometry must allow removal from die, so very
complex parts can not be casted
• Flash and metal in vent holes need to be cleaned after
ejection of part
 3. Centrifugal Casting

A family of casting processes in which the mold is

rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity

• The group includes:

a) True centrifugal casting
b) Semi-centrifugal casting
c) Centrifuge casting
 (a) True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into a rotating mold to produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring rather
than before
• Rotational axes can be either horizontal or vertical
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but
inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces
 (b) Semi-centrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular
parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at
center of rotation
 (c) Centrifuge Casting
Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of
rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold is distributed
to these cavities by centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal
casting methods
 Casting Defects

Error in the procedure often results in defective casting,

these defects are known as casting defects.
 1. Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely filling mold cavity

Reasons:
a.Fluidity of molten metal is
insufficient
b.Pouring temperature is too low
c.Pouring is done too slowly
d.Cross section of mold cavity is too
thin
e.Mold design is not in accordance
with Chvorinov’s rule: V/A at the
section closer to the gating
system should be higher than that
far from gating system
 2. Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a lack of
fusion due to premature (early) freezing

Reasons:
Same as for misrun
Metal splashes during pouring and solid globules form and
become entrapped in casting

Gating system should be

improved to avoid
splashing
 3. Shrinkage Cavity
Depression in surface or internal void caused by solidification
shrinkage

Proper riser design can

solve this issue
 4. Hot Tearing
Hot tearing/cracking in casting occurs when the molten
metal is not allowed to contract by an underlying
mold during cooling/ solidification.

The collapsibility (ability to give

way and allow molten metal to
shrink during solidification) of mold
should be improved
 5. Sand Blow
Balloon-shaped gas cavity caused by release of mold
gases during pouring

Low permeability of mold,

poor venting, high moisture
content in sand are major
reasons
 6. Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting

Caused by release of gas

during pouring of molten
metal.
To avoid, improve
permeability & venting in
mold
 7. Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or core, causing casting surface to
consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Harder packing of sand helps to

alleviate this problem
Reduce pouring temp if possible
Use better sand binders
 8. Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by sidewise
relative displacement of cope and drag

It is caused by
buoyancy force of
molten metal.
Cope an drag must be
aligned accurately and
fastened.
Use match plate
patterns
 9. Core Shift
Similar to core mold but it is core that is displaced and
the displacement is usually vertical.

It is caused by buoyancy force

of molten metal.
Core must be fastened with
chaplet
 10. Sand Wash
An irregularity in the casting surface caused by erosion
of sand mold during pouring.

Turbulence in metal flow during

pouring should be controlled. Also,
very high pouring temperature
cause erosion of mold.
 11. Scabs
Scabs are rough areas on the surface of casting due to
un-necessary deposit of sand and metal.

It is caused by portions of the mold

surface flaking off during
solidification and becoming
embedded in the casting surface
Improve mold strength by reducing
grain size and changing binders
 12. Mold Crack
Occurs when the strength of mold is not sufficient to
withstand high temperatures

Improve mold strength by

reducing grain size and
changing binders
 Assignment No. 1
Propose the best suitable casting process to make an
aluminum cup. During selecting a process, keep the following
points in view:
1. No of cups= 4
2. Product cost= as low as possible
3. Surface quality= good. Quality is not as important as cost
4. Defects= some defects are acceptable
5. Processing time= not important

Draw an analysis for each major type of casting process with

reference to above conditions. Then choose one casting process
and write a report in its support .