land

Review
A Review on Remote Sensing of Urban Heat and
Cool Islands
Azad Rasul 1,2, *, Heiko Balzter 2,3 , Claire Smith 2 , John Remedios 3 , Bashir Adamu 2,4 ,
José A. Sobrino 5 , Manat Srivanit 6 and Qihao Weng 7
1 Department of Geography, Soran University, Kawa Street, Soran 44008, Erbil, Iraq
2 Department of Geography, Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, University of Leicester,
University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK; hb91@le.ac.uk (H.B.); cls53@le.ac.uk (C.S.);
ba108@alumni.le.ac.uk (B.A.)
3 National Centre for Earth Observation, University of Leicester, University Road, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK;
jjr8@leicester.ac.uk
4 Department of Geography, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola P.M.B. 2076, Nigeria
5 Global Change Unit, Department of Thermodynamics, Faculty of Physics, University of Valencia,
Valencia E-46071, Spain; sobrino@uv.es
6 Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Pathumthani 12121, Thailand;
s.manat@gmail.com
7 Department of Earth and Environmental Systems, College of Arts and Sciences, Indiana State University,
St. Terre Haute, IN 47809, USA; qweng@indstate.edu
* Correspondence: aor4@alumni.le.ac.uk or azad977@gmail.com; Tel.: +964-(0)750-735-8574

Academic Editors: Andrew Millington, Harini Nagendra and Monika Kopecka

Received: 20 April 2017; Accepted: 6 June 2017; Published: 9 June 2017

Abstract: The variation between land surface temperature (LST) within a city and its surrounding
area is a result of variations in surface cover, thermal capacity and three-dimensional geometry.
The objective of this research is to review the state of knowledge and current research to quantify
surface urban heat islands (SUHI) and surface urban cool islands (SUCI). In order to identify open
issues and gaps remaining in this field, we review research on SUHI/SUCI, the models for simulating
UHIs/UCIs and techniques used in this field were appraised. The appraisal has revealed some
great progress made in surface UHI mapping of cities located in humid and vegetated (temperate)
regions, whilst few studies have investigated the spatiotemporal variation of surface SUHI/SUCI
and the effect of land use/land cover (LULC) change on LST in arid and semi-arid climates. While
some progress has been made, models for simulating UHI/UCI have been advancing only slowly.
We conclude and suggest that SUHI/SUCI in arid and semi-arid areas requires more in-depth study.

Keywords: land surface temperature (LST); urban climate; surface urban cool island (SUCI); remote
sensing; review

1. Introduction
Surface urban heat islands (SUHI) are one of the crucial topics in urban climatology studies.
The comfort of the urban inhabitants is influenced by surface temperature through modified air
temperature of the lowest layer of the urban atmosphere [1]. The land surface is a complex feature that
can be described as a combination of green vegetation, water surfaces, impervious surface materials
and exposed soils. As a result of this complexity, LST varies spatially and temporally. Impervious
surface differs considerably between urban and suburban areas and it is the main contributor to the
SUHI effect [2–4]. The results by Rasul et al. [5,6] from Landsat and MODIS LST indicate the existence
of SUCI in semi-arid cities during different times of the day and not only in the morning as stated in
other literature [7–10].

Land 2017, 6, 38; doi:10.3390/land6020038 www.mdpi.com/journal/land

Land 2017, 6, 38 2 of 10

Since the early 1900s, the UHI intensity of hundreds of urban areas around the world have
been assessed [11] and this field remains an extensive area of study within urban climatology [12].
The growth and strength of the heat island areas during this time bring challenges for energy, the
health of urban residents, water supplies, urban infrastructure and social comfort [13]. In addition,
it exacerbates heat waves and creates a negative effect on life expectancy on urban inhabitants [14].
Ignoring atmospheric correction means assuming that atmospheric effects are the same in all
places, while in reality, water vapor and pollutant contents vary horizontally in urban areas. If the
atmospheric correction is neglected or is incorrectly, estimated surface temperature SUHI intensity
may be incorrectly derived [15,16]. Typically, the average surface emissivity in urban areas is about 2%
lower than the typical rural areas [17]. Without emissivity correction and neglecting this difference,
temperature retrievals of urban-rural environments can show differences of 1.5 ◦ C or more. Therefore,
the urban heat island effect can typically be underestimated [15].
Reviews of the retrieval of LST, SUHI, generating, determination and mitigation UHI was carried
out by a number of authors [18–20]. However, a review of the SUHI/SUCI in dry climate and methods
used for studying the SUHI is still lacking.
The objective of this paper is to review the state of knowledge and current research to quantify
the SUHI/SUCI. This paper provided knowledge on the techniques used for SUHI and SUHI/SUCI
that were based on different climatic regions, specifically for the arid and semi-arid climates.
The articles reviewed in this paper are based on techniques and methods. Moreover, sampling
of research for different remote sensing data and SUHI/SUCI from different climatic regions was
reviewed. There extensive research on UHI in humid regions, thus this paper focused on SUHI/SUCI
in dry climate.

2. Techniques and Statistics Used in Urban Heat Island Studies

2.1. Methods to Compare Multi-Temporal LST Images

In the literature, various techniques have been applied for analyzing the temporal change of
satellite based LST. In the first technique, some researchers directly compare two or more LST images
without any modification [21]. This approach lacks scientific rigor because the atmospheric situation
is not the same at the time of image acquisition. Having a high temperature in the second image
compared to the first one, for example, does not mean the temperature has increased because it is
possible that at that time the temperature was high for other reasons. The second technique to account
for this and to better establish the SUHI is through the normalization of the temperature based on
the mean and standard deviation in high and low temperature areas [22,23]. The third technique is
common normalization of temperature based on min and max LST of the same image in the same
way as for NDVI [24]. A Normalized Ratio Scale (NRS) technique is proposed by Rasul et al. [25], to
normalize the value of each pixel-based ratio to make the LST images from different times comparable
and at the same time maintaining the original values.

2.2. Determining the Urban Heat Island

Researchers used various methods to assess UHI; for instance, Tran et al. [26] have used satellite
data to assess maximum SUHI. Hafner and Kidder [27] have used a model to assess SUHI. UHI was
determined in some studies as a comparison of the mean and maximum temperature between urban
and rural areas. Others compared temperature during times such as a season, a month, a year or some
days. In some cases, it was selected as temperature changes over time [28]. Moreover, Magee et al. [29]
selected UHI as the average changed temperature for both the urban and the rural areas [20].
For determination of SUHI, the comparison of mean urban and rural patterns provides robust
results. The use of trends of LST before and after urbanized areas illustrated the significant influence
of urbanization on the UHI but many cities have no historic records of LST before urbanization which
creates an obstacle for SUHI studies.
Land 2017, 6, 38 3 of 10

2.3. Statistical Analyses of Urban Heat Islands

Weng et al. [30] conducted pixel-by-pixel correlation analysis between surface temperature on the
one hand, and NDVI, green vegetation (GV), and impervious surface fractions on the other hand.
Linear regression has been used extensively in UHI studies to show the relationship between
LST and NDVI [31–33]. Szymanowski and Kryza [34] conducted Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) to
state the land-use situation of the UHI, but inaccurate results have been obtained when the process
tended towards non-stationary variables such as the impact of the wind. The common character of
meteorological data is non-stationary, hence the application algorithm can be largely limited in case
the technique is unable to manipulate it. According to Szymanowski and Kryza [34] and Su et al. [35],
geographically weighted regression (GWR) is better suited than MLR and other conventional regression
analyses. GWR shows the relationship between temperature and land covers more clearly and it is
more successful in the spatial modelling of UHI.
For spatial modelling of the UHI, Szymanowski and Kryza [34] suggested the combined GWR
residual kriging (GWRK) method as an alternative to the extensively used MLR model. Florio et al. [36]
emphasized that the kriging models estimates temperature better than MLR. RK errors are neutral
while regression models are inclined to give biased predicted values. RK and GWR methods have
been also been applied to LST [37,38].

3. Surface Urban Heat Island

Surface urban heat island intensity (SUHII) is determined by variations of surface temperature
between urban and surrounding rural areas with similar geographic characteristics. Remote sensing
sensors, thermal images and field data have all been used to assess the SUHII of urban areas.

3.1. Satellite Measurements of Urban Heat Island

In order to ascertain surface temperature through radiation the traditional technique of aerial
surveillance is commonly used [39–41]. Thereafter, Wark et al. [42] and Rao and Winston [43] attempted
to utilize satellites to measure surface temperatures. Through data obtained from the Television
Infrared Observation Satellite (TIROS II), they found that measuring surface temperature is possible
in clear and dry areas [44]. Primarily, LST and SUHI have been derived from the National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) AVHRR data [30]. After that, Landsat’s Thematic Mapper
(TM) and Landsat’s Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) were widely employed to retrieve
surface temperatures [30,45,46]. Srivastava et al. [47] estimated surface temperature in the Singhbhum
Shear Zone of India. The results indicated that emissivity has a strong relationship with the reflectance
of ETM+ band 3. They compared field data with estimated LST from different algorithms. It was found
that the use of Valor’s emissivity and single channel equations increase the accuracy of the result and
is closer to field truth temperature.
Surface UHI can be derived from remote sensing images as a captivating and possibly valuable
source [2,15]. Rao [48] reported the first study of SUHI based on imagery data. Through the study of
surface temperature patterns of the mid-Atlantic coast of USA, the study utilized thermal Infrared
Radiometer (IR) data of the Improved TIROS Operational Satellite (ITOS-1). The research found that
the center of the city is the warmest part. Matson et al. [49] and Price [50] detected the UHI by utilizing
satellite data. Since then, the SUHI and surface temperature have been observed through utilizing
different sensors such as satellites, aircrafts, and ground-based sensors. Later, in 1989, Roth et al. [19]
studied the thermal urban climates.
The AVHRR sensor has been used to discern the surface temperature [51–53] and to analyze the
regional-scale of UHI effects [22,54,55]. Airborne acquired high-resolution images were also used to
assess the thermal determiners of urban surfaces such as sky view factor and surface materials [19].
The ASTER is another sensor of the TIR image that collects both daytime and night-time data and has
been used for determining the UHI effect in many cities [56–58].
Land 2017, 6, 38 4 of 10

Landsat images are widely used to investigate the growth of SUHIs and to assess the relationship
between LST and land use/land cover (LULC) [59–61]. Unfortunately, calibration problems with
Landsat 8 TIRS have restricted its use. Clinton and Gong [62] used MODIS at 1 km special resolution
with high temporal resolution to investigate UHIs and Urban Heat Sinks (UHSs) of cities on a global
scale. Furthermore, MODIS data has been used to analyze daily differences of LST and UHI in Abu
Dhabi. Standard nocturnal UHIs were found in the city, while during the day the city center was cooler
than its surroundings [63].
The selection of LST data for SUHI studies varies based on the purpose of the research and the
availability of remotely sensed data. Landsat images (with 30 m spatial resolution) are appropriate
for investigating the spatial variation of SUCI/SUHI and the effect of LULC change from different
samples of classes on LST, whereas MODIS LST (with higher temporal resolution) is effective for
studying the temporal variation of SUHI/SUHI (e.g., diurnal, seasonal and decadal) at coarser scales.
ASTER LST with high spatial resolution is appropriate for quantifying the variation of SUHI between
day and night. In general, aircraft-based LST data have higher resolution, but it is expensive and the
areal coverage is irregular and it is a non-standardized product while satellite-based LST has extensive
spatial coverage, limited spatiotemporal resolution and is influenced by atmospheric effects on the
signal [64].
The result of comparison LST of the urban and rural surroundings may vary based on day/night,
location and different climatic patterns of the cities (Table 1). The table illustrates the highest SUHI
exists in cities with the “Dwa” and “Csb” Köppen climate types while the highest SUCI is found in
cities located in “Bwh” and “BSh” climates.

Table 1. A summary of surface UHII/UCII in different areas of the world.

Type Study Area Climate Reference Study Approach UHII/UCII ◦ C

Dwa: Hot Summer
Beijing, China Tran et al. [26] Satellite data 10
Continental
Vancouver, Csb: Warm-summer
Roth et al. [15] Satellite data 7.5
Canada Mediterranean
Daytime SUHI
Medellin,
Af: Tropical Rainforest Peng et al. [65] Satellite data 7
Colombia
Stathopoulou and
Athens, Greece Csa: Dry-summer Subtropical Satellite data 3.3
Cartalis [66]
Madrid, Spain Csa: Dry-summer Subtropical Sobrino et al. [67] Airborne 5
Birmingham,
Cfb: Marine West Coast Tomlinson et al. [68] Satellite data 5
UK
Nighttime BSh: Subtropical Semiarid
Erbil, Iraq Rasul et al. [6] Satellite data 4.59
SUHI (Hot Steppe)
Manila,
Aw: Tropical Savanna Tiangco et al. [57] Satellite data 2.96
Philippines
Atlanta, USA Cfa: Humid Subtropical Hafner and Kidder [27] Modeling 1.2
Abu Dhabi,
Bwh: Subtropical Desert Lazzarini et al. [63] Satellite data −6
UAE
Dubai, UAE Bwh: Subtropical Desert Frey et al. [69] Satellite data −5

Daytime SUCI BSh: Subtropical Semiarid

Erbil, Iraq Rasul et al. [5] Satellite data −3.9
(Hot Steppe)
Cairo, Egypt Bwh: Subtropical Desert Shahraiyni et al. [70] Satellite data −3.1
Cfa: Humid subtropical and
Central India Shastri et al. [71] Satellite data −2.5
(Aw) tropical wet and dry

3.2. Urban Heat Island in Arid and Semi-Arid Climate

SUHI studies pay more attention to urban areas located in tropical, Mediterranean and cold
climatic regions whereas arid regions with extreme high temperatures have been less focused on [72].
Moreover, the effect of LULC change on LST has been widely assessed for cities in the humid climate
while in cities located in semi-arid environments requires more focus to be better quantified and
Land 2017, 6, 38 5 of 10

understood. Some of the few UHI studies in the literature based in arid regions were carried out in
Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona by Tarleton and Katz [73], Kuwait City by Nasrallah et al. [74], Erbil City
by Rasul et al. [6] and the Al Ahsa oasis by Al-Ali [72]. The effect of land cover on UHII of the Al Ahsa
oasis in Saudi Arabia has been assessed by using both ground data and satellite images. The limitation
of approach in such research is in comparing urban area with nearby towns to study UHI and ignoring
the bare soil and desert sand surrounding the city that has high LST in arid and semi-arid regions.
In semi-arid regions, the importance of changing aridity soil moisture in the rural areas in modifying
heat islands has not been studied extensively.

4. Urban Cool Islands

The general conviction that the air temperature in green sites can be cooler than non-green sites
was confirmed by many studies on the temperature of parks and forest cover [75]. To explain the effect
of parks on the temperature of cities in detail, more research is necessary on the design of urban green
area, distribution and type of greening. Studies on many parks indicated that the temperature is cooler
in larger parks and those with trees [75]. On average, larger parks are cooler than smaller ones but
not always, while the urban cool islands (UCI) of the parks is more related to the characteristics of
the parks [76]. The results from the study indicate that 61 parks in Taipei city were confirmed as UCIs
whereas around one-fifth of parks with ≥50% paved coverage and little tree and shrub cover, have
been warmer than their urban surrounding at midday during the summertime [77]. Several studies
have confirmed that this so-called “oasis” exhibits the cold island effect [78,79]. In some environments
such as arid, semi-arid, arctic and subarctic, cities have been reported as UCIs (negative UHI) during
certain times of the day or during particular seasons [27,80,81].
During the dry season the daytime SUHI intensity in some cities such as Mexico City and
Reykjavik is very weak and sometimes exhibits a cold island. As a result of high thermal inertia, urban
places in arid areas have the capability of showing both nocturnal SUHIs and diurnal SUCIs [62].
The amount of soil moisture and humidity in urban areas have an effect because evaporation via latent
heat reduces LST. As such, the investigation proved the existence of UCIs in Dubai compared to the
desert areas [77,82,83].
To date, plenty of research has investigated SUHI and SUCI in green spaces and water bodies
within cities whereas only a few studies have investigated Surface Urban Cool Island across a whole
urban area so it is requiring greater comprehension. Usually, research of atmospheric UHI uses
measured air temperature of some points in and around the city that not represent the study area
entirely. However, because SUHI studies usually use remote sensing data it represents the temperature
of the whole of the study area with some consistency.

5. Future Research Directions

There is a need to utilize remote sensing data in investigating surface temperatures of cities in dry
and semi-dry environments on a large scale. That study is a necessary requirement in the description
of surface characteristics in this specific environmental climate class. Furthermore, since urban climate
archipelagos produces an aggregate impact on temperature, moisture or precipitation [84], future
studies should focus on SUHI archipelagos.
Even higher spatial resolution with more temporal sampling and improved better calibrated data
would be very useful. The application of higher resolution remote sensing data facilitates study on UHI
characteristics and urban climate. Moreover, a future sensor improving on Landsat and aircraft thermal
data are some possible options. On the other hand, in order to determine a temporal variation of LST
using satellite data at restricted overpass times, it appears necessary to use field data to investigate
diurnal UHI in dry environments. Future research should improve methods to simultaneously derive
LST and LSE from hyperspectral TIR, multi spectral-temporal, TIR-microwave data, and methods
should consider aerosol and cirrus effects [18].
Land 2017, 6, 38 6 of 10

In addition, another viable angle of future studies should focus on mitigation strategies for
night-time SUHI and explore surface materials that can reduce surface temperature in urbanised areas
in dry regions. Research should look more closely at different parts of the city. Finally, the area needs
the development of more research on techniques to reduce LST in rural areas surrounding the cities
in dry regions such as the effect of irrigated vegetation in the dry season and increased soil moisture
through artificial streams.

Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the HCDP Scholarship Programme and Soran University
for their financial support of this research. H. Balzter was supported by the Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit
Award, 2011/R3 and the NERC National Centre for Earth Observation.
Author Contributions: Azad Rasul conceived the review research. Azad Rasul, Heiko Balzter and Claire Smith all
contributed in designing the review, writing and editing it. All other authors contributed in evaluating, improving
and editing the paper. The list of authors from the fifth author to the end ordered alphabetically.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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