Mec 323

MEC 323
PRIMARY MANUFACTURING
UNIT – 2
Metal Casting Process
Solidification
When molten metal is poured into a sand mould, the

outer most metal cools down earlier then the rest.
Thus a sort of solid shell of reasonable thickness is

quickly formed all along the inside surface of the mould.
This can be described as a solid zone consisting of the

chilled solid metal.
Solidification
All along this zone and inside it there is a pasty mass of metal
which consists of solid crystal skeletons surrounded by liquid
metal. It is known as mushy zone.
The interior most metal is liquid and the area covering it is

called liquid zone.
In pure metals there is no distinct mushy zone or to say its

existence is practically negligible.
Solidification
When the molten metal cools and solidifies in the mould due to the
gradual fall in its temperature, it contracts in volume, thus creating
voids inside.
These voids are to be filled up by the molten metal from the interior
of the casting, which is still liquid.
This process continues till solidification reaches the risers, which
are the last to solidify.

Solidification
Such a progressive solidification only ensures a sound casting free of
internal voids and shrinkage.
This type of solidification is called directional or progressive
solidification.
Evidently for effective directional solidification, it should start from
the portions which are at the maximum distance form the riser
which feeds them and proceed towards that riser which is the last to
solidify.
The factors through which this directional solidification can be
controlled are the following.
1. Proper design and positioning of gating systems.

2. Proper design and positioning of risers.
3. Use of exothermic materials at the risers or in the facing
sand according to the requirement.
4. Use of metal chills at suitable points in the mould
Chill
A chill is an object used to promote solidification in a specific
portion of a metal casting mold.
Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative

to thickness of the casting.
When the geometry of the molding cavity prevents

directional solidification from occurring naturally, a chill can
be strategically placed to help promote it.
There are two types of chills:

• internal chills and
• external chills.
Chill
Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed inside the
molding cavity.
When the cavity is filled, part of the chill will melt and
ultimately become part of the casting, thus the chill must be
the same material as the casting.
Note that internal chills will absorb both heat capacity and
heat of fusion energy.
External chills are placed on the edge of the molding cavity,

and effectively become part of the wall of the molding cavity.
Padding
The cooling of a casting will initiate from thin section and
move towards the heavier sections.
For the production of a sound casting, the temperature

gradients should be such that no part of the casting remains
without metal during the full solidification cycle.
For this, the thinner section should be tapered towards

heavier sections to change the progressive solidification to
directional solidification.
Padding
This tapering of thinner
section towards thicker
section is known as 'padding'.
However, this will require

extra material.
If padding is not provided,

centre line shrinkage or
porosity will result in the
thinner section.
Stages of Contraction
As stated earlier, the shrinkage or volumetric contraction in a

casting is caused by the fall in its temperature from the pouring to
room temperature. This contraction takes place in the following
three stages:
Liquid Contraction: It occurs during the liquid stage of the metal i.e.
when the molten metal cools down from the pouring temperature to
the temperature at which solidification starts.
Stages of Contraction
Solidification Contraction: It is that shrinkage which occurs when
the change of state of metal takes place from liquid to solid.
Solid Contraction: It is that shrinkage which occurs in the metal

after solidification is complete i.e. when the temperature falls
from the end of solidification to the room temperature.
This shrinkage has no effect on the shrinkage defects in castings.
RISERING
A riser is a passage made in the cope through which the molten
metal rises after the mould is filled up. It provides many
advantage as follows:
 In the initial stages of pouring it allows the air, steam and gases
to go out of the mould.
 on seeing the rising molten metal through it, it is ensured that
the mould cavity has been completely filled up.
 It acts as a reservoir to feed the molten metal to the casting to
compensate the shrinkage during solidification.
RISERING
The terms ‘risering’ in a casting involves the determination of such
size and location of risers, which will enable the production of
favorable temperature gradient for the directional solidification to
take place effectively.
As for the shape of risers, it is recknoned that the best shape is

spherical but on account of the difficulties in the production of this
shape the most popular shape in common use is cylindrical.
It should be large enough so that its solidification takes place in the

last and is capable of holding liquid metal so long as the feeding to
casting is required.
TYPES OF RISERS
Risers are of three types
(A) An open riser and
(B) the blind riser
(C) Side riser
Open Riser:
Its top surface is exposed to atmosphere. It is commonly
employed on the topmost portion of the casting or alternatively
on the side at the parting line.
Normally this riser will not extend into the drag part below the
parting surface.
TYPES OF RISERS
Gravity and atmospheric pressure causes the liquid metal in

the riser to flow into the solidifying casting
But gradually, as the metal on its top solidifies the effect of

atmosphere pressure is reduced and it is totally finished.
TYPES OF RISERS
Blind riser:
It is a round cavity formed either on the top or side of a casting. It
is surrounded from all sides by the moulding sand (a vent may be
provided at its top, which may extend to the top of the mould)
This riser may be located either in the cope or the drag.
It derives its feeding pressure almost entirely from the force of

gravity on the liquid metal in it.
This pressure also reduces gradually due to the occurrence of

vacuum in it as the molten metal is fed into the casting.
Riser must be separated from the casting upon completion so the
connection area must be as small as possible.
Riser Design
Riser Design
Design of a Riser:
1. Riser Shape
2. Riser Size
3. Location of Riser
4. Grouping of castings
5. Riser connection to castings
6. Use of Chills
7. Insulations & exothermic
compounds,
Riser Shape
 Casting loses its thermal energy by transferring it to its surroundings by radiation,
conduction & convection.
 Solidification time was expressed as: ts = V2C / A2C

 According to the solidification time, riser shape is designed, the minimum riser
shape is a sphere…However voids are formed in spheres.
 Practice says that cylindrical shaped risers are ideal…
Riser Design
Riser Size
 Riser is similar to the casting in its solidification behavior, hence the riser
characteristics are also specified by the ratio of its surface area to volume.
 The shape of the riser should be designed such that it has minimum heat loss
and is able to maintain the molten metal in liquid state as long as possible.
i.e., volume of the riser should be minimum and cooling rate of molten metal is
slower
 Optimum riser size for casting is obtained by following methods:
Chvorinov’s Rule
Freezing Ratio ‘X’
Riser Design
Riser Size :
Caine’s Method :
Riser Design
Riser Location
 The fall in the temperature at the ends is more rapid as compared to rest of
casting.
 If the casting have variety of section thickness, the riser must be placed at the
thickest portion.
Grouping of Castings
 Grouping of several castings around a single riser helps in increasing the
casting yield, since the same riser will be able to feed to more than one casting.
 Also by a small variation in the moulding practice, it is possible to reduce
risering requirements.
Riser Design
Riser Connection to the Casting

 The way that a riser is attached to the casting is important because it
determines:
o How well the riser can feed the casting,
o How readily the riser can be removed from the casting.
 It may also control to some extent the depth of shrinkage cavity by solidifying
just before the riser freezes, thereby preventing the cavity from extending into
casting.
Riser Design
Use of Insulators and Exothermic Compounds:

 A riser can be made more efficient by employing some artificial means to keep
the top of the riser from freezing over so that the molten metal beneath can be
exposed to exothermic pressure.
 This can be done by use of certain additions made to the surface of the molten
metal in the riser, preferably as soon as possible after the metal enters the riser.
 Ex: Graphite, Charcoal , rice or oat hulls, and refractory powders (insulators)

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MEC 323

When molten metal is poured into a sand mould, the

Thus a sort of solid shell of reasonable thickness is

This can be described as a solid zone consisting of the

The interior most metal is liquid and the area covering it is

In pure metals there is no distinct mushy zone or to say its

gradual fall in its temperature, it contracts in volume, thus creating

of the casting, which is still liquid.

This process continues till solidification reaches the risers, which

are the last to solidify.

Such a progressive solidification only ensures a sound casting free of

internal voids and shrinkage.

This type of solidification is called directional or progressive

Evidently for effective directional solidification, it should start from

1. Proper design and positioning of gating systems.

Normally the metal in the mold cools at a certain rate relative

When the geometry of the molding cavity prevents

There are two types of chills:

External chills are placed on the edge of the molding cavity,

For the production of a sound casting, the temperature

For this, the thinner section should be tapered towards

However, this will require

If padding is not provided,

As stated earlier, the shrinkage or volumetric contraction in a

Solid Contraction: It is that shrinkage which occurs in the metal

As for the shape of risers, it is recknoned that the best shape is

It should be large enough so that its solidification takes place in the

Gravity and atmospheric pressure causes the liquid metal in

But gradually, as the metal on its top solidifies the effect of

This riser may be located either in the cope or the drag.

It derives its feeding pressure almost entirely from the force of

This pressure also reduces gradually due to the occurrence of

 Solidification time was expressed as: ts = V2C / A2C

Riser Connection to the Casting

Use of Insulators and Exothermic Compounds:

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