BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
ME-2010
Credits [3-0-0]
Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th Semester,
B.Tech, 2019
No of Cumulative
Modules Topic/Course Content
Classes (Hrs) Classes (Hrs)
Pattern making, pattern materials, allowances , types of
2 1-2
pattern,
Sand casting types, sand cast, moulding procedure, types
2 3,4
of sand, gates and riser (basic design considerations)
Essential properties of moulding sand, core making, types
Module-1 of cores, Essential qualities, core mixtures and binder sand
Foundry Process testing, Mould and core hardness test, fineness test, clay 4 5-8
content test, permeability test, moisture content test, sand
conditioning.
Cleaning of casting and defects in casting 3 9-11

Die casting, precision investment casting, shell moulds,

3 12,13,14
centrifugal casting processes, permanent moulds casting.

Preparation of powder, properties of powder, 2 15,16

Module-3
Powder Metallurgy Fabrication methods & procedure, applications,
2 17,18
advantages.
 Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th
Semester, B.Tech, 2019, cont.
MID SEMESTER 2019
Hot and cold working of Metals: Basic Principles of hot and cold working of metals. 1 19
Rolling: Types of Rolling, Rolling equipments hot and cold rolling, General deformation
pattern, Pressure and forces in rolling, Distribution of roll pressure, angle of bite, effect of
rolling on microstructure, Rolling defects, Numericals on rolling load and power
4 20-23
Module-2 required for reduction.
Metal Working Process Forgings: Smith forging, Drop forging, press forging & Machine forging, Description of 2 24,25
Presses and hammers,forging defects.
Extrusion: Direct, Indirect and impact extrusion and their applications, Extrusion
defects, Determination of extrusion force.
1 26
Drawing: Wire and rod drawing, Tube drawing, Process variables in drawing process,
Deep drawing, Determination of drawing force.
1 27
Fabrication Processes: Classification, types of welding joints, 1 28
Gas welding principles, types of flames, quipment,techniques of gas cutting. 2 29,30

Electric Arc Welding: Principles of electric welding equipments and electrodes (in brief),
1 31
Module-4 Principles of Inert Gas Welding. TIG, MIG, sub-merged arc welding. Atomic hydrogen
Fabrication Processes: welding, plasma are welding. 2 32,33
Resistance Welding: Principle of forge welding, spot-seam, Projection, Upset-butt
welding, flash welding. Thermit -Welding
2 34,35
Electro-slag welding, friction welding Brazing, Soldering., Welding defects and
inspection
1 36
END SEMESTER 2019-20
Text Book:
1: Manufacturing Technology, P.N.Rao (Tata Mc-Graw Hill, Publication, Co. Ltd.)
2: Manufacturing Processes, J.Kausish, PHI (2nd Edition)

Reference Books:
1: Manufacturing Technology: Materials, Processes and Equipment: Helmi A. Youssef, Hassan A. El. Hofy and M.H.
Ahmed, CRC Press, 2015
2: Principles of Manufacturing materials and Processes, J.S Campbell, TMH
3: Welding and Welding Technology, R.Little, TMH, 43rd reprint, 2014
4: Manufacturing Science, A. Ghosh & A.K.Mallick, EWP
5: Elements of Manufacturing Processes, B.S.N. Parasar, R.K. Mittal, PHI
Powder Metallurgy
POWDER METALLURGY PROCESS
Module-3
POWDER METALLURGY PROCESS
 POWDER METALLURGY
Definition of Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

Art and science of producing fine metal powders and semi-finished

or finished components or parts from individual, mixed or alloyed
metal powders with or without the inclusions of non-metallic
constituents
 WHY POWDER METALLURGY ?
Feasible when
1. The melting point of a metal is too high such
as W, Ta, Mo
2. The reaction occurs when melting such as Zr
and for super hard tool materials
3. Limitation of solubility of solute in melting/
liquid condition
4. Near-net shape, No waste, controlled porosity,
Dimension control better than casting
Basic Steps In Powder Metallurgy (P/M)

1. Powder Manufacture
2. Powder
Characterization &
Testing
3. Powder Conditioning
and Blending/Mixing
4. Powder Compaction
5. Sintering
6. Heat Treatment &
Finishing Operations
Basic Steps In Powder Metallurgy (P/M)
Industrial Processing Steps
 Powder
Production

 Atomization the most

common
 Others
 Chemical reduction of
oxides
 Electrolytic deposition
 Different
shapes
produced
 Will affect compaction
process significantly
Powder Production cont.
Powder Production cont.
 Powder Production cont.
Comminution
(a)

Fig: Methods of mechanical comminution, to obtain fine

particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball mill, & (c) hammer milling
This method is generally applied for the preparation of
powders of brittle materials
 Powder Production cont.
Physico-chemical processes : Condensation

• Used for production of zinc and magnesium powders

• Modified distillation technique
• Zinc oxide mixed with charcoal is heated until zinc vapor is formed
by the reaction of zinc oxide and carbon monoxide. Subsequently,
zinc vapor is condensed in the first and second condenser units in
form of fine zinc powder
• Main disadvantage is high oxidation, which is difficult to control
 Powder Production cont.
Thermal Decomposition Gaseous Pyrolysis
Method
• Used for production of iron and nickel powders from their carbonyl’s,
which at a certain temperature and pressure decompose to give a gas
and a metal
• Carbonyl’s like Fe(CO)5 and Ni(CO)4 are obtained by passing carbon
monoxide over spongy or powdered metal at suitable temperature (200
– 270 0C) and pressure (70 – 200 atm). At reduced pressure (one atm) and
elevated temperature (150 – 400 0C), both these carbonyl’s decompose to
form carbon monoxide gas and metal powder
 Powder Production cont.
Thermal Decomposition Gaseous Pyrolysis Method

Also called Indirect distillation:

Examples: (1) Purification of Ni by carbonyl process:
Ni (s, impure) + 4 CO (g) = Ni(CO)4 (g, BP: 430C) at 450C
Ni(CO)4 (g) = 4 CO (g) + Ni (s, pure) at 2400C
S is employed as catalyst. 1st reaction is favored under pressure, since there is
volume decrease, 2nd reaction under vacuum.
Similar reaction for Fe.

Temperature, ΔG˚, Ni(CO)4, ΔG˚, Fe(CO)5, K, Ni(CO)4 K, Fe(CO)5

0C cal/mole cal/mole
26 - 21,081 - 8369 2.87 x 1015 1.37 x 106

126 - 10,975 + 10,085 9.94 x 105 3.08 x 10-6

226 -1158 + 26,057 3.21 4.06 x 10-12

 Powder Production cont.
Reduction
• Most widely used, oldest, convenient, economical and
extremely flexible method (regarding controlling shape, size
and porosity) of producing iron, copper, nickel, tungsten,
molybdenum and cobalt powders
• Extremely fine powders with irregular shaped particles are
generally formed
• Metal compounds generally oxides (small quantities of
formats, oxalates and halides) are reduced by the use of
reducing agents (hydrogen, dissociated NH3, CO, coal gas,
enriched blast furnace gas, natural gas, partially combusted
hydrocarbons or alkali metal vapors and carbon) either in
solid or gaseous form
 Powder Production cont.

Electro Deposition from Aqueous Solutions &

Fused Salts (Electrolysis Method)
• Reversed adaptation of electroplating technique, used for
commercial production of copper, beryllium, iron, zinc, tin, nickel,
cadmium, antimony, silver and lead powders
• Main advantages are economical production, high purity, uniform
shape, size and size distribution
• Main disadvantages are unsuitability for alloy powders, time
consuming method, low productivity and high cost
 Powder Production cont.
Precipitation from Aqueous Solution
• Addition of less noble metal higher in the electromotive series
displaces and precipitates the metal from its aqueous solution
• Produces very fine powders with low apparent density
• Used extensively for production of gold and silver powders

Precipitation from Fused Salt

• Similar to precipitation from aqueous solution and only difference is
that salts of metal fused with some reactive agents are heated to high
temperature to produce metal powders
• Used for the production of zirconium, beryllium and thorium
powders
 Powder Production cont.
Hydrometallurgical / Gaseous Reduction
• Metal powders of nickel, cobalt and copper are produced on
commercial scale
• Involves reduction of aqueous solutions or slurries of salts of metals
with hydrogen under particular combination of high pressure (400 –
900 psi) and temperature (130 – 210 0C)
• Characterized by use of low grade of ores and production of very
highly pure powders with narrow range of particle size distribution
having spherical shapes and high apparent density
 Powder Production cont.

Oxidation and decarburization

• Used for the production of pure reactive metal powders,
particularly niobium
• Metal carbide and metal oxides are reacted in vacuum at elevated
temperature so that both oxygen and carbon are removed as carbon
monoxide
• Name is given because it removes both oxygen and carbon
simultaneously
Shape Factor
 Powder Characterization & Testing
• Economical manufacturing of P/M parts & components
depends upon the physical & chemical characteristics of
the powders, which in turn depend upon the type of
manufacturing method utilized for the production of the
metal powders
• Important to test and verify that powder is suitable for
subsequent processing
• Sampling technique is performed to test the powder
 Powder Conditioning
Metal powders directly after production are generally not suitable
further processing as they does not possess favorable physical or
chemical properties and thus require powder conditioning, which
involves mechanical, thermal (heat treatment) or chemical treatments
or physical alloying (additives as binders) treatments

Conditioning Methods Used

• Preliminary heat treatment in reducing atmosphere or vacuum like
annealing , which reduces work-hardening, improves apparent
density, decreases oxidation, improves purity, improves pressing
(compressibility & compactability) characteristics
• Blending & mixing (blending is through intermingling of different
powders of same composition and material, whereas mixing is the
intermingling of powders of different materials)
 Characterization Methods
•Chemical composition ( wt analysis or XRD of SEM)
•Particle size & their distribution ( Sieve Analysis)
•Particle shape ( SEM)
•Particle microstructure ( Optical Microscope /SEM)
•Apparent density
•Tap/ packed density
•Flow rate
•Compressibility & compact ability
•Green density & porosity
•Green strength ( Just after compaction before sintering)
 Blending or Mixing
 Can use master alloys, (most commonly) or elemental
powders that are used to build up the alloys
 Master alloys are with the normal alloy ingredients

 Elemental or pre-alloyed metal powders are first mixed

with lubricants or other alloy additions to produce a
homogeneous mixture of ingredients
 The initial mixing may be done by either the metal
powder producer or the P/M parts manufacturer
 When the particles are blended:
 Desire to produce a homogenous blend
 Over-mixing will work-harden the particles and
produce variability in the sintering process
 Blending Powders

 Blending powders is the

second step in the P/M
process

 Powders made by different

processes have different sizes
and shapes and must be well
mixed

 Powders of different metals

can be mixed together Fig: Some common
equipment geometries for
 Lubricants can be mixed with mixing or blending
the powders to improve their powders. (a) cylindrical, (b)
flow characteristics rotating cube, (c) double
cone, and (d) twin shell.
 Compaction
It is a process of densification where finer particles are compressed
under pressure to form a bigger dense mass with higher bulk density,
uniform size, shape and properties.
 Usually gravity filled
cavity at room
temperature
 Pressed at 60-100 ksi
 Produces a “Green”
compact
 Size and shape of finished
part (almost)
 Not as strong as finished
part – handling concern

 Friction between particles

is a major factor
Compaction of Metal Powders

 Blended powders are pressed together

 The powder must flow easily into the die

 Size distribution is an important fact

 They should not be all the same size
 Should be a mixture of large and small
particles
 The higher the density the higher
the strength
Compaction Tooling
 Compaction Cycle

1. Cycle Start
2. Charge die
w/powder
3. Compaction begins

4. Compaction
complete
5. Ejection of
compaction
6. Recharging of die
Compaction Cycle
 Isostatic Pressing

• Because of friction
between particles
• Apply pressure
uniformly from all
directions
• Wet bag (left)
• Dry bag (right)
 Cold Isostatic Pressing
 Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP)
 Metal powder is placed in
a flexible rubber mold
 Pressurized
hydrostatically
 Uses pressures up to 150
KSI
 Typical application is
automotive
cylinder liners
Fig: Schematic diagram, of cold isostatic, as applied to
forming a tube.The powder is enclosed in a flexible
container around a solid core rod.Pressure is applied iso-
statically to the assembly inside a high-pressure chamber.
 Hot Isostatic Pressing
Hot Isostatic Pressing
 Container is made
of high-melting-
point sheet metal
 Uses a inert gas as
the pressurizing
medium
 Common
conditions for HIP
are 15KSI at 2000F
 Mainly used for
super alloy
components

Fig: Schematic illustration of hot isostatic pressing.The pressure

and temperature variation vs.time are shown in the diagram
Hot Isostatic Pressing cont.
 Hot Isostatic Pressing cont.

 Increased compaction pressure

 Provides better packing of particles and leads to ↓
porosity
 ↑ localized deformation allowing new contacts to be
formed between particles
 Hot Isostatic Pressing cont.

 At higher pressures, the green density approaches

density of the bulk metal
 Pressed density greater than 90% of the bulk density is
difficult to obtain
 Compaction pressure used depends on desired density
 Hot Isostatic Pressing cont.

 Smaller particles provide greater strength mainly due to

reduction in porosity
 Size distribution of particles is very important. For same size
particles minimum porosity of 24% will always be there
 Box filled with tennis balls will always have open space between balls
 Introduction of finer particles will fill voids and result in↑ density
 Importance of Punch
and Die Materials

 Depends on the abrasiveness of the powder

metal
 Tungsten-carbide dies are used
 Punchesare generally made of the similar
materials
 Dimensions are watched very closely
 Other Shaping Processes
 Rolling – powder is fed though the roll gap and is used to
make coins and sheet metal

An example of powder rolling

 Extrusion – has improved properties and parts my be

forged in a closed die to get final shape
 Pressure less compaction – gravity filled die and used to
make porous parts ( Filters)
 Ceramic molds – molds are made by investment casting and
the powder is compressed by hot isostatic pressing
 Sintering
 Partsare heated to 80% of melting temperature
 Transforms compacted mechanical bonds to
much stronger metal bonds
 Many parts are done at this stage. Some will
require additional processing
Green Compact Product as feed for sintering
 Stages in Sintering Process
(a)Adhesion without shrinkage (diffusion of particles
and formation of grain boundaries)
(b)Densification and grain growth stage
(c)Formation of closed pores space
Mechanism of Sintering Process (Bonding)

(a) Adhesion Mechanism, (b) Material Transport Mechanism (i) Recovery &
recrystallization, (ii) Plastic flow, (iii) Evaporation & condensation,
(iv) Volume diffusion, (v) Surface diffusion, (vi) Grain boundary diffusion.
Mechanism of Sintering Process (Bonding) cont.

Fig: Schematic illustration of two mechanism for sintering metal

powders: (a) solid-state material transport; (b) liquid-phase material
transport. R= particle radius, r=neck radius, and (p)=neck profile radius
Mechanism of Sintering Process (Bonding) cont.

 Final part properties drastically affected

 Fullysintered is not always the goal
 Example- Self lubricated bushings

 Dimensions of part are affected

Sintering Parameters and Sinter Properties
Sintering Parameters and Sinter Properties cont.
Sintering Parameters and Sinter Properties cont.
Sintering Parameters and Sinter Properties cont.
 Liquid Phase Sintering

 During sintering a liquid phase, from the lower MP

component, may exist
 Alloying may take place at the particle-particle interface
 Molten component may surround the particle that has
not melted
 High compact density can be quickly attained
 Important variables:
 Nature of alloy, molten component/particle wetting,
capillary action of the liquid
 Sintering Temperature
Gases commonly used for sintering:
 H2, N2, inert gases or vacuum

EXAMPLES

MP
927
913
1085
1538
1455
1510
3422
2870
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
( Steel Alloys)
 Secondary & Finishing Operations
 To improve the properties of sintered P/M products
several additional operations may be used:
 Coining and sizing – compaction operations
 Impact forging – cold or hot forging may be used

 Infiltration– metal infiltrates the pores of a

sintered part to produce a stronger part and
produces a pore free part
 Other finishing operations
 Heat treating
 Machining
 Grinding
 Plating
 Examples of P/M Parts,
Showing Poor Designs and Good ones.
 DEFECTS IN PM PRODUCTS
• Improper density (green compact)
• Improper bonding
(after compacting & sintering – presence of foreign materials)
• Inhomogeneous properties (improper lubrication)

Design Considerations for P/M

 Design principles to consider

 Shape of the compact must be simple and uniform

 Provision must be made for the ejection of the part

 Wide tolerances should be used when ever possible

 Die Design for P/M
 Thin walls and projections create fragile tooling.
 Holes
in pressing direction can be round, square,
D-shaped or any straight-through shape.
 Draft is generally not required.
 Generous radii and fillets are desirable to extend
tool life.
 P/M Process Capabilities
Advantages
 It is a technique for making parts from high melting point
refractory metals
 High production rates
 Good dimensional control
 Wide range of compositions for obtaining special
mechanical and physical properties
Limitations
 High cost
 Tooling cost for short production runs
 Limitations on part size and shape
 Mechanical properties of the part
Strength Ductility
 Advantages of P/M
 Virtually unlimited choice of alloys, composites,
and associated properties
 Refractory materials are popular by this process

 Controlled porosity for self lubrication or filtration

uses
 Can be very economical at large run sizes (100,000
parts)
 Long term reliability through close control of
dimensions and physical properties
 Wide latitude of shape and design
 Very good material utilization
 Disadvantages of P/M

 Limited in size capability due to large forces

 Specialty machines

 Need to control the environment – corrosion concern

 Will not typically produce part as strong as wrought

product. (Can repress items to overcome that)

 Cost of die – typical to that of forging, except that design

can be more – specialty

 Less well known process

 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
OF POWDER METALLURGY

Advantages Disadvantages
–Elimination or reduction of –Inferior strength properties
machining
–High tooling costs
–High production rates
–High material cost
–Wide variations in
–Size and shape limitations
compositions
–Dimensional changes during
–Wide property variations
sintering
–Scrap is eliminated or
–Density variations
reduced
–Health and safety hazards
Economics of Powder Metallurgy
 Competitive with casting and forging
 High initial cost
 Economical for quantities over 10,000 pieces
 Reduces or eliminates scraps

Financial Considerations
 Die design – must withstand 100 ksi, requiring
specialty designs
 Can be very automated
 1500 parts per hour not uncommon for average size part
 60,000 parts per hour achievable for small, low
complexity parts in a rolling press
 Typical size part for automation is 1” cube
 Larger parts may require special machines (larger surface
area, same pressure equals larger forces involved)
Application of Powder Metallurgy

1.Cemented carbide cutting tools

2.Heavy duty brake pads
3.Magnetic cores for transformers
4.Antifriction bearings
5.Bulb filaments
Example Parts
 Example Parts cont.
Powder Metallurgy:
Porous Metals
Filters
Oil-impregnated Porous Bronze Bearings
Example Parts cont.

Connecting Rods

Forged on left; P/M on right

Example Parts cont. Transmission Gear

• Warm compaction method with 1650-ton press

• Teeth are molded net shape: No machining
• UTS = 155,000 psi
• 30% cost savings over the original forged part
Example Parts cont. Automotive Components
1. connected rod with big
end cap
2. saddles of inlet and
exhaust valves
3. valve spring plate
4. distribution shaft
driving pulley
5. strap tension gear roller
6. screw nut
7. fuel pump filter
8. embedding filter
THANK YOU