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Programmable Motion Control Fundamentals

Technical Report · June 1992

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 Programmable Motion Control Fundamentals
Product Engineer: Nikola Zlatanov
1992 Genmark Automation, Inc.

The Early Days

In the early days of machine development, the control of position and velocity was accomplished by
elaborate, expensive, and time consuming solutions such as a series of cams, gears, shuttles, and the like.
Frequently, other devices such as hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders, electric solenoids, plungers, and
grippers were added to these systems. Some examples of these solutions include early textile machinery,
coil making, and wire winding equipment.
The automotive and machine tool industries were among those who saw the control of motion as a
means of providing complex shapes and integrating complex operations. Being able to move heavy
materials and process them in a repeatable and continuous manner added value and increased the
productivity of their operations. While this was of great benefit in operations which were continually
repeatable and injected no changes, this was not an optimum solution for operations which required short
runs of parts for any degree of variety or customization. This was, of course, because early automated
systems were highly dedicated and required laborious retooling and set-up when even marginally different
products or processes were required.
With the emergence of computers and microprocessor technology, other options became possible. In
electronically based systems one may choose a variety of different parameters by merely changing the
software within the system. This translates into less set-up work and more throughput. For example, to
change the speed of an operation, a mechanical system might require you to exchange an existing gear
with a larger or smaller one. In the modern world of programmable motion control, this could be
accomplished by entering a few lines of code or selecting a different velocity profile from the system's
memory. This is what we refer to as programmable motion control.

PMC Defined
Programmable Motion Control (PMC) is defined as the application of programmable hardware and software
(in conjunction with input sensory devices, actuators, and other feedback devices) for the control of one
or more linear or rotary motions. Expanding on this definition in today's concepts for the equipment used to
control motion, a programmable motion controller commonly takes the form of a microprocessor based
system. The system will be comprised of the following basic elements: controller, amplifier, actuator,
feedback. A simplified block diagram of a programmable motion control system appears below.
The controller will include a means of entering a set of instructions or code into its memory which are then
translated into a series of electrical pulses or analog signals and output to an amplifier for controlling some
type of actuator. The amplifier receives the signals from the controller and boosts or amplifies them to
appropriate levels for the actuator.
 The actuator provides the actual physical motion and will be closely coupled to the design characteristics of
the amplifier. The amplifier/actuator set may be any one of several different design classifications. Typically,
but by no means always, they will take the form of an electronic amplifier and an electric motor. Other
common means of motion are pneumatic or hydraulic actuators.
The final element of our system is the feedback device. There are a wide variety of feedback devices that
are commonly used in motion control systems today which provide information on linear or rotary motion.
Generally, a motion control system will base and adjust its functions on the input of any one or combination
of the following devices:
• Optical encoders
• Magnetic encoders
• Resolvers
Many motion control systems are integrated into a larger system. Various computer-based devices, such as
programmable controllers, PC's, stand-alone industrial computers, or remote mainframe computers serve
to link and coordinate the motion control function with other functions. In addition, an operator interface is
present to input control logic, change existing pro- grams, or provide real time modifications, such as
system shut down or schedule changes. Thus, a more integrated motion control system would appear as
shown below.

The Purpose of Motion Control

The motion control system's purpose is to control any one, or combination, of the following parameters:
• Position
• Velocity
• Acceleration
• Torque
The types of feedback devices used in a motion control system will depend on both the control element
(position, velocity, and/or torque), as well as the accuracy required. Another parameter used in the selection of
a feedback device might be environmental considerations, such as temperature, sensitivity, and stiffness.
The machine manufacturer who wishes to electronically automate his product must select control equipment
which will do many things, at the very least the following:
Provide Process Control: To turn on and off and control any fluids, heaters, coolers, air pressure, and
associated functions.
Manage System Faults: To monitor and act upon information supplied to the control unit from interlock
switches, jam-up sensors, process control limits, etc.
Provide Motion Control: To command, control, and monitor the motion of those things in the machine for which
the desired motion profile must sometimes be changed either during normal operation, at set-up, or under
emergency conditions. Thus, the motion controller must be PROGRAMMABLE, so that it can be told in
advance just what it must do following the receipt of specific input signals.
The block diagram (Figure 1) on the next page gives a general overview of the various types of motion control
systems commonly used today. Sometimes, the controller is very specialized and designed to accomplish very
specific tasks. Examples of such controllers include the following:
• Computerized Numerical Control
• Industrial Robot
• Transfer Line
• Plastic Molding
• Coordinate Measuring Machine
• Laser Welding and Cutting
• Plasma and Flame Cutting
• Water Jet Cutting
Another type of unit which became popular in the 1990's is the general purpose stand-alone controller. This
controller is typically more flexible than a dedicated unit and is adaptable to many different applications. It is
used in higher volume generic applications such as X-Y positioning, palletizing, and other general motion
activities which require adjustable activities or duty cycles. General purpose controllers are available as
board level products which may be incorporated inside larger pieces of machinery; as enclosed units, in
which the controller and its associated amplifier and power supply are contained in an enclosure with
external connections and operator interface; and as bare cards which are designed to be fit into a larger
logic device such as a computer or programmable controller. In cases such as the latter, the higher level
logic or control unit is referred to as a host controller. The host generally is responsible for several more
specialized or higher level control functions and may also provide ancillary functions such as statistical
process control, high speed mathematical calculations, and intermachine communications and coordination.
Processors at the chip level are not generally useful to the end-user. Motion control chips are generally
incorporated into a larger controller which then integrates their function (motion or actuator control) with
other functions as a portion of a complete system (tracking of events, performing calculations, maintaining
internal and external communications, etc.).
A popular motion control system for larger installations is the adjustable speed drive (ASD). Typically an
integral horsepower configuration, the ASD consists of either an AC or DC motor and an amplifier or inverter
which accommodates heavy industrial processes. ASDs are typically found in paper and steel mills and
continuous process environments where very large loads must be transferred and acted upon at various
rates of speed in the course of their processing.

Fundamentals of Applying Programmable Motion Control

Introduction
When applying programmable motion control, it is essential that the designer understand the motion
parameters important to his or her application. This chapter covers issues pertinent to motion control to help
designers qualify and quantify their requirements. This will help in the study and selection of motion
components to meet an application.
The decision to apply programmable motion control to a motion system is fundamentally determined by the
need to control a system or process beyond the capability of a single ungoverned device such as a line
connected AC motor. The next step is to classify the parameters that are needed for control. This usually
begins by considering the load and goes on to include process control, safety and fault management, and
user interface to name a few.
Motion Considerations
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the purpose of a motion control system is to control one or more of
the following: position, velocity, and torque. In addition, it is not uncommon for the system to switch between
operating modes.
Velocity Control: Velocity control or speed control needs to be quantified with respect to several issues.
First, what is the speed required to do the application? Further, does this load vary with speed or is load
constant? For example, a machine tool axis will require, in general, constant thrust (torque) over a fairly wide
range of cutting speeds, plus have a high speed requirement at low load for rapid traversing. This would
result in an overall speed range of hundreds or thousands to one. In contrast, a machine tool spindle driving
a part in a lathe, or a tool for milling, will require a fairly constant power requirement over a speed range of
perhaps 5 to 1 as supplied by the motor (transmissions are generally added to further extend the constant
power range). Another consideration of velocity control is speed regulation. Speed generally expressed in
percent of a set speed. Based on the application, the concern for speed regulation might be short-term or
long-term.
Typical Programmable Motion Control Systems

Fig. 1

Short-term regulation would be the consideration for speed deviation due to some transient load of a known
quantity. Long-term regulation would be the concern of speed control over seconds, minutes, or longer. In
addition, speed ripple in a system, often the result of motor and driver design, may be a concern relative to
certain frequencies for which the application is sensitive. Examples of this would be the effects of speed
ripple on the surface finish of parts made by machine tools or consistency of coating in a web process.
Torque Control: Torque control suggests the need to control the torque or force in a system independent of
speed. An example would be a simple feed or take-up roll in a web application for which web tension is
controlled. Maintaining constant tension on the web results in varying torque at the rolls as a function of roll
diameter, resulting in a constant power requirement. A more complex tension control might require a
changing or tapered tension as a function of roll diameter. As in the evaluation of a velocity controlled
system, a torque controlled system needs to be quantified by a number of parameters. What is the required
torque range? Over what speed range must the torque be provided? Is torque ripple of concern, and if so,
what frequencies of ripple present a problem?

Position Control: Position control entails the control of motion displacement which is the change of motion
with respect to time. This includes command, control, and the monitoring of motion. This can be as simple
as the change in velocity command by limit switches on a simple slide drive, or as complex as linear and
circular interpolation among axes on a multi-axis machine. Within the discipline of position control, numerous
issues need to be quantified or measured.
The resolution of the position control, that being the smallest unit of displacement, needs to be defined.
Along with the resolution, the accuracy and repeatability of the motion displacement needs to be
determined. Resolution, accuracy, and repeatability are common quantities associated with position
feedback devices like encoders and resolvers; but, the specification of a complete motion system must also
take into account the mechanical system and position controller.
Position control typically involves motion acceleration, or the change in velocity with respect to time. The
acceleration rate will affect the forces in the system since torque is the product of inertia and acceleration
rate. It is important to include the inertia of the actuator (typically a motor) in any torque calculation of this
kind since its inertia may contribute consider- ably to the torque required. Chapters IV and V contain
examples of application types and the calculation methods for determining inertial, acceleration torque, and
other load related issues. The selection of acceleration or deceleration profiles will also affect system
performance. Constant torque acceleration may result in the fastest acceleration rate, but a parabolic
acceleration/deceleration profile will result in the least heating or root mean square (RMS) value of torque
required. On the other hand, an S-type acceleration will produce the least mechanical stress or jerk in a
system.

Position control typically requires flexibility regarding the need to change certain parameters of the required
motion. For example, the length of a move, or speed of the system may be changing based on variables in
the process or parts being manufactured. For this reason, a programmable motion controller is needed
along with specific application soft- ware. The application software can be canned or bundled software that
might come with the system, or custom software requiring additional cost or effort. When considering
flexibility in programming, it is also important to define the degree of operator interface for implementing
changes. A simple operator interface could be a thumb wheel switch allowing selection of particular
predetermined functions. A more complex and flexible interface might entail an alphanumeric display and
keypad.

Machine Control
In designing a complete system, subjects other than motion control need to be addressed. These include
process control functions and system fault management. As mentioned in Chapter II, process control
involves the turning on and off of associated functions to the main process such as pumps, coolers, heaters,
air pressure, and so on. System fault management includes detection and response process limits,
mechanical limits, jam sensors, and safety functions such as interlock switches. Always be sure to consult
local and industry safety and installation standards, as some of these features may be required for your
particular installation.

Building Blocks of Programmable Motion Control Systems

This section is about programmable motion control from the perspective of the kinds of hardware and
software that are involved in acting upon a command to execute a desired motion. Every programmable
motion control system must have the foundation blocks: controller, amplifier, actuator, and feedback.
Motion/Position Drives / Controllers and Amplifiers
The terms controller and amplifier when used in a discussion about motion control can be interpreted to
mean almost anything. A controller may consist of a simple on/off type of sensing device that might operate
a small fan motor when fumes are detected under a vent hood. If the motor needs a transistor to provide
drive current, the system could be said to have an amplifier. All of the basic building blocks of a motion
control system are in place. These are the motor, the transistor (amplifier), the fan (load), and the fume
detector (controller/feedback sensor).
Amplifiers are classified based on the characteristics of their output. Some of the more common types
include:
DC Amplifier: Linear amplifier which is capable of outputting a bi-directional DC voltage for powering a
brush-type DC motor.
Brushless DC: Linear amplifier used in conjunction with a brushless servo motor. Commutation of motor is
based on amplifier generated trapezoidal wave form which is compared to a pulse feedback from motor.
Brushless AC: Linear amplifier used in conjunction with a brushless servo motor. Commutation of motor
based on amplifier generated AC signal which is compared to a pulse feedback from motor.
Vector Control: Linear amplifier which is capable of servo control of an AC induction type motor, the torque
of which is controlled via vector analysis on motor current feedback.

On the other hand, the motion system may be very complex and include many different types of motion
components. An example of such a system might be a computer integrated manufacturing (CIM) system
which receives as input a computer-aided design (CAD) data file, inspects and loads tools into a
manufacturing cell, makes a part in accordance with the CAD information, provides real-time adjustment in
the manufacturing process, and then collects, processes, and stores information for statistical process
control (SPC) purposes.
There are many types of controls, amplifiers, motors, and applications. The combination of components
required to perform a given application will vary and many considerations affect which type of system is
optimal. Often there are several ways to accomplish the desired result. In these cases, secondary
considerations such as cost, versatility, expansibility, or availability cast the deciding ballot for the type of
system ultimately selected. An astute applications engineer should be able to give you a number of options
depending on the cost, accuracy, lead time, and space constraints of your application.
Motion Profile Generator: At the top of this control hierarchy is the profile generator, which will typically
contain many defined profiles. These profiles have been placed in memory by either your vendor or yourself
utilizing a keyboard or by downloading this information from a computer. When you select a specific profile,
the profile generator will feed its velocity and position commands to the next block, which is the real time
control loop of the drive. An example appears in Figure 2.
Position Control Drive: The drive module can include both velocity and torque control inner loops or not,
depending on the control technique used. The output of this block is drive power to the motor, with feedback
from the motor output providing position information (typically via encoders or resolvers) plus, sometimes,
velocity information (via tachometers) for the drive loop.
These functions are packaged in a number of ways by different manufacturers. Elements included in your
system will also vary according to the application. Some systems are contained in an all-in-one box. Others
may consist of several boxes containing a driver or amplifier, a motion control board, and power supply, for
example. The advantages and disadvantages of each approach relate to cost, availability, and whether the
profile generator complexity requires that it be teamed with a host instead of existing as a free-standing drive
unit. IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO COMMUNICATE REQUIREMENTS AND CONSTRANTS FULLY WITH
AN EXPERIENCED APPLICATIONS ENGINEER BEFORE TRYING TO SELECT A SYSTEM.
Figure 2
Motors for your system can generally include any kind or make of motor known. The typical kinds, in order of
general use, are noted below. The advantages of each type are application-specific, and must be weighed
by you and the applications engineer who helps you specify your system:
Brush-type DC Motors: This is the oldest type of technology used in industrial feedback servos, and is still
the most widespread variety found in actual use. Among the advantages are wide availability, time proven
technology and construction, and favorable initial cost. The main disadvantage is brush wear, although in
many applications this is not a consideration.
Stepping Motors: Stepping motors are sometimes used with feedback devices, such as encoders; but most
of the time they are used "open loop." Power ratings are typically 1 horsepower and below, with operation at
high torque and low speed. Cost is a clear advantage of an open loop system. The disadvantage is that if
your torque requirements are even momentarily exceeded, a position error is introduced which cannot be
corrected.
Brushless Motors: These motors are similar in operating features to brush-type DC motors; the key
difference is that they do not require brushes to operate. Typically, lower rotor inertia and efficient thermal
dissipation result in faster acceleration and better volumetric efficiency.
Induction Motors: Until about 1980, induction motors were not used in servo systems due to the slow
response caused by the inductance lag in the rotor circuit. Since the invention of "vector control" technology,
however, improvements have been made in servo system response using these motors, typically in spindle
applications due to their high speed and performance requirements and positioning capability.

Motion/Position Hydraulic/Pneumatic Actuators

Hydraulic or pneumatic actuation may be linear or rotary, depending on the application. Linear actuation
may be accomplished using either actuators or variable volume, variable flow pumps and cylinders. Each
device may be controlled by either proportional, electrically operated servovalves or solenoid valves. Speed
is dependent on fluid flow and pressure (as controlled by the selected valve), covering a broad range of
speeds. Advantages are application specific, and must be weighed by you and the applications engineer
who helps you configure the system. A general advantage is high power to size ratio with large horsepower
output precisely controlled with small electrical signals. Disadvantages include increased machine
maintenance, or lack of fluid cleanliness, and failures in high-pressure lines. Following is a brief description
of each device.
Linear Actuator: This is one of the oldest types of servo elements used by system engineers. It consists of a
pressure cylinder with a piston and either a single ended or dual rod. They incorporate integrally mounted,
proportional servovalves to provide highest performance and accuracy. Linear actuators are direct acting
devices, eliminating pulleys, guide tracks, ball screws, etc., and their associated mechanical losses. Linear
actuators with reduced performance may be constructed by using hydraulic cylinders and external valves. A
wide range of actuators are available with operating fluids and pressures, seal configurations, and feedback
transducers selectable by the user.
Rotary Actuator: This actuator is similar to an electric motor, including mounting and feedback devices and
is avail- able from a number of sources. Again, high performance is achieved when a servovalve is
integrated into the actuator housing.
Variable Volume, Variable Pressure Pumps: These are hydraulic pumps driven from a constant speed
electric motor with internal components positioned to maintain the required system flow/pressure to operate
a hydraulic cylinder, either rotary or linear. The advantage of this system is increased efficiency of the
system. The disadvantage is that a separate pump is required for each axis of control.

Motion/Position Fluid Control

Two devices are used to control fluid for motion systems: servovalves and solenoid valves. Each are
available in a variety of flow and pressure ranges. The advantages of each type are applications specific
and must be weighed by you and the applications engineer who helps you specify your system. Generally,
the valves are mounted to a manifold that is either an integral part of the actuator or pump or a separate fluid
distribution assembly. Details of each device follow:
Servovalves: These devices use an analog input signal, either voltage or current to control the output.
Servovalves can be three-way devices that connect either end of the cylinder to pressure, the other to
return. Four-way servovalves provide the highest performance. In a pneumatic system, the return is usually
vented to atmosphere. Servovalves with a range of flow sizes and dynamic performance capabilities are
readily available from a number of sources with associated application help to properly select the right valve.
Solenoid Valves: These devices use a digital signal to open/close the control orifice. Proportional control can
be achieved by Pulse Width Modulation of the command signal. Multiple solenoids and additional
components are required to simulate operation of a servovalve. Fixed flow (speed) applications are optimum
applications for these devices.
Motion/Position Feedback Devices
Feedback devices for position systems are most often mounted integrally with the motor, but sometimes
they are mounted on another system component such as an output gear shaft or a leadscrew. Many
varieties of feedback devices have been designed, but the most widely used are the following:
Optical Encoder: There are two types of optical encoders: incremental and absolute. They combine high
accuracy with low cost (incremental type), and are, therefore, in widest use for position feedback. They are
available for integral mounting with the motor, or for mounting on another shaft. Optical encoders are also
used in linear configurations for machine beds. Among their disadvantages, they are less robust than
resolvers or magnetic encoders. If used to commutate a brushless DC motor, an optical encoder must also
be enhanced with supplementary commutation tracks. The recent introduction of higher resolution magnetic
encoders make this technology a viable feedback alternative.
Resolver: The resolver is an absolute position sensing device. This feature, coupled with its robustness, are
the reasons for its popularity in high-end applications. Integrated circuit packages are also available for
converting the resolver output signal to digital position and velocity data, thereby making it easy to use in
digital systems. Resolvers are most common for integral motor mounting, but also for mounting on separate
shafts or in linear form for a machine bed.
Additional Feedback Devices: In addition to resolvers and encoders, many applications require the use of
additional feedback devices to support most integrated system operations. The feedback required by a
given operation can have many forms and may provide a myriad of functions to be supported. Some
examples include home initialization sensing, system safety and status monitoring, and user/process
interfaces, as well as sensors for position, velocity, or other motion related attributes. See Table 1 for a
summary of the most common feedback devices.
Table 1
Common Feedback Devices
The use of feedback devices for system safety and status monitoring is very applications dependent. While
an x-y stage system programmed to position specimens under a microscope probably would not require the
use of a light curtain, a robot programmed to perform a laser cutting operation might. Monitoring system
operation for abnormal conditions provides opportunities for the implementation of many types of feedback
devices.
User/Process interfaces can also benefit from the use of feedback devices by allowing more information to
be available in real time. Imagine a conveyor loader programmed to load a product onto a variable speed
conveyor where the line speed is controlled externally. Depending on the product spacing requirements, a
scheme to accomplish the loading process could be developed using most types of feedback devices. A
simple proximity sensor may be located to signal when the next product is to be loaded; or, the loader can
monitor the conveyor speed and calculate the timing based on information downloaded from a host
controller for this particular product's package configuration, and then changed later for a different package
configuration.

Adjustable Speed Motors and Drives

Systems available for adjustable speed motion control are generally of two types:
AC Motors & Drives: Sometimes known as "Volts per Hertz Drives," these are open loop induction motor
drives with a variety of programmable features including as a minimum the following:
• Discrete speed selections.
• Acceleration and deceleration values.
• Boost
• Volts/Hertz Setting
There are many sources for this type of drive which is specified by those desiring a system for a wide power
range utilizing standard induction motors.
DC Motors & Drives: Typically, the lowest cost system is the DC drive. The use of brushes is its major
limitation. Brushless DC motors overcome the brush wear problem, but typically at a greater initial
purchase cost.
The process of selecting an adjustable speed AC or DC drive is one where load is of primary consideration.
Motor loads are classified into three main groups depending on how their torque and horsepower varies with
operating speed. The following paragraphs deal with the various DC and AC motor load types usually found
in process, manufacturing, or machining applications.
A constant torque load is the one most frequently encountered. In this group, the torque demanded by the
load is constant throughout the speed range. The load requires the same amount of torque at low speeds as
at high speeds. Loads of this type are essentially friction loads. In other words, the constant torque
characteristic is needed to overcome friction.
In a constant horsepower situation, the horsepower demanded by the load is constant within the speed
range. The load requires high torque at low speeds. With the horsepower held constant, the torque will
decrease as the speed increases. Put another way, the speed and torque are inversely proportional to each
other.
With a variable torque load, the torque may be directly proportional to some mathematical power of speed,
usually speed squared:
Torque = Constant x (Speed)2

It is important to understand the speed and torque characteristics as well as horsepower requirements of
the type to be considered. AC drive characteristics are somewhat different than DC drives. The demands
and economics of a particular application should be matched to the drive capabilities. After this matching
process is completed, the decision regarding the type of adjustable speed drive can be made.
When considering load characteristics, the following should be evaluated:
• What type of load is associated with the application?
• Does the load have a shock component?
• What is the size of the load?
• Are heavy inertial loads involved?
• What are the motor considerations?
• Over what speed range are heavy loads encountered?

Selection of a Programmable Motion Control System

Classifying Your Application

The first step in determining the best solution for an application involving motion is to classify the application.
Classifying the application will help determine what type of motion control is needed and what type of motion
features may be required. The key question to ask is: What type of process is the motion being applied
to? Identifying the process will help determine some of the key requirements that motion systems must
address. Some typical classifications of applications and typical motion control requirements are shown
below:
Classifying Your Application
• Web lines:
Tension control
Positioning or ratioing
Coordination of motion with external events (registration)
• Metal removal:
Multi-axis contouring
Complex interpolation (linear, circular, helical) Adaptive control
 Zero following error servo loop algorithms
• Robotics:
Multi-axis coordination Coordinate transformations Ratioing
Vision system interface Absolute feedback
• Gantry:
Ratioing
Linear interpolation
Absolute feedback
• Packaging: Ratioing
Coordination of motion with external events Vision systems
• Transfer lines:
Multi-axis coordination Adaptive feed rate control Feed to hard stop Moving to a gauge input
• Automated storage/retrieval systems (AS/RS):
Adaptive feed rate control
Jerk limiting acceleration profiles Absolute feedback

Application Parameters
Once an application has been classified, the application parameters have to be defined. The key to a
successful application solution is proper definition of the application requirements. This will help determine
the machine, motion control, actuator, and feedback device requirements. Some questions which must be
answered before a selection can be considered include: How fast? How accurate? How much? Other
considerations that must be addressed are listed below:
• Motion parameters:
What is the required positioning accuracy? What are the maximum and minimum speeds?
What are the maximum acceleration/deceleration rates? What is the duty cycle?
• Continuous load requirements:
What is the measured thrust? Is there counterbalance?
What is the measured friction?
• Machine characteristics:
What are the machine dynamics? What is the reflected load inertia?
How is the load moved (e.g. via pneumatics, hydraulics, electric servo)? What are the potential losses to
overcome, such as inefficiencies and coefficients of friction?
• Communication characteristics:
What type (serial, discrete, backplane)?
What type & amount of information is to be sent? What are the throughput requirements?
• Input/Output (I/O) requirements:
What type? How many?
Are there throughput requirements?
• Feedback requirements:
What type? What is the required accuracy?
What Are The Motion Requirements?
The next question you must ask is: What motion functions are needed? There are four categories of motion
functions:
• Simple control of position or velocity of single or non-synchronized multiple axes. This is the
simplest of motion requirements. Requirements of non-synchronized multiple axes can be handled by
multiple motion modules without concern about tight synchronization of axes on different modules.
• Motion synchronized to external events. Motion often has to be synchronized to some external
event. This may be a discrete event (such as limit switch closure), analog event (analog gauge input), or
position event (a linear transducer event), and may trigger a change in speed, the start or end of a move, or
a position correction. While many controls are capable of performing these functions, they may vary in their
throughput capability (number of simultaneous events and reaction time).
• Synchronized multi-axis control. This involves tight coordination of independent axes. Most
controls are capable of synchronizing axes within a given module, but may be limited in terms of how
tightly they can couple axes on different modules.
• Complex motion algorithms. Typical examples of this motion requirement include ratioing (straight
and caming), contouring with various types of interpolation (circular, linear, spline), and time-based
cams.

The first issue you must address is the application classification. If the application were classified as
machine tool control, robot control, or a transfer line application, an application specific control may be
available. Application specific controls have features, performance, and packaging which are designed for
specific applications and conform to standards for those applications. For example, CNC controls have a
number of features which are required for machine tools. Examples of these features are an RS274
programming interface, multiple axes contouring, circular/linear/spherical/ mathematical interpolation, and
operator interface support.
The general purpose controller is used for applications where the application specific control is not
appropriate because of cost, packaging, or available features. Choosing the appropriate general purpose
control involves answering three key questions:
• What is the control architecture of the application?
• What are the motion requirements?
• What type of feedback is required?
Control Architecture
Critical question to be answered in classifying the application is: What is the control architecture? This
question deals with things like:
• Is there a host computer or control?
• Does motion drive the process; or is motion a small part of a larger process?
• Is a localized or distributed control architecture desired?
Answers to these questions will impact the type of motion controller used. For example, if motion is a small
part of a larger process (as in the case of an assembly line), then the majority of the process may be
sequence control with motion subsections. This type of application will typically use a programmable
controller to control the process, with a motion control (programmable controller based, stand alone, or
smart drive) acting as a slave. If the application is motion dominant (as in the case of machine tools), then
the motion function is the major portion of the system and may control the process. There may or may not
be a host controller.
In many applications there may already be a host computer or programmable controller that is used for
control of the overall process. In these cases, it may be advantageous to use a programmable controller-
based motion control that resides in the controller's rack. This type of configuration allows the motion
controller access to all of the programmable controller's re- sources (i.e. power, analog I/0, discrete I/0,
operator interface). This approach can also result in a compact, cost effective package. Programmable
controller motion modules and associated control boards are generally packaged as 1 to 4 axes modules.
Axes within a module can be tightly coupled, while multiple modules may be loosely coupled via discrete
wiring between modules or through backplane integration.
In cases where there is a non-programmable controller host, no host, or the motion section does not
have to be tightly coupled, a stand-alone controller may be more appropriate. Stand-alone controllers are
typically supplied in 1 to 8 axes configurations with some handling 32 axes or more. Communication with a
host control or operator interface is achieved via discrete wiring (e.g. BCD), serial connection (e.g. RS-
232, RS-422), or a multi-drop network (e.g. Ethernet, RS-485, DeviceNet).
If the host utilizes a bus interface, a bus-based motion controller can be used. Controllers are available
for most types of buses. Bus-based controls offer a great deal of flexibility and high throughput
communications, but may require a commensurate amount of engineering effort to integrate.

Generally, the type of motion amplifier required for a given application is dependent on the type of actuator
to be driven. In some cases, actuator performance is defined and optimized with respect to a specific
amplifier matched for its use. In many cases, however, there are choices that can be made. For example, if
a DC servo motor is selected as the actuator, overall cost may dictate that a PWM amplifier, as opposed to
a more costly linear amplifier, is in order. Output voltage relative to motor rating or maximum speed
requirement needs to be determined. Continuous and peak current ratings are chosen according to
torque requirements.
Special drive requirements can exist for all types of drives if extremely high resolution or wide speed range is
required. Additionally, many applications require that radio and electromagnetic emissions be kept to a min.

Determining the type of motion actuator best suited to your application requires careful consideration. On
the surface, it may seem as if any of several types of actuators may be acceptable. The first topic of
consideration is usually load definition. Once a set of accurate load characteristics is developed, items
such as actuator configuration, size, dynamic characteristics, reliability, and cost can be examined. Since
many motion control applications may require the implementation of several types of actuators within the
same system, the following questions are intended to help identify which actuator types are best suited to a
given task:
• Are there any special system power limitations?
• What is the operational duty cycle?
• Will heat dissipation by the actuator have any adverse effect on the application?
• What is the operating temperature range?
• What type of feedback device is to be used?
• What range of mean time between failure MTBF is desired?
• What are the dynamic characteristics of the intended motion profile?
• What range of shaft velocities are required to achieve the desired feed rates?
• Will your system require direct drive or will a gearing system have to be accommodated?
There are many types of feedback devices as shown in Table 1 on page 13. Motion controls vary in terms of
the devices they will support. Most support incremental encoders as standard, and some also support
resolvers. If absolute feedback is required, there are controls which will support proprietary suppliers'
devices, dual resolvers, or absolute encoders. Some motion controllers also support analog feedback.
This feature can be used to interface to load cells, pressure and tempera- ture transducers, and other types
of analog feedback devices.
A feedback device will be needed if closed loop control is used, or if events (e.g. turn output on) are to be
based on actual machine feedback.
There are a multitude of feedback transducers available which are capable of monitoring speed, position,
pressure, tension, and other process variables. The questions which must be addressed in order to
determine the best feedback device to use include the following:
• What is the process variable being controlled?
• If the variable is position, is rotary or linear displacement being controlled?
• Is incremental or absolute feedback required? What are the resolution, accuracy and repeatability
requirements?
• What is the speed range?
• With what feedback device is the motion control unit compatible?
The most commonly specified position transducer is the encoder. The encoder provides incremental
position information to the motion controller via a quadrature type output. If using an incremental encoder
is not practical, resolvers or absolute encoders are capable of providing absolute position information.
Either device is absolute within one revolution. Dual devices can be used to provide multiple revolution
absolute position feedback.

The Physics of Motion

In order to discuss such system characteristics as inertia, mass, acceleration, and the like, it will be
necessary for you to be able to quantify some of the properties of your particular application.
Moments of Inertia: Every moving body possesses inertia around its particular axis. If you were, for
example, trying to calculate the moment of inertia for a bowling ball with a diameter of 25cm and a weight of
4 kg, the moment of inertia around an axis through its center would be solved as follows:

J = 2/5Mr2

J = 2/5 x 4kg x(0.125m)2 J = 0.025kg(m)2

Just as mass is the inertial property in translational motion, moment of inertia is that property of matter
which resists a change in rotational motion. In translational motion, force equals mass times acceleration
(F=ma), but in rotational motion, Torque equals moment of inertia times angular acceleration (T=Ja).
Angular Momentum: The angular momentum of a rotational body (for example, a shaft or drum) is given
by the relation angular momentum equals moment of inertia times angular velocity (P=Jw). Bodies or
systems of bodies in rotational motion, unless acted upon by an external force, exhibit conservation of
angular momentum; i.e., the product Jw is a constant.
Angular Acceleration: Rotating bodies may undergo changes in angular velocity just as bodies in translation
undergo changes in their linear velocity. The basic expression for angular acceleration is:

T
There are a number of fine points involved in the calculation of these properties such as the differentiation
between centripetal acceleration and tangential acceleration. Your applications engineer can help you
complete these calculations appropriate to your particular system characteristics.
Torque: Torque is the cause of angular acceleration. Torque is defined as the rotary equivalent of force. It
is equal to the product of the force perpendicular to the radius of motion and distance from the center of
rotation to the point where the force is applied. As a formula, it is represented as:
T= F x r
Power: Power is transmitted by rotating shafts by virtue of the fact that the torque applied produces an
angular velocity. Therefore, power equals torque times angular velocity (P=Tw).
Coefficient of Friction: In order to calculate the power requirements for your applications, the applications
engineer also addresses the forces involved to overcome friction. The frictional force between two surfaces
equals the product of the force pressing the surfaces together times the coefficient of friction, represented
as:
F fr = WK
There are many of these values which can be referenced in most engineering and physical handbooks.
Putting It All Together
Based on the analysis contained in this chapter, the search for an optimum programmable motion control system
can be narrowed greatly. One or more of the following general categories should meet your needs:
• Standalone Controllers: • Drive Amplifiers:
Computerized Numerical Control Adjustable Speed
Robot Control AC
General Purpose Control DC
Motion/Position
• Subordinate Controllers: AC
Programmable Controller
DC
Bus-based Controller Stepper
• Motion Actuators:
AC
DC
Stepping
Other (Hydraulic/Pneumatic)
• Feedback Transducers:
Linear
Rotary
Other
After preliminary analyses have been made, contact competent suppliers so your specific application can be
reviewed in order to insure that the motion control components and system you select have the features
necessary for your particular application.
Typical Application Types
Following are five typical programmable motion control schemes which are used in the vast majority of the
applications.
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