ME 2202: Primary Production Processes

CASTING
(Foundry)

Prof. S.K.Sahoo
Classification of solidification processes
 Molding and Casting Processes
•The term molding process refers to method of making the
mold and the materials used for the process.
•The term casting process express a broader meaning which
includes molding, melting, cleaning etc. to get the casting.
1. Expendable mold processes – Mold must be destroyed to remove
casting
– Mold materials: sand, plaster, and similar materials, plus binders
– More intricate geometries are possible with expendable mold
processes
2. Permanent mold processes – Mold which can be used many times to
produce many castings
– Made of metal (or, less commonly, a ceramic refractory material)
– Permanent mold processes are more economic in high
production operations
 Classification of Molding Processes
Casting processes can be classified into following FOUR
categories:
1. Conventional Molding Processes
•Green Sand Molding • Skin-dry sand molding
•Dry Sand Molding • Cement-bonded sand molding
•Flask less Molding
2. Chemical Sand Molding Processes
• Shell (CO2) Molding • Sodium Silicate Molding
•No-Bake Molding
3. Permanent Mold Processes
•Gravity feed • Low Pressure • Hot & Cold chamber die Casting
4. Special mold Processes
•Lost Wax • Lost foam • Ceramics Shell • Vacuum Sealed Molding
•Centrifugal Casting • Continuous casting
Different Molding & Casting Processes
 Metals processed by casting
•Sand casting – 60%
•Investment casting – 7%
•Die casting – 9%
•Permanent mold casting – 11%
•Centrifugal casting – 7%
•Shell mold casting – 6%
Sand casting
This is a single use mold (expendable mold) of sand
aggregates as measure constituents & permanent pattern
casting process. This is most extensively used. Steps
involved are:
Production Steps in Sand-Casting
 Sand Casting mold Terminology

Flask: It is the supporting frame of the mold. For two piece mold, the
top one is called cope & bottom one is called drag. The dividing line
between two is called parting line. If there piece flask used then
middle one is called cheek.
Core: A shape inserted into the mold to form internal cavities
Core Print: A region used to support the core
Sand Mold and Casting Terminology

Chaplet: A metal support used to hold a core in place in a mold. Not

used when a core print will serve.
Chills: Metallic object placed in mold to increase cooling rate.
Bottom board: This is a wooden board used to start the mould making.
 Casting Terminology
Pouring Basin (Cup)
It is the small funned shaped cavity at the top of
the mold into which the molten metal is poured.
Sprue: It is the vertical channel through which the
molten metal from pouring basin goes to runner &
reaches the mould cavity.
Runners :It is the horizontal channels which carries molten metal
from sprue to cavity.
Gate /ingate :Channels used to deliver metal into the mold cavity.
Mold Cavity
The hollow mold area in which metal solidifies into the part. It is
formed packing sand around a pattern, then separating the mold
into two halves and removing the pattern.
Riser : An extra cavity to store additional metal to compensate liquid
shrinkage during solidification. The riser must be designed to freeze
after the main casting in order to satisfy its function.
Vents: It is provided to help the escape of gas from the cavity.
 Types of Sand molds
Green Sand moulds The term "green" denotes mold contains moisture at time of
pouring . The mold material consists of silica sand mixed with a suitable bonding
agent (usually clay) and moisture.
•Dry-sand molds - organic binders rather than clay and mold is baked
to improve strength, completely dried keeping oven (150-350°C).
Better surface finish, strength & dimensional accuracy.
•Skin-dried molds - drying mold cavity surface of a green-sand mold
to a depth of 10 to 25 mm, using heating torches or lamps.
•Cement-bonded Sand Moulds: It uses a mixture of sand 8-12 percent of hydraulic
cement 4-6% water. Due to the presence of cement it develops great hardness and
strength. Accuracy increase & can be used for large & intricate stapes mould.

•Core Sand Moulds: Core sands usually consist of mixture of sand grains and organic
binders which develop greater strength after backing at 150-350°C. Intricate shape, thin
projects can be made on casting. Costly, cannot be reused and reshaped.
 Sand Casting
Advantages Disadvantages Recommended
Application

Least Expensive in Dimensional accuracy Use when

small quantities (less inferior to other strength/weight
than 100) processes, requires larger ratio permits
tolerances
Ferrous and non - Tolerances,
ferrous metals may be Castings usually exceed surface finish and
cast calculated weight low machining
cost does not
Possible to cast very Surface finish of ferrous warrant a more
large parts. castings usually exceeds expensive process
125 RMS
Least expensive tooling
 Types of green sand molding/casting methods
•Open Sand Molding:

It is made on the floor of the foundry shop, it can be

employed to a solid single piece pattern with flat top
surface. After proper ramming pattern is pressed to
make the mold, pouring basin and overflow channel
are made at the side of mold.

•Bedded-in method :
When upper surface of the caste is not flat, cope and drag are used.
First sand is rammed and level in drag and pattern lower half is
pressed, then cope is fitted and sand is rammed around. Afterwards, it
is lifted to remove the pattern.
 Types of green sand molding/casting methods

•Floor molding: In this method , medium and large moulds are directly
carried out on the floor with proper flask (cope & drag). Slow and
laboring.

•Pit molding: For large castings, molding is carried out in

the pits which serve as flask. Slow and laboring.
•Bench molding: It is carried out on a convenient foundry
bench, can be green-sand, skin-dry, dry sand , etc.
•Turn-over method: When split patterns are used cope &
drag are made separate & fitted together to make the mold
cavity & other features. It is widely used for most of the sand
molding/casting process.
 Sand Mold Making Procedure
• Preparation of pattern, core, pouring basin,
sprue, riser, etc before starting molding.
•The first step is to place the drag part
pattern on the molding board facing
downward.
•The drag part flask is placed on the board.
•Dry facing sand is sprinkled over the board
and pattern to provide a non sticky layer.
•Molding sand is then firmly packed &
rammed.
•Vent holes are made be vent rod in the drag
to the full depth of the flask to facilitate the
removal of gases during pouring and
solidification.
 Sand Mold Making Procedure
•The finished drag flask is now turn over
to the bottom board exposing the pattern.
•Cope half of the pattern is then placed
over the drag pattern with the help of
dowel pins. The cope flask on the drag
is located aligning again with the help of
pins.
•The dry parting sand is sprinkled all
over the drag and on the pattern.
• A sprue pin, riser pin, if required,
is placed at an appropriate place
 Sand Mold Making Procedure continue…

•The sand filling, ramming & venting of the cope

done in the same manner as performed in the drag.
•The sprue and riser pins are removed first and a
pouring basin is scooped out at the top to pour the
liquid metal.
•Then pattern from the cope and drag is removed
and facing sand in the form of paste is applied all
over the mold cavity and runners which would give
the finished casting a good surface finish.
•The mold is now assembled with core. The mold
now is ready for pouring.
• After solidification mold is
broken, attached parts are cut
out to get the desired product
Sequence In Preparing A Sand Casting Example-1
Example-2
Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
• Shell Molding
• CO2 or Sodium silicate molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Lost Foam/Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold Casting
• Ceramic Mold Casting
 Plaster Mold Casting
• Similar to sand casting except mold is made of
plaster of Paris (gypsum - CaSO4-2H2O)
• Slurry of plaster of paris (CaSO4), talc, silica flour and
water is poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
– Wood patterns not generally used due to
extended contact with water
• Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish
 Plaster Mold Casting
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross-sections in casting
• Disadvantages:
– Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
• Mold must be baked to remove moisture
• Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet
moisture content can cause defects in product
– Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures, so
limited to lower melting point alloys
 Ceramic Mold Casting

•Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is made by

slurry of refractory ceramic materials (silica, powdered
Zircon (ZrSiO4) that can withstand higher temperatures than
plaster of paris
 Ceramic Mold Casting

•The slurry forms a shell over the pattern, dried in a low temperature
oven, backed by clay to give strength, baked by a heating torch to
burn-off volatiles, molten metal is poured, part is taken out by
breaking the mold.
• Application: Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast irons,
and other high-temperature alloys
•Advantages: good accuracy and finish, Capability to make thin
cross-sections
 Shell molding

•It is a casting process in which the mold is a thin shell of

sand held together by thermosetting resin binder .

•The sand mixture contains dry sand & synthetic resin

binders (polyester, alkyls, urea formaldehydes) by 3-10%.

•The metal pattern is heated to a temp of 200-400°c and

the sand mixture is sprayed on to it. Due to the synthetic
resin the sand set on the pattern & we can get a thickness
of the 7-25 mm. After curing & solidification we can get the
shell after removing the pattern. This shell is used for
molding process.
 Shell molding
• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of
molten metal and better surface finish on casting
– Good dimensional accuracy
– Machining often not required
– Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
 Steps in shell-molding

Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall

A heated metal pattern is placed over a onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of
dump box containing sand mixed with the mixture to partially cure on the
thermosetting resin surface to form a hard shell

sand shell is heated in oven for

box is repositioned so that loose uncured several minutes to complete curing
particles drop away
 Steps in shell-molding

shell mold is stripped

from the pattern finished casting
with sprue
two halves of the shell mold are removed
assembled, supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and pouring is
accomplished
 Vertical/horizontal Flaskless Molding

•It is a mechanization of molding

process.
•In this flaskless systems, the two
mold halves completely contained Sand is supplied from a hoper
the sand supplied from a hopper into the two halves of the pattern

and squeezes against a pattern (or

multiple patterns).
•Gating system is incorporated in
the pattern.
Sand is squeezed between two
halves of the pattern
 Vertical/horizontal Flaskless Molding
•In flaskless molding (whether
vertical or horizontal) instead of
using "tight" individual flasks for
each mold produced, the master
flask is contained as an integral
unit of the totally mechanized Sand is squeezed between two
halves of the pattern
mold producing system.
•Once the mold has been stripped
from the integral mold producing
unit, it is held against the other
half of the mold with enough
pressure to allow pouring of the Assembled molds pass along an
assembly line for pouring
metal.
 Vacuum Molding/Casting

• Uses sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than

by a chemical binder
• Vacuum, of the order of 250 – 450 mm Hg, is imposed to bind
the dry free flowing sand encapsulated in between two plastic
films.
 Vacuum Molding/Casting
• Advantages: Easy recovery of the sand,
since binders not used
– Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture-related defects are absent
• Disadvantages: S low process and not
readily adaptable to mechanization
• The process begins by draping a thin sheet of plastic over a special
pattern, which is then drawn tightly to the pattern surface by a
pattern vacuum.
• A vacuum flask is then placed over the pattern, the flask is filled with
sand, a sprue and pouring cup are formed, and a second sheet of
plastic is placed over the mold.
• A second vacuum is then drawn on the flask itself, compacting the
sand and providing the necessary strength and hardness.
• The pattern vacuum is released, the pattern is withdrawn, and the
mold halves are assembled.
• The mold is poured while maintaining a vacuum in both the cope and
drag segments of the flask
 Sodium silicate or CO2 molding
•This process involves a mixture of sand and 1.5 to 6 percent liquid
silicate. The mixture is packed around the pattern and CO2 is passed
through the core or mold.
•The CO2 chemically reacts with the sodium silicate, harden the
binder and make a shell around the pattern. After curing, the
pattern is withdrawn and the mold is ready for use.
Disadvantage of the process:
•Binder is very hygroscopic and readily absorbs water, which
causes a porosity in the castings.
• Also, because the binder creates such a hard, rigid mold wall,
shakeout and collapsibility characteristics can slow down
production.
Advantages of the process are:
•A hard, rigid core and mold are typical of the process, which
gives the casting good dimensional tolerances;
•Good casting surface finishes are readily obtainable.
 Lost Foam Casting or evaporative casting
Example -1

Steps:

• A pattern is prepared by polystyrene foam.

• Polystyrene pattern is coated with refractory compound by dipping in
a slurry or by spray.
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers, gating system, and
internal cores. Splitting of pattern is not required for this process.
• A mold is prepared packing sand around a polystyrene foam pattern
• Metal is poured into mold, vaporizes the pattern and fill the mold.
• After cooling cast is taken out breaking the mold.
 Lost Foam Casting or evaporative casting
Example -2 • Advantages:
– Pattern need not be
removed from the mold
– Simplifies and expedites
mold-making

• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern for every casting
– Added cost of producing patterns

Application
• Mass production of castings for automobile engines
• Easily automated
 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)
• It uses a expendable pattern made of wax. It is coated with a refractory
material ( silica, aluminium oxide, Zr(SO)4 ) to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal.
• "Investment" comes from one of the less familiar definitions of "invest" -
"to cover completely," which refers to coating of refractory material around
wax pattern
• Advantages:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required - this is a net shape process
• Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required, time required is more
– Relatively expensive process
 Steps in investment casting
(1)Wax patterns are produced by
injection molding process

(2) Several patterns are attached to a

wax sprue to form a pattern tree

(3) Pattern tree is immersed into

ceramic slurry (ceramic + water,
ethyl silicate), A coating of thin
layer of refractory material is made.
 Steps in investment casting
(4) The thickness of mold is
increased by repeating the
process to cover the coated tree
with sufficient refractory
material to make it rigid

(5) Mold is held in an inverted

position and heated to temperature
of 90-1750C to melt the wax and
permit it to drip out of the cavity
(6) Mold is preheated to a high temperature 650-
10500C, which ensures high strength and expel
volatile materials from the mold. It also permits the
liquid metal to flow more easily into the detailed
cavity. Molten metal is poured; it solidifies inside.

(7) Mold is broken away . The finished casting -parts

are separated from the sprue.
Steps in investment casting
• Application:
A one-piece compressor
stator with 108 separate
airfoils made by
investment casting

Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax
pattern assembly. (b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is
melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum, with molten superalloy.
(d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape
Properties required for molding sand aggregate / materials
•Refractoriness: Withstand high temp, does not fuse. The
refractoriness of the silica sand is highest
•Green Strength: Sand contains moisture called green. It
should have strength to retain its stapes during molding
process.
•Dry strength: When molten metal is poured, it become
dry. This dry sand should have sufficient strength to
withstand the force of flowing molten metal and retain its
shape.
• Hot Strength: To retain in strength/hardness at high temp.
of molten metal when it’s dry.
Properties required for molding sand aggregate / materials
•Permeability: to allow hot air and gases to pass through
voids in sand
•Good thermal conductivity – take away the heat of molten
metal for its proper solidification
•Collapsibility - ability to give way and allow casting to
shrink without cracking the casting during solidification.
sometimes obtained by adding cereals or other organic
material, such as cellulose, that burn out when they come in
contact with the hot metal. The combustion reduces both
the volume and strength of the restraining sand.
Reusability - sand from broken mold be reused to make
other molds
 Properties of a good molding sand continue…

•Flow ability: Respond to molding process, ie, easily flow to the

intricate corners of pattern to make a complex shape mold.
•Thermal stability - to resist cracking on contact with molten
metal
• Friability : Should easily crumbled /broken after casting
•Adhesiveness.
• Chemical resistivity.
• Binding properly.
•Availability and low cost.
• The mold must be strong enough to hold the weight of the metal,
• The mold must resist the erosive action of the rapidly flowing metal
during pouring,
• The mold must generate minimum amount of gas when filled with
molten metal.
 MOLDING SAND
•Silica Sand: Fusin point – 17600C, 98% SiO2. It has high
thermal expanse than others.
• Olivine Sand: It is complex mix of ortho silicate of iron and
magnesium from mineral dunite, limited available in India, but
popular in Europe. Fusion temp. 18000C
•Chromite Sand: costlier, solid solution of many complex
metallic oxides. High fusion point ~at 18500C.
•Zircon sand: Oxides of zircon (Zr2O) 67% and silica (SiO2)
33%. Fusion point is 26000C and less thermal expansion. use
in atomic reaction, so costly and not available.
•Chamotte Sand: It is obtained by calcinating fire-clay i.e.
(Al2O3-SiO2) at above 11000C. Its fusion temp. is 17500C used
for dry sand molding
 MOLDING SAND TYPE
(A). As per preparation
Desirable Mold Properties and Characteristics
i) Natural sand- As available from river bed. Varied proportion of
sand, clay, and water. Low cost but poor performance.
Typical mixture: 80% SiO2, 3% Al2O3, 6% Fe2O3, 20% clay.
ii) Synthetic sand- It is prepared mixing clay free dry sand+ binder
(clay, betonites or resins) + water + additives to improve the
property.
(B) As per the molding process:
1. Green sand: Fresh sand with moisture, without drying.
2. Dry sand: Without water.
3. Loam sand: 50% clay, 18-20%water + fire clay, cow dung, chopped
stray, coal, rice husk, saw dust is added for binder. Used to make a thin
section.

46
(C) As per its use in mold

• Base sand:It is the main sand that surrounds the mould cavity,
mixed with clay & other additives.
•Facing sand: It is used directly next to the surface of pattern about 30-
100mm thickness and it comes into contact with the molten metal. Since
it is subjected to the most server conditions, it must posses high strength
and refractoriness. Without addition of used sand, 20% in volume.
• Backing sand: The balance mold sand is filled with cheaper & used
sand of low strength. It is the old, used sand, black in corner, low bond
strength, and 80% of volume.
•System sand: When we are not using two type of sand , in
mechanization process of castings, it uses one sand with proper mix to
fill the entire mold, called system sand.
•Parting sand: It is used to sprinkle at the separation surface of the drag
and cope, so as the green sand will not stick to each other and with
pattern. It is dry cline and clay free sand i.e. burnt core sand.
•Mould washes: These are slurries of fine ceramic
grains applied over mould surface to minimize fusion of
the facing sand and to produce smoother surface.

Other Specialized sand are

•CO2 sand: Silica grain + sodium silicate is packed
around the pattern and passed through by CO2 so as it
harden to give mould.
•Shell sand: Synthetic sand added with binder of phenol
or urea-formal dehydrates resins and cured by heating to
give shape.
•Core sand: SiO2 + core oil (linseed oil, resin, light
mineral oil….) used to make core.
 Ingredients of Molding Sand
•Base sand: 80-95% of molding refectory aggregate is silica or zircon in
the form of granular quartz (sand). It could be fine medium or course as
regarding size. Rounded, angular, semi-angular, compounded as
regarding shape. Fine sand used for small casting & intricate shape as
permeability is less . Medium sand for bench work light work. Course
sand for large casting for escape of gas.
•Binders: It is added to base sand to give bond cohesion and strength to
the mixed sand on ramming so as to take the shape in mold and retain it
under the pressure, temperature and erosion of liquid metal when poured.
o Clay: It is the most generally used binding agent, as it is low cost and
wider utility. Clay is a weathered product of silicon containing hydro
silicates of aluminum (Al2O3) as flake shaped particles about 0.2mm
diameter in soften condition. When combined with water, they produce a
plastic or semi-plastic mass.
oThe most popular clay types used are: Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3
2SiO2 2H2O) melting point 1750-17800C. Betonites (Al2O3 4SiO2 H2O
nH2O) of melting point 1250-13000C. Betonites can be sodium betonite
or calcium betonite. Calcium betonite has less strength as it absorb iron ,
melting point 9500C.
oSodium silicate as binder: Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) or
(Na2O)n(SiO2)m obtained by fusing pure silicate (SiO2) with washing
soda (NO2CO3) at high temp. (16500C). It is a thick viscous fluid which
generate strong bond when mixed with sand and CO2 is passed through.
oOil as binders: Vegetable oil such as linseed oil, marine oil also produce
bonding of sand. These develop bond and strength by curing involving
the linolic acid in these oils act as the main hardening constituent when
heated at temp. 120-2000C. Gas evolution occur and became brittle at
high temp. Also high cost, so it is not used.
•Resin binders: Resins are high melting point gums obtained
by chemical alteration of vegetable gum or made synthetically
from furans and phenolics. In example: Urea formaldehyde
(UF), phenol-formaldehyde (PF). The final bond quality can
be controlled, lower gas evaluation, collapsibility, good
furnishing etc. make it popular for use.
•Water: Clay is activated by water so that it develops the
necessary plasticity and strength. The normal percentage of
water is 2-8%. Some part is absorbed by clay and other helps
in improves plasticity. But more water than normal decreases
strength and formability.
•Additives: These materials are added to molding sand and core sands to
give special properties other than normal bodings, such as :
Surface finish
Dry strength at skin or mold surface
Refractoriness for mold or core
Cushioning materials which burn off and allow expansion of sand
grains prevention expansion-oriented defects such as scabbing or
improve collapsibility.
•Surface finish improvement: These are reducing agents added up to 5%
to prevent wetting of the sand grains by liquid metal i.e. decrease metal
penetration and surface defects such as “burn on”. These additives make
protective gases envelop at mold surface preventing fusion of sand with
hot liquid. But more addition can create decrease of permeability and
strength. Ex. coal powder, pitch, sea-coal, creosote or fuel oil.
•Dry strength and higher skin strength of mold surface. These
organic compound are added up to 2% for this purpose and
also at high temp. it burn off so as to improve the collapsibility
and finishing of casting. Ex. Cereal binder like dextrin, starch,
molasses.
•Refractoriness: These additives are added up to 2% to
prevent hot cracking of molds ministration. Ex. Iron oxide
powder, silica flour (99% SiO2) or zircon flour.
•Cushioning materials: These are organic fibers material added
up to 3% so that they burn off and create voids to allow
expansion of sand grains prevents of sand hot-cracks, scabbing
hot tear, etc. Ex. Wood-flour, sand-dust, powders husk, peat,
straw etc.
 Sand conditioning
•It is the proper mixing of sand, binder & other additives to
control the different property as per requirements .
Steps:
•Removal of any foreign material in mixture .
•Adequate mixing & tempering- different machine’s like
batch muller, continuous muller are used .
•Control of sand temperature.
•Aerating the sand by
beating the sand
 Sand Quality tests
Tests are necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand.
•Blended molding sand is characterized by the following attributes:
Moisture content, clay content, compactibility
•Properties of compacted sand
Mold hardness, permeability, strength, fineness

Standard Tests are:

a) Hardness Test (Mold Hardness): A spring loaded (2.3

N) steel ball 5.08 mm in diameter is pressed into the
surface of the mold and depth of penetration is
recorded as hardness. Medium hardness is about
75.
 Sand Quality tests
b) Fineness Test: It is used to obtain
6
percentage distribution of grain sizes in the 12
sand. Sand is cleaned and dried to remove
clay. It is placed on graded sieves, which are
located on a shaker. Standard sieve sizes 270
(mesh) are 6,12,20,30,40,50,70,100,200 vibrator
and 270. Shaking time is 15 minutes.
c) Moisture Content: Measure the weight of the given sand sample.
Dry it around 1000C and then weigh it again. Calculate the
percentage. Can be measured by measuring the electrical
conductivity .
d) Clay Content: A sample of sand is dried and then weighed. Then
clay is removed by washing the sand with caustic soda which has
absorbed the clay. Sand is dried and weighed again. The percentage
gives the clay content.
 Sand Quality tests

e) Strength Test: Most common compressive test. A universal

strength tester loads a 50 mm long 50 mm diameter specimen
by means of dead weight pendulum with a uniform loading rate.

f) Permeability: It is measured by the quantity of air piston

that passes through a given sample of sand in a
Sand
prescribed time under standard pressures.
g) Refractoriness Test: High temperature
withstanding ability of sand is measured.
h) Compactibility: It is determined by sifting sand into a steel cylinder,
leveling off the column, striking it three times with a standard weight (as
in the permeability test), and then measuring the final height. The
percent compactibility is the change in height divided by the original
height, times 100%.

57
 Slush casting
• A solidification skin will be developed first in a casting at mould wall.
This skin will grow become thicker with time.
•Hollow casting with thin wall can be made by this principle. The
molten metal is poured into the mould, after reaching desired wall
thickness, the remaining molten is poured out.
•Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by this process.
•The skin is thinner at internal angles than at external angles
 Permanent mold casting
• In permanent mould casting process a mould is used repeatedly .
•The mold is generally in two halves , are made from materials
such as cast iron ,steel , bronze, graphite or refractory metal
alloys.
•In order to increase the life of permanent molds , the surface of
the cavity is coated with refractory materials.
•Mechanical ejectors such as pins/ pneumatic/hydraulic ejectors
are provided for removal of casting .
•Preheating of the mold & controlled cooling by water circulation
maintain the uniform mould temperature .
•The mold cavity & gating systems are machined into the mold &
thus become an integral part.
•Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections designed for easy,
precise opening and closing
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
Advantages Disadvantages Recommended
Application
Good dimensional Economical only in very High volume production
tolerances are large quantities due to high and can be automated
possible tool cost accordingly

Excellent part-part Automotive pistons,

dimensional Generally limited to metals of pump bodies, and certain
consistency lower melting point castings for aircraft and
missiles .
Parts require a Simple part geometries
minimal post compared to sand casting Aluminum, magnesium,
machining because of the need to open copper-base alloys, and
the mold cast iron

High cost of mold

 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• The processes include:
– Gravity feed permanent mold casting
– Low pressure permanent mold casting
– Die casting
• Hot chamber die casting
• Cold chamber die casting
– Centrifugal casting
– Continuous casting
– Squeeze casting
– Slush casting
 Gravity feed permanent mold casting

Step 1: mold is preheated Step 2: cores (if used) are inserted and
and coated mold is closed.
•In this process the molds are in two
halves & molten liquid flow from top
to mold cavity by gravity force .
•One mold is stationary, other one is
hydraulically actuated for closing and
Step 3: molten metal is poured into opening.
the mold, where it solidifies.
 Low pressure permanent mold casting

•In this process the mold is

kept just over the furnace &
molten metal is fed by air
pressure of about 0.1MPa
directly from the furnace .
• So molten metal will not
exposed to atmosphere, clear
metal will flow .
•By controlling pressure we can minimize turbulence.
•As pressure is maintained till casting is solidify no riser is
required .
 Die Casting
• A permanent mold casting process in which molten metal is injected
into mold cavity under high pressure upto 350MPa.
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then mold is opened and
part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies; hence the name die
casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is what
distinguishes this from other permanent mold processes
Type of Die Casting
• Designed to hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep
them closed while liquid metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot-chamber Die casting
2. Cold-chamber Die casting
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting

With die closed and plunger

withdrawn, molten metal
flows into the chamber

•High production rates

- 500 parts per hour
•Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects liquid
metal under high pressure into the die
 •Applications limited to
low melting-point metals
that do not chemically
attack plunger and other
mechanical components
Plunger forces metal in chamber to
flow into die, maintaining pressure
•Casting metals: zinc, tin,
during cooling and solidification lead, and magnesium
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting

• Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber

from external melting container, and then a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
•Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and magnesium alloys
 Ram forces metal to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification

•High production but not usually as fast as

hot-chamber machines because of pouring step
 Die Casting
Advantages Disadvantages Recommended
Application
Economical only in very large
quantities due to high tool cost Use when
Good dimensional
tolerances are quantity of
possible
Not recommended for parts justifies
hydrostatic pressure the high tooling
Excellent part-
applications
part dimensional cost
consistency
For Castings where penetrant
(die) or radiographic Parts are not
Parts require a
minimal post
inspection are not required. structural and
machining are subjected to
Difficult to guarantee
hydrostatic
minimum mechanical
properties pressure
 Centrifugal Casting
• A group of casting processes in which the mold is
rotated at high speed so centrifugal force distributes
molten metal to outer regions of die cavity
• The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting

• The method involves pouring molten metal into a cylindrical mold

spinning about its axis of symmetry. The mold is kept rotating till the
metal has solidified.
• The lighter elements like impurities tend to collect on inner surface of
casting .
• Parts: gun barrels, sewage pipe, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round, octagonal, hexagonal, etc ,
but inside shape is (theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces .
 Steps of Centrifugal casting :

•The mold wall is coated by a refractory

ceramic coating
•Starting rotation of the mold at a
predetermined speed.
•Pouring a molten metal directly into the Horizontal type centrifugal casting
mold
•The mold is stopped after the casting
has solidified.
•Extraction of the casting from the mold.
•Mold material : steels, Cast irons,
Graphite may be used.
•Sometime it may be also vertical type.

Vertical type centrifugal casting

 Semi-centrifugal Casting
• Centrifugal force is
used to produce
solid castings rather
than tubular parts
• Molds are designed
with risers at center
to supply feed
metal

•Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer sections than at

center of rotation
•Often used on parts in which center of casting is machined away, thus
eliminating the portion where quality is lowest
•Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Centrifuge Casting
• Mold is designed with part cavities located away from axis of
rotation, so that molten metal poured into mold is distributed
to these cavities by centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in other centrifugal
casting methods
 Continuous casting
•In this process the molten metal
is poured into a heated
permanent mold cavity with
proper cooling system at outlet.
•The molten metal travels
through water cooled copper
molds and begins to solidify as it
travels downward along a path
supported by rollers (pinch rolls).
•It is used extensively for producing blooms, billets , & slabs .

• Continuous
casting in nature
 Squeeze-Casting

•The molten metal is squeeze and forced to fill the die cavity
to get the shape as required after solidification.
•This process combines the advantages of casting and forging.