Solidification of Castings-F

SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTINGS
After molten metal is poured into a mould, a numbers of events takes place during the solidification of
the casting and its cooling to atmospheric temperature. These events greatly influence the size, shape,
uniformity, and chemical composition of the grains formed throughout the casting, which in turn
influence its overall properties. The significant factors affecting these events are the type of metal,
thermal properties of both the metal and the mould, the geometric relationship between volume and
surface area of the casting, and shape of the mould.
Nucleation and Grain Growth
When the free energy of a parent phase is reduced by means of temperature or pressure then there is a
driving force leading to crystallization. At the melting point, the thermal fluctuations result in the
formation of tiny particles (containing only a few atoms) of the product phase within the parent volume.
Such a tiny particle has an interface that separates it from the parent matrix. It grows by transfer of
atoms across its interface. The process of formation of the first stable tiny particle is called nucleation.
And the process of increase in the sizes of these particles is called grain growth.
Solidification of Pure Metal or Eutectic Alloy
Cooling curve for metal

Because a pure metal or eutectic alloy has a clearly defined melting or freezing point, it
solidifies at a constant temperature. After the temperature of the molten metal drops to its freezing
point, its temperature remains constant while the latent heat of fusion is
given off. The solidification front (solid-liquid interface) moves through the molten metal,
solidifying from the mould walls in toward the centre. Once solidification has taken place at any point,
cooling resumes. The solidified metal, called casting, is taken out of the mould and is allowed to cool to
ambient temperature. At the mould walls, which are at ambient temperature, the metal cools rapidly.
Rapid cooling produces a solidified skin or shell. The grains grow in a direction opposite to that of the
heat transfer through the mould. Those grains that have favourable orientation will grow preferentially
and are called columnar grains. As the driving force of the heat transfer is reduced away from the mould
walls, the grains become equiaxed and coarse. Those grains that have substantially different
orientations are blocked from further growth. This grain development is called homogeneous
nucleation, meaning that grains grow upon themselves, starting from the mould wall.
Control of Solidification for obtaining Sound Castings
(Centre line of freezing)
Solidification of a plate
In order to obtain a sound casting with no shrinkage void along the centreline, two requirements must
be satisfied as follows:
1. The longitudinal solidification must be progressive toward the riser from the point, or points, most
distant from the riser.
2. The temperature gradient, in addition to being properly directed, must be sufficiently steep so that
liquid metal can pass through the wedge-shaped channel to compensate for shrinkage as it occurs at the
centreline.
If the temperature gradient is not sufficiently steep, the included angle of the wedge-shaped channel
will be too small and proper passage of feed metal is not possible. If there were no temperature
gradient, the lateral solidification at all points would reach the centreline at the same time. The result in
either case is a lack of metal at the centreline, which causes an elongated narrow void known as
centreline shrinkage. In other casting sections, voids of various shapes are caused by the shrinkage of
skin forming type of alloy.
Solidification in alloys begins when the temperature drops below the liquidus temperature and is
complete when it reaches the solidus temperature. Within this temperature range, the alloy is in a
mushy or pasty state with columnar dendrites. The mushy zone is described in terms of a temperature
difference, known as the freezing range, as follows:
Freezing Range = TL – TS
Centreline Feeding Resistance
The freezing patterns of a chilled and an ordinary mould are shown in figure . The
solidification starts at the centre line of the mould before the solidification is completed even at the
mould face. In the chilled mould, on the other hand, due to rapid heat extraction, a narrow liquid zone
quickly sweeps across the molten metal. The difficulty of feeding a given alloy in a mould is expressed by
a quantity, called centre line feeding resistance (CFR).
Time interval between start and end of freezing at centre line

CFR= ×100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
In the above figure, we have

𝑂𝐶
CFR =𝐴𝐶 ×100%
Normally, feeding is considered to be difficult if CFR > 70 %.
Chills
These are provided in the mould so as to increase the heat extraction capability of the sand mould. A
chill normally provides a steeper temperature gradient so that directional solidification as required in a
casting is obtained. These are metallic objects having a higher heat absorbing capability than the sand
mould.
The chills can be of two types: external and internal.
The external chills are placed adjoining the mould cavity at any required position. Providing a chill at the
edge may not normally have the desired effect as the temperature gradient is steeper at the end of the
casting since heat is removed from all sides. However, if it is placed between two risers it would have
maximum effect.
The chills when placed in the mould should be clean and dry, otherwise gas inclusions be left in the
castings. Also, after placing the chills in the mould, they should not be kept for long since moisture may
condense on the chills causing blow holes in the casting.
Chaplets
Chaplets are metallic support often kept inside the mould cavity to support the cores. These are of the
same composition as that of the pouring metal so that the molten metal would provide enough heat to
completely melt them and thus fuse with it during solidification.
Though the
chaplet is supposed to fuse with parent metal,
in practice it is difficult to
achieve and normally it forms a weak joint in
the casting. The other likely
problems encountered in chaplets are the
condensation of moisture which finally ends
up as blow holes. So chaplets before they are
placed in the mould should be thoroughly
cleaned of any dirt, oil or grease. Because of
the
problems associated with chaplets, it is
desirable to redesign the castings, as far as
possible.
GATING SYSTEM IN MOLD
Fig shows the different elements of the gating system. Some of which are discussed as under.
Goals of Gating System
The goals for the gating system are
 To minimize turbulence to avoid trapping gasses into the mold
 To get enough metal into the mold cavity before the metal starts to solidify
 To avoid shrinkage
 Establish the best possible temperature gradient in the solidifying casting so that the shrinkage if
occurs must be in the gating system not in the required cast part.
Incorporates a system for trapping the non-metallic inclusions
1. Pouring basin
It is the conical hollow element or tapered hollow vertical portion of the gating system which helps to
feed the molten metal initially through the path of gating system to mold cavity. It may be made out of
core sand or it may be cut in cope portion of the sand mold. It makes easier for the ladle operator to
direct the flow of molten metal from crucible to pouring basin and sprue. It helps in maintaining the
required rate of liquid metal flow. It reduces turbulence and vertexing at the sprue entrance. It also
helps in separating dross, slag and foreign element etc. from molten metal before it enters the sprue.
Fig. Gating System

2. Sprue
It is a vertical passage made generally in the cope using tapered sprue pin. It is connected at bottom of
pouring basin. It is tapered with its bigger end at to receive the molten metal the smaller end is
connected to the runner. It helps to feed molten metal without turbulence to the runner which in turn
reaches the mold cavity through gate. It some times possesses skim bob at its lower end. The main
purpose of skim bob is to collect impurities from molten metal and it does not allow them to reach the
mold cavity through runner and gate.
3. Gate
It is a small passage or channel being cut by gate cutter which connect runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity. It feeds the liquid metal to the casting at the
rate consistent with the rate of solidification.
4. Choke
It is that part of the gating system which possesses smallest cross-section area. In choked
system, gate serves as a choke, but in free gating system sprue serves as a choke.
5. Runner
It is a channel which connects the sprue to the gate for avoiding turbulence and gas entrapment.
6. Riser
It is a passage in molding sand made in the cope portion of the mold. Molten metal rises in it after filling
the mould cavity completely. The molten metal in the riser compensates the shrinkage during
solidification of the casting thus avoiding the shrinkage defect in the casting.
Functions of Risers
 Provide extra metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage
 Allow mold gases to escape
 Provide extra metal pressure on the solidifying mold to reproduce mold details more exact
Design Requirements of Risers

1. Riser size: For a sound casting riser must be last to freeze. The ratio of (volume / surface area) 2
of the riser must be greater than that of the casting. However, when this condition does not meet the
metal in the riser can be kept in liquid state by heating it externally or using exothermic materials in the
risers.
2. Riser placement: the spacing of risers in the casting must be considered by effectively calculating
the feeding distance of the risers.
3. Riser shape: cylindrical risers are recommended for most of the castings as spherical risers,
although considers as best, are difficult to cast. To increase volume/surface area ratio the bottom of the
riser can be shaped as hemisphere.
It also permits the escape of air and mould gases. It promotes directional solidification too and helps in
bringing the soundness in the casting.
Forces acting on the Core and Moulding Flask
The main force acting on the core when metal is poured into the mould cavity is due to buoyancy.
The buoyant force can be calculated as the difference in the weight of the liquid metal to that of the
core material of the same volume as that of the exposed core. It can be written as P = V (ρ – d)
Where P = buoyant force, N
V = volume of the core in the mould cavity, cm3
ρ = weight density of the liquid metal, N/ cm3
d = weight density of the core material, N/ cm2 = 1.65 x 10-2
N/ cm3
The above equation is valid for horizontally placed core. But for vertically placed core the following
equation has to be used.
P = 0.25 π ( D12 – D2 ) H ρ - Vd
Where V = total volume of the core in the mould.

Solidification of Castings-F

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What are the main components of a gating system?

What are the functions of risers in a casting?

SOLIDIFICATION OF CASTINGS

Cooling curve for metal

Time interval between start and end of freezing at centre line

In the above figure, we have

The chills can be of two types: external and internal.

Fig. Gating System

Design Requirements of Risers

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