Pilot Safety

Pilot Safety
and Warning
Supplements
The information contained in this document is not intended to supersede the

Owner’s Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook applicable to a specific airplane.
If there is a conflict between this Pilot Safety and Warning Supplement and
either the Owner’s Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook to a specific airplane,
the Owner’s Manual or Pilot’s Operating Handbook shall take precedence. This
publication replaces the original issue D5099-13 and the D5139-13 1 June 1998
Reissue in their entirety.
COPYRIGHT © 1998
Cessna Aircraft Company
Wichita, Kansas USA
Member of GAMA
Original Issue - 2 October 1985
D5139-1-13 Reissue - 1 June 1998
Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018
CONTENTS PILOT SAFETY AND
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
CONTENTS
_______________________________________________________________________________
Supplement
INTRODUCTION
FLIGHT CONSIDERATIONS
Physiological . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Checklists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Aircraft Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Single Engine Flight Information (Multi-engine Airplanes) . . . . . . . 4
Pilot Proficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fuel Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Airframe Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Weather. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Restraint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Fuel System Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Fuel Pump Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Auxiliary Fuel Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Instrument Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Alternate Air System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Turbocharger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
In-Flight Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
In-Flight Opening of Doors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Autopilots and Electric Trim Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS
Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Seat and Restraint Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Exhaust and Fuel Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Retractable Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Pressurized Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Potential Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 i (ii blank)

PILOT SAFETY AND INTRODUCTION
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
_______________________________________________________________________________
Pilots should know the information contained in the airplane's operating

handbook, placards and checklists, and be familiar with service/
maintenance publications, including service letters and bulletins, to
ensure maximum safe utilization of the airplane. When the airplane was
manufactured, it was equipped with a Pilot's Operating Handbook,
Flight Manual, and/or Owner's Manual. If a handbook or manual is
missing, a replacement should be obtained by contacting a Cessna
Authorized Service Station.
In an effort to re-emphasize subjects that are generally known to most
pilots, safety and operational information has been provided in the
following Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements. As outlined in the
table of contents, the Supplements are arranged numerically to make it
easier to locate a particular Supplement. Supplement coverage is
classified in three (3) categories: Flight Considerations, System
Operational Considerations, and Maintenance Considerations. Most of
the information relates to all Cessna airplanes, although a few
Supplements are directed at operation of specific configurations such
as multi-engine airplanes, pressurized airplanes, or airplanes certified
for flight into known icing conditions.
Day-to-day safety practices play a key role in achieving maximum
utilization of any piece of equipment.
WARNING
IT IS THE RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PILOT TO ENSURE
THAT ALL ASPECTS OF PREFLIGHT PREPARATION
ARE CONSIDERED BEFORE A FLIGHT IS INITIATED.
ITEMS WHICH MUST BE CONSIDERED INCLUDE, BUT
ARE NOT NECESSARILY LIMITED TO, THE
FOLLOWING:
• PILOT PHYSICAL CONDITION AND PROFICIENCY

• AIRPLANE AIRWORTHINESS
• AIRPLANE EQUIPMENT APPROPRIATE FOR THE
FLIGHT
• AIRPLANE LOADING AND WEIGHT AND BALANCE
• ROUTE OF THE FLIGHT
• WEATHER DURING THE FLIGHT
• FUEL QUANTITY REQUIRED FOR THE FLIGHT,
INCLUDING ADEQUATE RESERVES
(Continued Next Page)
Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1

INTRODUCTION PILOT SAFETY AND
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
WARNING (CONTINUED)
• AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL AND EN-ROUTE
NAVIGATION FACILITIES
• FACILITIES AT AIRPORTS OF INTENDED USE
• ADEQUACY OF AIRPORT (RUNWAY LENGTH,
SLOPE, CONDITION, ETC.)
• LOCAL NOTICES, AND PUBLISHED NOTAMS
FAILURE TO CONSIDER THESE ITEMS COULD
RESULT IN AN ACCIDENT CAUSING EXTENSIVE
PROPERTY DAMAGE AND SERIOUS OR EVEN FATAL
INJURIES TO THE PILOT, PASSENGERS, AND OTHER
PEOPLE ON THE GROUND.
The following Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements discuss in detail
many of the subjects which must be considered by a pilot before
embarking on any flight. Knowledge of this information is considered
essential for safe, efficient operation of an airplane.
Proper flight safety begins long before the takeoff. A pilot's attitude
toward safety and safe operation determines the thoroughness of the
preflight preparation, including the assessment of the weather and
airplane conditions and limitations. The pilot's physical and mental
condition and proficiency are also major contributing factors. The use of
current navigation charts, the Aeronautical Information Manual,
NOTAMs, airport data, weather information, Advisory Circulars and
training information, etc., is important. Individuals often develop their
own personal methods for performing certain flight operations;
however, it is required that these do not conflict with the limitations or
recommended operating procedures for a specific airplane.
The pilot should know the Emergency Procedures for the airplane,
since there may not be time to review the checklist in an emergency
situation. It is essential that the pilot review the entire operating
handbook to retain familiarity. He or she should maintain a working
knowledge of the limitations of his or her airplane. When the pilot
deliberately or inadvertently operates the airplane outside the
limitations, he or she is violating Federal Aviation Regulations and may
be subject to disciplinary actions.
Cessna does not support modifications to Cessna airplanes, whether
by Supplemental Type Certificate or otherwise, unless these certificates
are approved by Cessna. Such modifications, although approved by
the FAA, may void any and all Cessna warranties on the airplane since
Cessna may not know the full effects on the overall airplane. Cessna
does not and has not tested and approved all such modifications by
other companies. Maintenance and operating procedures and
performance data provided by Cessna may no longer be accurate for
the modified airplane.
2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

PILOT SAFETY AND INTRODUCTION
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Airplanes require maintenance on a regular basis. As a result, it is
essential that the airplane be regularly inspected and repaired when
parts are worn or damaged in order to maintain flight safety. Information
for the proper maintenance of the airplane is found in the airplane
Service/Maintenance Manual, Illustrated Parts Catalog, and in
company-issued Service Information Letters or Service Bulletins, etc.
Pilots should assure themselves that all recommendations for product
changes or modifications called for by Service Bulletins, etc., are
accomplished and that the airplane receives repetitive and required
inspections.
Much of the subject matter discussed in the following Supplements has
been derived from various publications of the U.S. Government. Since
these documents contain considerably more information and detail than
is contained here, it is highly recommended that the pilot also read
them in order to gain an even greater understanding of the subjects
related to flight safety. These publications include the following:
AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM)
This Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) manual is designed to
provide airmen with basic flight information and Air Traffic Control
(ATC) procedures for use in the National Airspace System (NAS). It
also contains items of interest to pilots concerning health and medical
facts, factors affecting flight safety, a pilot/controller glossary of terms
used in the Air Traffic Control System, and information on safety,
accident and hazard reporting. This manual can be purchased at retail
dealers, or on a subscription basis from the Superintendent of
Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
NOTICES TO AIRMEN (Class II)
This is a publication containing current Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
which are considered essential to the safety of flight as well as
supplemental data affecting the other operational publications listed
here. It also includes current Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs, which
are regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions to flight or
amend charts or published Instrument Approach Procedures. This
publication is issued every 14 days and is available by subscription
from the Superintendent of Documents.
AIRPORT FACILITY DIRECTORY, ALASKA and PACIFIC CHART
SUPPLEMENTS
These publications contain information on airports, communications,
navigation aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver checks,
preferred routes, FSS/Weather Service telephone numbers, Air Route
Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, and various other
pertinent special notices essential to air navigation. These publications
are available by subscription from the National Ocean Service (NOS),
NOAA N/ACC3 Distribution Division, Riverdale, Maryland 20737,
telephone 1-800-638-8972 FAX (301) 436-6829.

INTRODUCTION PILOT SAFETY AND
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS (FARs)
The FAA publishes the FARs to make readily available to the aviation
community the regulatory requirements placed upon them. These
regulations are sold as individual parts by the Superintendent of
Documents. The more frequently amended parts are sold by
subscription service with subscribers receiving changes automatically
as they are issued. Less active parts are sold on a single-sale basis.
Changes to single-sale parts will be sold separately as issued.
Information concerning these changes will be furnished by the FAA
through its Status of Federal Aviation Regulations, AC 00-44II.
ADVISORY CIRCULARS (ACs)
The FAA issues ACs to inform the aviation public of non regulatory
material of interest. Advisory Circulars are issued in a numbered
subject system corresponding to the subject areas of the Federal
Aviation Regulations. AC 00-2.11, Advisory Circular Checklist contains
a listing of ACs covering a wide range of subjects and how to order
them, many of which are distributed free-of-charge.
AC 00-2.11 is issued every four months and is available at no cost
from: U.S. Department of Transportation, Distribution requirements
Section, SVC 121.21, Washington, DC 20590. The checklist is also
available via the Internet at http://www.faa.gov/abc/ac-chklist/
actoc.htm.

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PHYSIOLOGICAL
PHYSIOLOGICAL
_______________________________________________________________________________
FATIGUE
Fatigue continues to be one of the most treacherous hazards to flight
safety. It generally slows reaction times and causes errors due to
inattention, and it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are
made. Fatigue is best described as either acute (short-term) or chronic
(long-term). As a normal occurrence of everyday living, acute fatigue is
the tiredness felt after long periods of physical and/or mental strain,
including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload,
strong emotional pressure, monotony, and lack of sleep. In addition to
these common causes, the pressures of business, financial worries,
and unique family problems can be important contributing factors.
Consequently, coordination and alertness, which are vital to safe pilot
performance, can be reduced. Acute fatigue can be prevented by
adequate rest and sleep, as well as regular exercise and proper
nutrition.
Chronic fatigue occurs when there is insufficient time for full recovery
between periods of acute fatigue. Performance continues to degrade
and judgment becomes impaired so that unwarranted risks may be
taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged period of
rest. If a pilot is markedly fatigued prior to a given flight, he or she
should not fly. To prevent cumulative fatigue effects during long flights,
pilots should conscientiously make efforts to remain mentally active by
making frequent visual and radio navigation position checks, estimates
of time of arrival at the next check point, etc.
STRESS
Stress from the pressures of everyday living can impair pilot
performance, often in very subtle ways. Difficulties can occupy thought
processes enough to markedly decrease alertness. Distractions can
also interfere with judgment to the point that unwarranted risks are
taken, such as flying into deteriorating weather conditions to keep on
schedule. Stress and fatigue can be an extremely hazardous
combination.
It is virtually impossible to leave stress on the ground. Therefore, when
more than usual difficulties are being experienced, a pilot should
consider delaying flight until these difficulties are satisfactorily resolved.
EMOTION
Certain emotionally upsetting events, including a serious argument,
death of a family member, separation or divorce, loss of job, or financial
catastrophe can seriously impair a pilot's ability to fly an airplane safely.
The emotions of anger, depression, and anxiety from such events not

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
only decrease alertness but may also lead to taking unnecessary risks.
Any pilot who experiences an emotionally upsetting event should not fly
until satisfactorily recovered from the event.
ILLNESS
A pilot should not fly with a known medical condition or a change of a
known medical condition that would make the pilot unable to meet
medical certificate standards. Even a minor illness suffered in
day-to-day living can seriously degrade performance of many piloting
skills vital to safe flight. An illness may produce a fever and other
distracting symptoms that can impair judgment, memory, alertness, and
the ability to make decisions. Even if the symptoms of an illness are
under adequate control with a medication, the medication may
adversely affect pilot performance, and invalidate his or her medical
certificate.
The safest approach is not to fly while suffering from any illness. If there
is doubt about a particular illness, the pilot should contact an Aviation
Medical Examiner for advice.
MEDICATION
Pilot performance can be seriously degraded by both prescribed and
over-the-counter medications. Many medications, such as tranquilizers,
sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough suppressant preparations,
have primary effects that may impair judgment, memory, alertness,
coordination, vision, and ability to make decisions. Other medications,
such as antihistamines, blood pressure drugs, muscle relaxants, and
agents to control diarrhea and motion sickness, have side effects that
may impair the body's critical functions. Any medications that depress
the nervous system, such as a sedative, tranquilizer or antihistamine,
can make a pilot more susceptible to hypoxia.
FARs prohibit pilots from flying while using any medication that affects
their faculties in any way contrary to safety. The safest advice is to not
fly while taking medications, unless approved to do so by an Aviation
Medical Examiner. The condition for which the drug is required may
itself be very hazardous to flying, even when the symptoms are
suppressed by the drug. A combination of medications may cause
adverse effects that do not result from a single medication.
ALCOHOL
Do not fly while under the influence of alcohol. Flying and alcohol are
definitely a lethal combination. FARs prohibit pilots from flying within 8
hours after consuming any alcoholic beverage or while under the
influence of alcohol. A pilot may still be under the influence 8 hours
after drinking a moderate amount of alcohol. Therefore, an excellent

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
practice is to allow at least 24 hours between "bottle and throttle,"
depending on the amount of alcoholic beverage consumed.
Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards
of alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one
bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills, with the
alcohol consumed in these drinks being detectable in the breath and
blood for at least three hours. Alcohol also renders a pilot much more
susceptible to disorientation and hypoxia. In addition, the after effects
of alcohol increase the level of fatigue significantly.
There is simply no way of alleviating a hangover. Remember that the
human body metabolizes alcohol at a fixed rate, and no amount of
coffee or medications will alter this rate. Do not fly with a hangover, or a
"masked hangover" (symptoms suppressed by aspirin or other
medication). A pilot can be severely impaired for many hours by
hangover.
DRINKING THE RIGHT FLUIDS

One of the main sources of pilot and passenger complaints stems from
the relatively lowered humidity during air travel encountered at altitude
particularly on extended flights. Even though an individual may not be
physically active, body water is continuously expired from the lungs and
through the skin. This physiological phenomenon is called insensible
perspiration or insensible loss of water.
The loss of water through the skin, lungs, and kidneys never ceases.
Water loss is increased with exercise, fever, and in some disease
conditions such as hyperthyroidism. Combating the effects of
insensible water loss during flight requires frequent water intake.
Unless this is done, dehydration will occur and this causes interference
with blood circulation, tissue metabolism, and excretion of the kidneys.
Water is vital for the normal chemical reaction of human tissue. It is also
necessary for the regulation of body temperature and as an excretory
medium.
Beginning a flight in a rested, healthy condition is of prime importance.
Proper water balance through frequent fluid intake relieves the adverse
effects produced by insensible water loss in an atmosphere of lowered
humidity. Typical dehydration conditions are: dryness of the tissues and
resulting irritation of the eyes, nose, and throat as well as other
conditions previously mentioned plus the associated fatigue relating to
the state of acidosis (reduced alkalinity of the blood and the body
tissues). A person reporting for a flight in a dehydrated state will more
readily notice these symptoms until fluids are adequately replaced.
Consumption of coffee, tea, cola, and cocoa should be minimized since
these drinks contain caffeine. In addition, tea contains a related drug,
theophylline, while cocoa (and chocolate) contain theobromine, of the
same drug group. These drugs, besides having a diuretic effect, have a
marked stimulating effect and can cause an increase in pulse rate,

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
elevation of blood pressure, stimulation of digestive fluid formation, and
irritability of the gastrointestinal tract.
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia, in simple terms, is a lack of sufficient oxygen to keep the brain
and other body tissues functioning properly. Wide individual variation
occurs with respect to susceptibility to and symptoms of hypoxia. In
addition to progressively insufficient oxygen at higher altitudes,
anything interfering with the blood's ability to carry oxygen can
contribute to hypoxia (e.g., anemias, carbon monoxide, and certain
drugs). Also, alcohol and various other drugs decrease the brain's
tolerance to hypoxia. A human body has no built-in alarm system to let
the pilot know when he is not getting enough oxygen. It is difficult to
predict when or where hypoxia will occur during a given flight, or how it
will manifest itself.
Although a deterioration in night vision occurs at a cabin pressure
altitude as low as 5000 feet, other significant effects of altitude hypoxia
usually do not occur in a normal healthy pilot below 12,000 feet. From
12,000 to 15,000 feet of altitude, judgment, memory, alertness,
coordination, and ability to make decisions are impaired, and
headache, drowsiness, dizziness, and either a sense of well-being
(euphoria) or belligerence occurs. The effects appear following
increasingly shorter periods of exposure to increasing altitude. In fact, a
pilot's performance can seriously deteriorate within 15 minutes at
15,000 feet. At cabin pressures above 15,000 feet, the periphery of the
visual field grays out to a point where only central vision remains
(tunnel vision). A blue coloration (cyanosis) of the fingernails and lips
develops and the ability to take corrective and protective action is lost in
20 to 30 minutes at 18,000 feet and 5 to 12 minutes at 20,000 feet,
followed soon thereafter by unconsciousness.
The altitude at which significant effects of hypoxia occur can be
lowered by a number of factors. Carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking
or from exhaust fumes, lowered hemoglobin (anemia), and certain
medications can reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood to
the degree that the amount of oxygen provided to body tissues will
already be equivalent to the oxygen provided to the tissues when
exposed to a cabin pressure altitude of several thousand feet. Small
amounts of alcohol and low doses of certain drugs, such as
antihistamines, tranquilizers, sedatives, and analgesics can, through
their depressant action, render the brain much more susceptible to
hypoxia. Extreme heat and cold, fever, and anxiety increase the body's
demand for oxygen, and hence, its susceptibility to hypoxia.
Current regulations require that pilots use supplemental oxygen after
30 minutes of exposure to cabin pressure altitudes between 12,500
and 14,000 feet and immediately upon exposure to cabin pressure
altitudes above 14,000 feet. Every occupant of the airplane must be

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
provided with supplemental oxygen at cabin pressure altitudes above
15,000 feet.
Hypoxia can be prevented by avoiding factors that reduce tolerance to
altitude, by enriching the air with oxygen from an appropriate oxygen
system, and by maintaining a comfortable, safe cabin pressure altitude.
For optimum protection, pilots are encouraged to use supplemental
oxygen above 10,000 feet during the day, and above 5000 feet at night.
NOTE
When using oxygen systems that do not supply “pressure
breathing”, 100% oxygen cannot maintain proper blood
oxygen level above 25,000 feet altitude. Pilot's must be
familiar with limitations of the airplane oxygen system.
Pilots are encouraged to attend physiological training and susceptibility
testing in a high-altitude chamber to experience and make note of their
own personal reactions to the effects of hypoxia. These chambers are
located at the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute and many governmental
and military facilities. Knowing before hand what your own early
symptoms of hypoxia are will allow a greater time margin for taking
corrective action. The corrective action, should symptoms be noticed, is
to use supplemental oxygen and/or decrease cabin altitude. These
actions must not be delayed.
SMOKING
Smokers are slightly resistant to the initial symptoms of hypoxia.
Because of this, smokers risk the possibility of delayed detection of
hypoxia. Pilots should avoid any detrimental factors, such as second
hand smoke, which can cause such insensitivity. The small merit of
hypoxic tolerance in smokers will do more harm than good by rendering
them insensitive and unaware of the hypoxic symptoms.
Smoking in the cabin of the airplane exposes other passengers to high
concentrations of noxious gas and residue. Furthermore, many of the
systems of the airplane are contaminated and deteriorated by
long-term exposure to smoking residue. Due to the large number of
known dangers and hazards, as well as those which are still the subject
of research, it is strongly recommended that smoking not take place in
flight.
WARNING
SMOKING WHILE OXYGEN SYSTEMS ARE IN USE
CREATES AN EXTREME FIRE HAZARD.

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
HYPERVENTILATION
Hyperventilation, or an abnormal increase in the volume of air breathed
in and out of the lungs, can occur subconsciously when a stressful
situation is encountered in flight. As hyperventilation expels excessive
carbon dioxide from the body, a pilot can experience symptoms of light
headedness, suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the extremities, and
coolness -- and react to them with even greater hyperventilation.
Incapacitation can eventually result. Uncoordination, disorientation,
painful muscle spasms, and finally, unconsciousness may ultimately
occur.
The symptoms of hyperventilation will subside within a few minutes if
the rate and depth of breathing are consciously brought back under
control. The restoration of normal carbon dioxide levels in the body can
be hastened by controlled breathing in and out of a paper bag held over
the nose and mouth.
Early symptoms of hyperventilation and hypoxia are similar. Moreover,
hyperventilation and hypoxia can occur at the same time. Therefore, if
a pilot is using oxygen when symptoms are experienced, the oxygen
system should be checked to assure that it has been functioning
effectively before giving attention to rate and depth of breathing.
EAR BLOCK
As an airplane climbs and the cabin pressure decreases, trapped air in
the middle ear expands and escapes through the eustachian tube to
the nasal passages, thus equalizing with the pressure in the cabin.
During descent, cabin pressure increases and some air must return to
the middle ear through the eustachian tube to maintain equal pressure.
However, this process does not always occur without effort. In most
cases it can be accomplished by swallowing, yawning, tensing the
muscles in the throat or, if these do not work, by the combination of
closing the mouth, pinching the nose closed, and attempting to blow
gently through the nostrils (Valsalva maneuver).
Either an upper respiratory infection, such as a cold or sore throat, or a
nasal allergic condition can produce enough congestion around the
eustachian tube to make equalization difficult. Consequently, the
difference in pressure between the middle ear and the airplane cabin
can build up to a level that will hold the eustachian tube closed, making
equalization difficult, if not impossible. This situation is commonly
referred to as an "ear block." An ear block produces severe pain and
loss of hearing that can last from several hours to several days.
Rupture of the ear drum can occur in flight or after landing. Fluid can
accumulate in the middle ear and become infected. If an ear block is
experienced and does not clear shortly after landing, a physician
should be consulted. Decongestant sprays or drops to reduce
congestion usually do not provide adequate protection around the
eustachian tubes. Oral decongestants have side effects that can

PILOT SAFETY AND 1
significantly impair pilot performance. An ear block can be prevented by
not flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition.
SINUS BLOCK
During climb and descent, air pressure in the sinuses equalizes with
the airplane cabin pressure through small openings that connect the
sinuses to the nasal passages. Either an upper respiratory infection,
such as a cold or sinusitis, or a nasal allergic condition can produce
enough congestion around the openings to slow equalization, and as
the difference in pressure between the sinus and cabin increases,
eventually the openings plug. This "sinus block" occurs most frequently
during descent.
A sinus block can occur in the frontal sinuses, located above each
eyebrow, or in the maxillary sinuses, located in each upper cheek. It will
usually produce excruciating pain over the sinus area. A maxillary sinus
block can also make the upper teeth ache. Bloody mucus may
discharge from nasal passages. A sinus block can be prevented by not
flying with an upper respiratory infection or nasal allergic condition. If a
sinus block does occur and does not clear shortly after landing, a
physician should be consulted.
VISION IN FLIGHT
Of all the pilot's senses, vision is the most critical to safe flight. The
level of illumination is the major factor to adequate in-flight vision.
Details on flight instruments or aeronautical charts become difficult to
discern under dimly lit conditions. Likewise, the detection of other
aircraft is much more difficult under such conditions.
In darkness, vision becomes more sensitive to light, a process called
dark adaptation. Although exposure to total darkness for at least 30
minutes is required for complete dark adaptation, a pilot can achieve a
moderate degree of dark adaptation within 20 minutes under dim red
lighting. Since red light severely distorts colors, especially on
aeronautical charts, and can cause serious difficulty in focusing the
eyes on objects inside the cabin, its use is advisable only where
optimum outside night vision is necessary. Even so, white flight station
lighting must be available when needed for map and instrument
reading, especially while under IFR conditions. Dark adaptation is
impaired by exposure to cabin pressure altitudes above 5000 feet,
carbon monoxide inhaled in smoking and from exhaust fumes,
deficiency of vitamin A in the diet, and by prolonged exposure to bright
sunlight. Since any degree of dark adaptation is lost within a few
seconds of viewing a bright light, pilots should close one eye when
using a light to preserve some degree of night vision. In addition, use of
sunglasses during the day will help speed the process of dark
adaptation during night flight.

1 PILOT SAFETY AND
SCUBA DIVING
A pilot or passenger who flies shortly after prolonged scuba diving
could be in serious danger. Anyone who intends to fly after scuba
diving should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself of excess
nitrogen absorbed during diving. If not, decompression sickness
(commonly referred to as the "bends"), due to dissolved gas, can occur
even at low altitude and create a serious in-flight emergency. The
recommended waiting time before flight to cabin altitudes of 8000 feet
or less is at least 12 hours after diving which has not required controlled
ascent (non-decompression diving), and at least 24 hours after diving
which has required a controlled ascent (decompression diving). The
waiting time before flight to cabin pressure altitudes above 8000 feet
should be at least 24 hours after any scuba diving.
AEROBATIC FLIGHT
Pilots planning to engage in aerobatic maneuvers should be aware of
the physiological stresses associated with accelerative forces during
such maneuvers. Forces experienced with a rapid push-over maneuver
will result in the blood and body organs being displaced toward the
head. Depending on the forces involved and the individual tolerance,
the pilot may experience discomfort, headache, "red-out", and even
unconsciousness. Forces experienced with a rapid pull-up maneuver
result in the blood and body organs being displaced toward the lower
part of the body away from the head. Since the brain requires
continuous blood circulation for an adequate oxygen supply, there is a
physiological limit to the time the pilot can tolerate higher forces before
losing consciousness. As the blood circulation to the brain decreases
as a result of the forces involved, the pilot will experience "narrowing"
of visual fields, "gray-out", "black-out", and unconsciousness.
Physiologically, humans progressively adapt to imposed strains and
stresses, and with practice, any maneuver will have a decreasing
effect. Tolerance to "G" forces is dependent on human physiology and
the individual pilot. These factors include the skeletal anatomy, the
cardiovascular architecture, the nervous system, blood make-up, the
general physical state, and experience and recency of exposure. A pilot
should consult an Aviation Medical Examiner prior to aerobatic training
and be aware that poor physical condition can reduce tolerance to
accelerative forces.

PILOT SAFETY AND 2
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS CHECKLISTS
CHECKLISTS
_______________________________________________________________________________
CONSISTENT USE
Airplane checklists are available for those persons who do not wish to
use the operating handbook on every flight. These checklists contain
excerpts from the operating handbook written for that particular
airplane and are designed to remind pilots of the minimum items to
check for safe operation of the airplane, without providing details
concerning the operation of any particular system. Checklists should be
used by the pilot and not placed in the seat pocket and forgotten. Even
pilots who consistently carry the checklists tend to memorize certain
areas and intentionally overlook these procedural references.
Consequently, in time, these individuals find that operating something
as complex as an airplane on memory alone is practically impossible,
and eventually, could find themselves in trouble because one or more
important items are overlooked or completely forgotten. The consistent
use of all checklists is required for the safe operation of an airplane.
NOTE
Abbreviated checklists can be used in place of the airplane
operating manual. However, they should be used only after
the pilot becomes familiar with the airplane operating
manual, and thoroughly understands the required
procedures for airplane operation.
CONTRIBUTIONS TO SAFETY
Most large airplanes in the transport category are flown by consistent
use of all checklists. Experience has shown that pilots who consistently
use checklists on every flight maintain higher overall proficiency, and
have better safety records. The pilot should not become preoccupied
inside the cockpit and fail to remain alert for situations outside the
airplane.
CHECKLIST ARRANGEMENT (ORGANIZATION OF

ITEMS)
Abbreviated checklists are written in a concise form to provide pilots
with a means of complying with established requirements for the safe
operation of their airplane. The checklists are usually arranged by
"Item" and "Condition" headings. The item to be checked is listed with
the desired condition stated. Key words or switch and lever positions
are usually emphasized by capitalization in the "Condition" column. The
checklist may also contain supplemental information pertinent to the
operation of the airplane, such as performance data, optional
equipment operation, etc., that the pilot might routinely use.

2 PILOT SAFETY AND
CHECKLISTS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
EMERGENCY CHECKLISTS
Emergency checklists are provided for emergency situations peculiar to
a particular airplane design, operating or handling characteristic. Pilots
should periodically review the airplane operating handbook to be
completely familiar with information published by the manufacturer
concerning the airplane. Emergency situations are never planned and
may occur at the worst possible time. During most emergency
conditions, there will not be sufficient time to refer to an emergency
checklist; therefore, it is essential that the pilot commit to memory those
emergency procedures that may be shown in bold-face type or
outlined with a black border, within the emergency procedures section
in operating handbooks or equivalent hand-held checklists. These
items are essential for continued safe flight. After the emergency
situation is under control, the pilot should complete the checklist in its
entirety, in the proper sequence, and confirm that all items have been
accomplished. It is essential that the pilot review and know published
emergency checklists and any other emergency procedures. Familiarity
with the airplane and its systems and a high degree of pilot proficiency
are valuable assets if an emergency should arise.

PILOT SAFETY AND 3
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRPLANE LOADING
AIRPLANE LOADING
_______________________________________________________________________________
AIRPLANE CENTER-OF-GRAVITY RANGE

Pilots should never become complacent about the weight and balance
limitations of an airplane, and the reasons for these limitations. Since
weight and balance are vital to safe airplane operation, every pilot
should have a thorough understanding of airplane loading, with its
limitations, and the principles of airplane balance. Airplane balance is
maintained by controlling the position of the center-of-gravity.
Overloading, or misloading, may not result in obvious structural
damage, but could do harm to hidden structure or produce a dangerous
situation in the event of an emergency under those conditions.
Overloading, or misloading may also produce hazardous airplane
handling characteristics.
There are several different weights to be considered when dealing with
airplane weight and balance. These are defined in another paragraph
in this supplement. Airplanes are designed with predetermined
structural limitations to meet certain performance and flight
characteristics and standards. Their balance is determined by the
relationship of the center-of-gravity (C.G.) to the center of lift. Normally,
the C.G. of an airplane is located slightly forward of the center of lift.
The pilot can safely use the airplane flight controls to maintain
stabilized balance of the airplane as long as the C.G. is located within
specified forward and aft limits. The allowable variation of the C.G.
location is called the center-of-gravity range. The exact location of the
allowable C.G. range is specified in the operating handbook for that
particular airplane.
LOCATING THE LOAD

It is the responsibility of the pilot to ensure that the airplane is loaded
properly. Operation outside of prescribed weight and balance
limitations could result in an accident and serious or fatal injury.
To determine the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an airplane, a pilot must
have an understanding of the three terms used in weight and balance
calculations. These terms are weight, moment, and arm. The principles
associated with these terms are applied to each occupant, piece of
cargo or baggage, the airplane itself, and all the fuel to determine the
overall C.G. of the airplane.
The weight of an object should be carefully determined or calculated.
All weights must be measured in the same units as the aircraft empty
weight. The arm is the distance that the weight of a particular item is
located from the reference datum line or the imaginary vertical line from
which all horizontal distances are measured for balance purposes
(refer to examples in Figure 1).
Reissue 2 - 28 September2018 1
3 PILOT SAFETY AND
AIRPLANE LOADING WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
The word “moment”, as used in airplane loading procedures, is the
product of the weight of the object multiplied by the arm.
The relative position of any two terms indicates the mathematical

process (multiplication or division) required to compute the third term.
A loading graph or loading tables, a center-of-gravity limits chart and/or
a center-of-gravity moment envelope chart, as well as a sample loading
problem are provided in most airplane operating handbooks. By
following the narrative directions, the pilot can determine the correct
airplane C.G. for any configuration of the airplane. If the position of the
load is different from that shown on the loading graph or in the loading
tables, additional moment calculations, based on the actual weight and
C.G. arm (fuselage station) of the item being loaded, must be
performed.

PILOT SAFETY AND 3
LOAD SECURITY
In addition to the security of passengers, it is the pilot's responsibility to
determine that all cargo and/or baggage is secured before flight. When
required, the airplane may be equipped with tie-down rings or fittings
for the purpose of securing cargo or baggage in the baggage
compartment or cabin area. The maximum allowable cargo loads to be
carried are determined by cargo weight limitations, the type and
number of tie-downs used, as well as by the airplane weight and C.G.
limitations. Always carefully observe all precautions listed in the
operating handbook concerning cargo tie-down.
Pilots should assist in ensuring seat security and proper restraint for all
passengers. Pilots should also advise passengers not to put heavy or
sharp items under occupied seats since these items may interfere with
the seats' energy absorption characteristics in the event of a crash.
Optional equipment installed in the airplane can affect loading, and the
airplane center-of-gravity. Under certain loading conditions in tricycle
gear airplanes, it is possible to exceed the aft C.G. limit, which could
cause the airplane to tip and allow the fuselage tailcone to strike the
ground while loading the airplane. The force of a tail ground strike could
damage internal structure, resulting in possible interference with
elevator control system operation.
EFFECTS OF LOADING ON THE FLIGHT

Weight and balance limits are placed on airplanes for three principal
reasons: first, the effect of the weight on the primary and secondary
structures; second, the effect on airplane performance; and third, the
effect on flight controllability, particularly in stall and spin recovery.
A knowledge of load factors in flight maneuvers and gusts is important
for understanding how an increase in maximum weight affects the
characteristics of an airplane. The structure of an airplane subjected to
a load factor of 3 Gs, must be capable of withstanding an added load of
three hundred pounds for each hundred pound increase in weight. All
Cessna airplanes are analyzed and tested for flight at the maximum
authorized weight, and within the speeds posted for the type of flight to
be performed. Flight at weights in excess of this amount may be
possible, but loads for which the airplane was not designed may be
imposed on all or some part of the structure.
An airplane loaded to the rear limit of its permissible center-of-gravity
range will respond differently than when it is loaded near the forward
limit. The stall characteristics of an airplane change as the airplane load
changes, and stall characteristics become progressively better as
center-of-gravity moves forward. Distribution of weight can also have a
significant effect on spin characteristics. Forward location of the C.G.
will usually make it more difficult to obtain a spin. Conversely, extremely
aft C.G. locations will tend to promote lengthened recoveries since a

3 PILOT SAFETY AND
more complete stall can be achieved. Changes in airplane weight as
well as its distribution can have an effect on spin characteristics since
increases in weight will increase inertia. Higher weights may delay
recoveries.
An airplane loaded beyond the forward C.G. limit will be nose heavy,
and can be difficult to rotate for takeoff or flare for landing. Airplanes
with tail wheels can be nosed over more easily.
LOAD AND LATERAL TRIM

Some airplanes have a maximum limit for wing fuel lateral imbalance
and/or a maximum wing locker load limitation. These limitations are
required for one or both of two primary reasons. The first is to ensure
that the airplane will maintain certain roll responses mandated by its
certification. The other is to prevent overheating and interruption of
lateral trim on certain types of autopilots caused by the excessive work
required to maintain a wings level attitude while one wing is heavier
than the other. Pilots should carefully observe such limitations and keep
the fuel balance within the limits set forth in the respective operating
handbook.
WEIGHT AND BALANCE TERMINOLOGY

The following list is provided in order to familiarize pilots and owners
with the terminology used in calculating the weight and balance of
Cessna airplanes. (Some terminology listed herein is defined and used
in Pilot's Operating Handbooks only.)
Arm The horizontal distance from the reference datum

to the center-of-gravity (C.G.) of an item.
Basic Empty The standard empty weight plus the weight of
Weight installed optional equipment.
C.G. Arm The arm obtained by adding the airplane's
individual moments and dividing the sum by the
total weight.
C.G. Limits The extreme center-of-gravity locations within
which the airplane must be operated at a given
weight.

PILOT SAFETY AND 3
Center-of-Gravity The point at which an airplane or item of

(C.G.) equipment would balance if suspended. Its
distance from the reference datum is found by
dividing the total moment by the total weight of the
airplane or item of equipment.
MAC The mean aerodynamic chord of a wing is the
chord of an imaginary airfoil which throughout the
flight range will have the same force vectors as
those of the wing.
Maximum Landing The maximum weight approved for the landing
Weight touchdown.
Maximum Ramp The maximum weight approved for ground
Weight maneuvers. It includes the weight of start, taxi and
run up fuel.
Maximum Takeoff The maximum weight approved for the start of the
Weight takeoff roll.
Maximum Zero The maximum weight exclusive of usable fuel.
Fuel Weight
Moment The product of the weight of an item multiplied by
its arm. (Moment divided by a constant is used to
simplify balance calculations by reducing the
number of digits.)
Payload The weight of occupants, cargo, and baggage.
Reference Datum An imaginary vertical plane from which all
horizontal distances are measured for balance
purposes.
Standard Empty The weight of a standard airplane, including
Weight unusable fuel, full operating fluids and full engine
oil. In those manuals which refer to this weight as
Licensed Empty Weight, the weight of engine oil is
not included and must be added separately in
weight and balance calculations.
Station A location along the airplane fuselage given in
terms of the distance from the reference datum.

3 PILOT SAFETY AND
Tare The weight of chocks, blocks, stands, etc., used

when weighing an airplane, and is included in the
scale readings. Tare is deducted from the scale
reading to obtain the actual (net) airplane weight.
Unusable Fuel The quantity of fuel that cannot be safely used in
flight.
Usable Fuel The fuel available for flight planning.
Useful Load The difference between ramp weight and the basic
empty weight.

PILOT SAFETY AND 4
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT
(MULTI-ENGINE AIRPLANES)
SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT INFORMATION

_______________________________________________________________________________
INTRODUCTION
The following discussion is intended primarily for pilots of
propeller-driven, light twin-engine airplanes, powered by reciprocating
engines and certified under CAR Part 3 or FAR Part 23. This discussion
is not intended to apply to specific models, but is intended, instead, to
give general guidelines or recommendations for operations in the event
of an engine failure during flight.
SINGLE ENGINE TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

Each time a pilot considers a takeoff in a twin-engine airplane,
knowledge is required of the Minimum Control Speed (VMC) for that
particular airplane. Knowledge of this speed, is essential to ensure safe
operation of the airplane in the event an engine power loss occurs
during the most critical phases of flight, the takeoff and initial climb.
VMC is the minimum flight speed at which the airplane is directionally
and laterally controllable as determined in accordance with Federal
Aviation Regulations. Airplane certification conditions include: one
engine becoming inoperative and windmilling; not more than a
5-degree bank toward the operative engine; takeoff power on the
operative engine; landing gear retracted; flaps in the takeoff position;
and the most critical C.G. (center of gravity). A multi-engine airplane
must reach the minimum control speed before full control deflections
can counteract the adverse rolling and/or yawing tendencies
associated with one engine inoperative and full power operation on the
other engine. The most critical time for an engine failure is during a two
or three second period, late in the takeoff, while the airplane is
accelerating to a safe speed.
Should an engine failure be experienced before liftoff speed is reached,
the takeoff must be aborted. If an engine failure occurs immediately
after liftoff, but before the landing gear is retracted, continue takeoff
while retracting gear. Abort takeoff only if sufficient runway is available.
This decision should be made before the takeoff is initiated.
The pilot of a twin-engine airplane must exercise good judgment and
take prompt action in the decision whether or not to abort a takeoff
attempt following an engine failure, since many factors will influence
the decision.
Some of these factors include: runway length, grade and surface
condition (i.e., slippery, dry, etc.), field elevation, temperature, wind
speed and direction, terrain or obstructions in the vicinity of the runway,

4 PILOT SAFETY AND
SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
airplane weight and single engine climb capability under the prevailing
conditions, among others. The pilot should abort the takeoff, following
an engine-out, even if the airplane has lifted off the runway, if runway
conditions permit. However, under limited circumstances (i.e., short
runway with obstructions) the pilot may have to continue the takeoff
following a liftoff and an engine-out.
While it may be possible to continue the takeoff at light weights and with
favorable atmospheric conditions following an engine failure just after
liftoff, long distances are required to clear even small obstacles.
Distances required to clear an obstacle are reduced under more
favorable combinations of weight, headwind component, or obstacle
height.
The pilot's decision to continue the takeoff after an engine failure
should be based on consideration of either the single engine best
angle-of-climb speed (VXSE) if an obstacle is ahead, or the single
engine best rate-of-climb speed (VYSE) when no obstacles are present
in the climb area. Once the single engine best angle-of-climb speed is
reached, altitude becomes more important than airspeed until the
obstacle is cleared. On the other hand, the single engine best
rate-of-climb speed becomes more important when there are no
obstacles ahead. Refer to the Owners Manual, Flight Manual or Pilot's
Operating Handbook for the proper airspeeds and procedures to be
used in the event of an engine failure during takeoff. Refer to the
warning placard "To Continue Flight With An Inoperative Engine" in the
airplane's operating handbook and/or on the instrument panel for
additional information.
Should an engine failure occur at or above these prescribed airspeeds,
the airplane, within the limitations of its single engine climb
performance, should be maneuvered to a landing. After the airplane
has been "cleaned up" following an engine failure (landing gear and
wing flaps retracted and the propeller feathered on the inoperative
engine), it may be accelerated to its single engine best rate-of-climb
speed. If immediate obstructions so dictate, the single engine best
angle-of-climb speed may be maintained until the obstacles are
cleared. In no case should the speed be allowed to drop below single
engine best angle-of-climb speed unless an immediate landing is
planned, since airplane performance capabilities will deteriorate rapidly
as the airspeed decreases. After clearing all immediate obstacles, the
airplane should be accelerated slowly to its single engine best
rate-of-climb speed and the climb continued to a safe altitude which will
allow maneuvering for a return to the airport for landing.
To obtain single engine best climb performance with one engine
inoperative, the airplane must be flown in a 3 to 5 degree bank toward
the operating engine. The rudder is used to maintain straight flight,
compensating for the asymmetrical engine power. The ball of the

PILOT SAFETY AND 4
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT
turn-and-bank indicator should not be centered, but should be

displaced about 1/2 ball width toward the operating engine.
The propeller on the inoperative engine must be feathered, the landing
gear retracted, and the wing flaps retracted for continued safe flight.
Climb performance of an airplane with a propeller windmilling usually is
nonexistent. Once the decision to feather a propeller has been made,
the pilot should ensure that the propeller feathers properly and remains
feathered. The landing gear and wing flaps also cause a severe
reduction in climb performance and both should be retracted as soon
as possible (in accordance with the operating handbook limitations).
The following general facts should be used as a guide if an engine
failure occurs during or immediately after takeoff:
1. Discontinuing a takeoff upon encountering an engine failure is
advisable under most circumstances. Continuing the takeoff, if
an engine failure occurs prior to reaching single engine best
angle-of-climb speed and landing gear retraction, is not
advisable.
2. Altitude is more valuable to safety immediately after takeoff than
is airspeed in excess of the single engine best angle-of-climb
speed.
3. A windmilling propeller and extended landing gear cause a
severe drag penalty and, therefore, climb or continued level
flight is improbable, depending on weight, altitude and
temperature. Prompt retraction of the landing gear (except
Model 337 series), identification of the inoperative engine, and
feathering of the propeller is of utmost importance if the takeoff
is to be continued.
4. Unless touchdown is imminent, in no case should airspeed be
allowed to fall below single engine best angle-of-climb speed
even though altitude is lost, since any lesser speed will result in
significantly reduced climb performance.
5. If the requirement for an immediate climb is not present, allow
the airplane to accelerate to the single engine best rate-of-climb
speed since this speed will always provide the best chance of
climb or least altitude loss.
SINGLE ENGINE CRUISE

Losing one engine during cruise on a multi-engine airplane causes little
immediate problem for a proficient, properly trained pilot. After
advancing power on the operating engine and retrimming the airplane
to maintain altitude, if possible the pilot should attempt to determine if
the cause of the engine failure can be corrected in flight prior to
feathering the propeller. The magneto/ignition switches should be
checked to see if they are on, and the fuel flow and fuel quantity for the

4 PILOT SAFETY AND
SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
affected engine should also be verified. If the engine failure was

apparently caused by fuel starvation, switching to another fuel tank
and/or turning on the auxiliary fuel pump (if equipped) or adjusting the
mixture control may alleviate the condition. It must be emphasized that
these procedures are not designed to replace the procedural steps
listed in the emergency procedures section of the airplane operating
handbook, but are presented as a guide to be used by the pilot if, in his
or her judgment, corrective action should be attempted prior to shutting
down a failing or malfunctioning engine. Altitude, terrain, weather
conditions, weight, and accessibility of suitable landing areas must all
be considered before attempting to determine and/or correct the cause
of an engine failure. In any event, if an engine fails in cruise and cannot
be restarted, a landing at the nearest suitable airport is recommended.
SINGLE ENGINE APPROACH AND LANDING OR

GO-AROUND
An approach and landing with one engine inoperative on a multi-engine
airplane can easily be completed by a proficient, properly trained pilot.
However, the pilot must plan and prepare the airplane much earlier
than normal to ensure success. While preparing, fuel should be
scheduled so that an adequate amount is available for use by the
operative engine. All cross feeding should be completed during level
flight above a minimum altitude of 1000 feet AGL.
During final approach, the pilot should maintain the single engine best
rate-of-climb speed or higher, until the landing is assured. An attempt
should be made to keep the approach as normal as possible,
considering the situation. Landing gear should be extended on
downwind leg or over the final approach fix, as applicable. Flaps should
be used to control the descent through the approach.
Consideration should be given to a loss of the other engine or the
necessity to make an engine inoperative go-around. Under certain
combinations of weight, temperature and altitude, neither level flight nor
a single engine go-around may be possible. Do not attempt an engine
inoperative go-around after the wing flaps have been extended beyond
the normal approach or the published approach flap setting, unless
enough altitude is available to allow the wing flaps to be retracted to the
normal approach or the published approach flap setting, or less.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PILOT PROFICIENCY
PILOT PROFICIENCY
_______________________________________________________________________________
AIRSPEED CONTROL
Flying other than published airspeeds could put the pilot and airplane in
an unsafe situation. The airspeeds published in the airplane's operating
handbook have been tested and proven to help prevent unusual
situations. For example, proper liftoff speed puts the airplane in the best
position for a smooth transition to a climb attitude. However, if liftoff is
too early, drag increases and consequently increases the takeoff
ground run. This procedure also degrades controllability of multi-engine
airplanes in the event an engine failure occurs after takeoff. In addition,
early liftoff increases the time required to accelerate from liftoff to either
the single-engine best rate-of-climb speed (VVSE) or the single-engine
best angle-of-climb speed (VXSE) if an obstacle is ahead. On the other
hand, if liftoff is late, the airplane will tend to "leap" into the climb. Pilots
should adhere to the published liftoff or takeoff speed for their particular
airplane.
The pilot should be familiar with the stall characteristics of the airplane
when stalled from a normal 1 G stall. Any airplane can be stalled at any
speed. The absolute maximum speed at which full aerodynamic control
can be safely applied is listed in the airplane's operating handbook as
the maneuvering speed. Do not make full or abrupt control movements
above this speed. To do so could induce structural damage to the
airplane.
TRAFFIC PATTERN MANEUVERS

There have been incidents in the vicinity of controlled airports that were
caused primarily by pilots executing unexpected maneuvers. Air Traffic
Control (ATC) service is based upon observed or known traffic and
airport conditions. Air Traffic Controllers establish the sequence of
arriving and departing airplanes by advising them to adjust their flight
as necessary to achieve proper spacing. These adjustments can only
be based on observed traffic, accurate pilot radio reports, and
anticipated airplane maneuvers. Pilots are expected to cooperate so as
to preclude disruption of the traffic flow or the creation of conflicting
traffic patterns. The pilot in command of an airplane is directly
responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation of his or her
airplane. On occasion, it may be necessary for a pilot to maneuver an
airplane to maintain spacing with the traffic he or she has been
sequenced to follow. The controller can anticipate minor maneuvering
such as shallow "S" turns. The controller cannot, however, anticipate a
major maneuver such as a 360-degree turn. This can result in a gap in
the landing interval and more importantly, it causes a chain reaction
which may result in a conflict with other traffic and an interruption of the
sequence established by the tower or approach controller. The pilot

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
PILOT PROFICIENCY WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
should always advise the controller of the need to make any
maneuvering turns.
USE OF LIGHTS
Aircraft position (navigation) and anti-collision lights are required to be
illuminated on aircraft operated at night. Anti-collision lights, however,
may be turned off when the pilot in command determines that, because
of operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to do so. For
example, strobe lights should be turned off on the ground when they
adversely affect ground personnel or other pilots, and in flight when
there are adverse reflections from clouds.
To enhance the "see-and-avoid" concept, pilots are encouraged to turn
on their rotation beacon any time the engine(s) are operating, day or
night. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when
operating within ten miles of any airport, day or night, in conditions of
reduced visibility and areas where flocks of birds may be expected (i.e.,
coastal areas, around refuse dumps, etc.). Although turning on airplane
lights does enhance the "see-and-avoid" concept, pilots should not
become complacent about keeping a sharp lookout for other airplanes.
Not all airplanes are equipped with lights and some pilots may not have
their lights turned on. Use of the taxi light, in lieu of the landing light, on
some smaller airplanes may extend the landing light service life.
Propeller and jet blast forces generated by large airplanes have
overturned or damaged several smaller airplanes taxiing behind them.
To avoid similar results, and in the interest of preventing upsets and
injuries to ground personnel from such forces, the FAA recommends
that air carriers and commercial operators turn on their rotating
beacons anytime their airplane engine(s) are operating. All other pilots,
using airplanes equipped with rotating beacons, are also encouraged to
participate in this program which is designed to alert others to the
potential hazard. Since this is a voluntary program, exercise caution
and do not rely solely on the rotating beacon as an indication that
airplane engines are operating.
PARTIAL PANEL FLYING

All pilots, and especially instrument rated pilots, should know the
emergency procedures for partial instrument panel operation included
in their respective operating handbook, as well as any FAA training
material on the subject. Routine periodic practice under simulated
instrument conditions with a partial instrument panel can be very
beneficial to a pilot's proficiency. In this case, the pilot should have a
qualified safety pilot monitoring the simulated instrument practice.
If a second vacuum system is not installed and a complete vacuum
system failure occurs during flight, the vacuum-driven directional
indicator and the attitude indicator will be disabled, and the pilot will
have to control the airplane by reference to the turn coordinator or the

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
turn and bank indicator, the magnetic compass and pitot-static
instruments, if he or she flies into instrument meteorological conditions.
If an autopilot is installed, it too will be affected, and should not be used.
The following instructions assume that only the electrically-powered
turn coordinator is operative and that the pilot is not completely
proficient in instrument flying.
EXECUTING A 180° TURN IN CLOUDS
Upon inadvertently entering a cloud(s), an immediate plan should be
made to turn back as follows:
1. Note compass heading.
2. Note the time in both minutes and seconds.
3. When the seconds indicate the nearest half-minute, initiate a
standard rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator (or turn and
bank indicator if installed) symbolic airplane wing opposite the
lower left wing index mark for 60 seconds. Then roll back to level
flight by leveling the miniature airplane.
4. Assure level flight through and after the turn by referencing the
altimeter, VSI, and airspeed indicator. Altitude may be
maintained with cautious use of the elevator controls.
5. Check accuracy of turn by observing the compass heading
which should be the reciprocal of the original heading.
6. If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions
rather than rolling motions so that the compass will read more
accurately.
7. Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of
elevator control. Avoid over-controlling by keeping the hands off
the control wheel as much as possible and steering only with the
rudder.
EMERGENCY DESCENT THROUGH CLOUDS

If conditions preclude reestablishment of VFR flight by a 180° turn, a
descent through a cloud deck to VFR conditions may be appropriate. If
possible, obtain ATC clearance for an emergency descent. To guard
against a spiral dive, choose an easterly or westerly heading to
minimize compass card swings due to changing bank angles. In
addition, keep hands off the control wheel and steer a straight course
with rudder control by monitoring the turn and bank or turn coordinator.
Occasionally check the compass heading and make minor corrections
to hold an approximate course. Before descending into the clouds, set
up a stabilized let-down condition as follows:
1. Extend the landing gear (if applicable).
2. Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ft/min rate of descent.
3. Adjust mixture(s) as required for smooth engine operation.

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
4. Adjust elevator or stabilizer, rudder and aileron trim controls for
a stabilized descent.
5. Keep hands off the control wheel. Monitor turn and bank or turn
coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone.
6. Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious
corrections with rudder inputs to stop turn.
7. Upon breaking out of the clouds, resume normal cruising flight.
RECOVERY FROM A SPIRAL DIVE

If a spiral dive is encountered while in the clouds, proceed as follows:
1. Retard the throttle(s) to idle.
2. Stop the turn by using coordinated aileron and rudder control to
align the symbolic airplane in the turn coordinator with the
horizontal reference line, or center the turn needle and ball of
the turn and bank indicator.
a. With a significant airspeed increase or altitude loss while in
the spiral, anticipate that the aircraft will pitch nose-up when
the wings are level. Take care not to over stress the airframe
as a result of this nose-up pitching tendency.
3. Cautiously apply control wheel back pressure (if necessary) to
slowly reduce the airspeed.
4. Adjust the elevator or stabilizer trim control to maintain a
constant glide airspeed.
5. Keep hands off the control wheel, using rudder control to hold a
straight heading. Use rudder trim to relieve unbalanced rudder
force, if present.
6. If the power-off glide is of sufficient duration, adjust the
mixture(s), as required.
7. Upon breaking out of the clouds, resume normal cruising flight.
USE OF LANDING GEAR AND FLAPS

A review of airplane accident investigation reports indicates a
complacent attitude on the part of some pilots toward the use of
checklists for landing gear and wing flap operation. The main
confession of most pilots involved in involuntary gear-up landings is
that they "forgot" to lower the gear prior to landing. Consistent use of
the Before Landing Checklist would have alerted these pilots and
prevented a potentially hazardous situation. Other causes of gear-up
landings have been attributed to poor judgment, such as not leaving the
landing gear extended while performing several landings while
remaining in the traffic pattern. The following recommendations will
lessen the possibility of a gear-up landing.
1. Never move the landing gear control switch, handle, or lever
while the airplane is on the ground.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
2. Do not deliberately disable any landing gear warning device or
light unless indicated otherwise in the operating handbook.
3. Apply brakes before retraction of the landing gear to stop wheel
rotation.
4. After takeoff, do not retract the landing gear until a positive rate
of climb is indicated.
5. When selecting a landing gear position, whether up or down,
allow the landing gear to complete the initial cycle to the locked
position before moving the control switch, handle, or lever in the
opposite direction.
6. Never exceed the published landing gear operating speed (VLO)
while the landing gear is in transit or the maximum landing gear
extended speed (VLE).
7. Prepare for landing early in the approach so that trim
adjustments after lowering landing gear or flaps will not
compromise the approach.
8. Leave landing gear extended during consecutive landings when
the airplane remains in the traffic pattern unless traffic pattern
speeds exceed the Maximum Landing Gear Extended Speed
(VLE).
A rare, but serious problem that may result from a mechanical failure in
the flap system is split wing flaps. This phenomenon occurs when the
wing flap position on one wing does not agree with the flap position on
the opposite wing, causing a rolling tendency. Split flaps can be
detected and safely countered if flap control movement is limited to
small increments during inflight operations from full down to full up and
full up to full down. If a roll is detected during flap selection, reposition
the flap selector to the position from which it was moved and the roll
should be eliminated. Depending on the experience and proficiency of
the pilot, the rolling tendencies caused by a split flap situation may be
controlled with opposite aileron (and differential power for multi-engine
aircraft). Some documented contributing factors to split flaps are:
1. Pilots exceeding the Maximum Flap Extended (VFE) speed for a
given flap setting.
2. Mechanical failure.
3. Improper maintenance.
ILLUSIONS IN FLIGHT
Many different illusions can be experienced in flight. Some can lead to
spatial disorientation (See related information in following pages).
Others can lead to landing errors. Illusions rank among the most
common factors cited as contributing to fatal airplane accidents.
Various complex motions and forces and certain visual scenes
encountered in flight can create illusions of motion and position when
visual references deteriorate, and the pilot is not trained to rely and fly

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
by reference to the flight instruments. Spatial disorientation from these
illusions can be prevented by learning to rely on the flight instruments,
disregard sensory information and only use reliable visual references.
An abrupt correction of banked attitude, which has been entered too
slowly to stimulate the motion sensing system in the middle ear, can
create the illusion of banking in the opposite direction. The disoriented
pilot will roll the airplane back to its original dangerous attitude or, if
level flight is maintained, will feel compelled to lean in the perceived
vertical plane until this illusion subsides. This phenomenon is usually
referred to as the "leans" and the following illusions fall under this
category.
1. Coriolis illusion - An abrupt head movement in a prolonged
constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the motion
sensing system can create the illusion of rotation or movement
on an entirely different axis. The disoriented pilot will maneuver
the airplane into a dangerous attitude in an attempt to stop this
illusion of rotation. This most overwhelming of all illusions in
flight may be prevented by not making sudden, extreme head
movements, particularly while making prolonged constant-rate
turns under IFR conditions.
2. Graveyard spin - A proper recovery from a spin that has
ceased stimulating the motion sensing system can create the
illusion of spinning in the opposite direction. The disoriented
pilot will return the airplane to its original spin.
3. Graveyard spiral - An observed loss of altitude during a
coordinated constant-rate turn that has ceased stimulating the
motion sensing system can create the illusion of being in a
descent with the wings level. In this case, the disoriented pilot
will pull back on the controls, tightening the spiral and increasing
the normal load factor on the airplane.
4. Somatogravic illusion - A rapid acceleration during takeoff can
create the illusion of being in a nose up attitude. The disoriented
pilot will push the airplane into a nose low, or dive attitude. A
rapid deceleration by a quick reduction of the throttle(s) can
have the opposite effect, with the disoriented pilot pulling the
airplane into a nose up, or stall attitude.
5. Inversion illusion - An abrupt change from climb to straight and
level flight can create the illusion of tumbling backwards. The
disoriented pilot will push the airplane abruptly into a nose low
attitude, possibly intensifying this illusion.
6. Elevator illusion - An abrupt upward vertical acceleration,
usually caused by an updraft, can create the illusion of being in
a climb. The disoriented pilot will push the airplane into a nose
low attitude. An abrupt downward vertical acceleration, usually
caused by a downdraft, has the opposite effect, with the
disoriented pilot pulling the airplane into a nose up attitude.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
7. False horizon - Sloping cloud formations, an obscured horizon,
a dark scene spread with ground lights and stars, and certain
geometric patterns of ground light can create illusions of not
being aligned correctly with the horizon. The disoriented pilot will
place the airplane in a dangerous attitude.
8. Autokinesis - In the dark, a static light will appear to move
about when stared at for many seconds. The disoriented pilot
will lose control of the airplane in attempting to align it with the
light.
Various surface features and atmospheric conditions encountered
during landing can create illusions of incorrect height above and
distance away from the runway threshold. Landing errors from these
illusions can be prevented by: anticipating them during approaches,
aerial visual inspection of unfamiliar airports before landing, using an
electronic glide slope or visual approach slope indicator (VASI) system
when available, and maintaining optimum proficiency in landing
procedures. The following illusions apply to this category.
1. Runway width illusion - A narrower than usual runway can
create the illusion that the airplane is at a higher altitude than it
actually is. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will
tend to fly a lower approach, with the risk of striking objects
along the approach path, or land short. A wider than usual
runway can have the opposite effect, with the risk of flaring high
and landing hard or overshooting the runway.
2. Runway and terrain slopes illusion - An up sloping runway, up
sloping terrain, or both, can create the illusion that the airplane
is at a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will fly a lower approach. A down sloping
runway, down sloping approach terrain, or both, can have the
opposite effect.
3. Featureless terrain illusion - An absence of ground features,
as when landing over water, darkened areas and terrain made
featureless by snow, can create the illusion that the airplane is at
a higher altitude than it actually is. The pilot who does not
recognize this illusion will tend to fly a lower approach.
4. Atmospheric illusion - Rain on the windshield can create an
illusion of greater height, and a greater distance from the
runway. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to
fly a lower approach. Penetration of fog can create the illusion of
pitching up. The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will
steepen the approach, often quite abruptly.

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
5. Ground lighting illusions - Lights along a straight path, such
as a road, and even lights on trains, can be mistaken for runway
and approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting
systems, especially where few lights illuminate the surrounding
terrain, may create the illusion of less distance to the runway.
The pilot who does not recognize this illusion will tend to fly a
higher approach. Conversely, the pilot overflying terrain which
has few lights to provide height clues may make a lower than
normal approach.
SPATIAL DISORIENTATION
Spatial disorientation is the confusion of the senses affecting balance,
which occurs when a person is deprived of the normal clues upon
which he or she depends for "indexing" a sense of balance. Loss of
control can result from the pilot unable to understand what the airplane
is doing. These clues include, most prominently, his or her visual
reference to the earth's horizon and celestial bodies, and his or her
acceptance of the force of gravity as acting vertically. When flying an
airplane, the pilot may have all outside visual references obscured by
clouds or complete darkness, and his interpretation of the direction of
gravity may become confused by forces imposed on his or her body by
centrifugal force, accelerations of maneuvering, and turbulence, which
may act in any direction.
Spatial disorientation usually leads to vertigo, but is not necessarily
identical to it. Vertigo is an uncertain feeling of disorientation, turning, or
imbalance, which is usually accompanied by feelings of dizziness or
incipient nausea.
During instrument flight, the attitude of the airplane must be determined
from the gyro horizon (“attitude indicator”) with cross-reference to other
flight instruments.
Sometimes during conditions of low visibility, the supporting senses
conflict with what is seen or what the pilot believes he sees. When this
happens, there is a definite susceptibility to disorientation. The degree
of disorientation varies considerably with individual pilots, their
proficiency, and the conditions which induced the problem. Complete
disorientation, even for a short period of time, can render a pilot
incapable of controlling an airplane, to the extent that he cannot
maintain level flight, or even prevent fatal turns and diving spirals.
Lack of effective visual reference is common on over-water flights at
night, and in low visibility conditions over land. Other contributing
factors to disorientation and vertigo are reflections from outside lights,
and cloud reflections of beams from rotating beacons or strobe lights.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
It is important that all pilots understand the possibility of spatial
disorientation, and the steps necessary to minimize the loss of control
as a result of it. The following basic items should be known to every
pilot:
1. Obtain training and maintain proficiency in the control of an
airplane by reference to instruments before flying in visibility of
less than three miles.
2. Refer to the attitude instruments frequently when flying at night
or in reduced visibility conditions.
3. To maintain competency in night operations, practice should
include operations in the traffic pattern, subject to the confusion
caused by reflections of ground lights, as well as the control of
an airplane by reference to instruments.
4. Familiarization with the meteorological conditions which may
lead to spatial disorientation is important. These include smoke,
fog, haze, and other restrictions to visibility.
5. Familiarity with local areas and commonly used flight routes
assists in the avoidance of disorientation by permitting the pilot
to anticipate and look for prominent terrain features.
6. The most important precaution for avoiding disorientation is the
habit of thoroughly checking the weather before each flight,
while enroute, and near the destination.
A pilot without the demonstrated competence to control an airplane by
sole reference to instruments has little chance of surviving an
unintentional flight into IFR conditions. Tests conducted by the U.S. Air
Force, using qualified instrument pilots, indicate that it may take as long
as 35 seconds to establish full control by reference to instruments after
disorientation during an attempt to maintain VFR flight in IFR weather.
Instrument training and certification and ongoing recurrent training in
accordance with FAR Part 61, are designed to provide the pilot with the
skills needed to maintain control solely by reference to flight
instruments and the ability to ignore the false kinesthetic sensations
inherent with flight when no outside references are available.
MOUNTAIN FLYING
A pilot's first experience of flying over mountainous terrain (particularly
if most of his or her flight time has been over flatlands) could be a
never-to-be-forgotten experience if proper planning is not done and if
the pilot is not aware of potential hazards. Those familiar section lines
in some regions are not present in the mountains. Flat, level fields for
forced landings are practically nonexistent; abrupt changes in wind
direction and velocity may occur; severe updrafts and downdrafts are
common during high wind conditions, particularly near or above abrupt
changes of terrain, such as cliffs or rugged areas; and clouds can build
up with startling rapidity. Mountain flying need not be hazardous if you
follow the recommendations below:

5 PILOT SAFETY AND
1. For pilots with little or no mountain flying experience, always get
dual instruction from a qualified flight instructor to become
familiar with conditions which may be encountered before flying
in mountainous terrain.
2. Plan your route to avoid topography which would prevent a safe
forced landing. The route should be near populated areas and
well known mountain passes. Sufficient altitude should be
maintained to permit gliding to a safe landing in the event of
engine failure.
3. Always file a flight plan.
4. Don't fly a light airplane when the winds aloft, at your proposed
altitude, exceed 35 miles per hour. Expect the winds to be of
much greater velocity over mountain passes than reported a few
miles from them. Approach mountain passes with as much
altitude as possible. Downdrafts of from 1500 to 2000 feet per
minute are not uncommon on the leeward (downwind) side.
5. Severe turbulence can be expected near or above changes in
terrain, especially in high wind conditions.
6. Some canyons run into a dead end. Don't fly so far into a canyon
that you get trapped. Always be able to make a 180-degree turn,
or if canyon flying is necessary, fly down the canyon (toward
lower terrain), not up the canyon (toward higher terrain).
7. Plan the trip for the early morning hours. As a rule, the air starts
to get turbulent at about 10 a.m., and grows steadily worse until
around 4 p.m., then gradually improves until dark.
8. When landing at a high altitude airfield, the same indicated
airspeed should be used as at low elevation fields. Due to the
less dense air at altitude, this same indicated airspeed actually
results in a higher true airspeed, a faster landing speed, and a
longer landing distance. During gusty wind conditions, which
often prevail at high altitude fields, a "power approach" is
recommended. Additionally; due to the faster ground speed and
reduced engine performance at altitude, the takeoff distance will
increase considerably over that required at lower altitudes.

PILOT SAFETY AND 5
OBSTRUCTIONS TO FLIGHT
Pilots should exercise extreme caution when flying less than 2000 feet
above ground level (AGL) because of the numerous structures (radio
and television antenna towers) exceeding 1000 feet AGL, with some
extending higher than 2000 feet AGL. Most truss type structures are
supported by guy wires. The wires are difficult to see in good weather
and can be totally obscured during periods of dusk and reduced
visibility. These wires can extend approximately 1500 feet horizontally
from a structure; therefore, all truss type structures should be avoided
by at least 2000 feet, horizontally and vertically.
Overhead transmission and utility lines often span approaches to
runways and scenic flyways such as lakes, rivers, and canyons. The
supporting structures of these lines may not always be readily visible
and the wires may be virtually invisible under certain conditions. Most
of these installations do not meet criteria which determine them to be
obstructions to air navigation and therefore, do not require marking
and/or lighting. The supporting structures of some overhead
transmission lines are equipped with flashing strobe lights. These lights
indicate wires exist between the strobe equipped structures.
Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 11/(12 blank)

PILOT SAFETY AND 6
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL MANAGEMENT
FUEL MANAGEMENT
_______________________________________________________________________________
POOR TECHNIQUES
Poor fuel management is often the cause of aircraft accidents. Some
airplane accident reports have listed such poor fuel management
techniques as switching to another fuel tank after the before takeoff
runup was completed, and then experiencing engine problems on
takeoff. Other reports tell of pilots switching fuel tanks at a critical point
on the approach to a landing and inadvertently selecting an empty tank
when there is not enough time to compensate for the subsequent loss
of power. Flying low during day crosscountry, or moderately low at
night, can be hazardous if a fuel tank runs dry. Too much altitude may
be lost during the time it takes to discover the reason for power loss,
select a different fuel tank, and restart the engine. Pilots should be
thoroughly familiar with the airplane fuel system and tank switching
procedures. Furthermore, it is an unsafe technique to run a fuel tank
dry as a routine procedure, although there are exceptions. Any
sediment or water not drained from the fuel tank could be drawn into
the fuel system and cause erratic operation or even total power loss.
FUELING THE AIRCRAFT

The aircraft should be on level ground during all fueling operations,
since filling the tanks when the aircraft is not level may result in a fuel
quantity less than the maximum capacity. Rapid filling of a fuel tank,
without allowing time for air in the tank to escape, may result in a lower
fuel quantity. Some single engine aircraft that allow simultaneous use of
fuel from more than one tank have fuel tanks with interconnected vent
lines. If the tanks are filled with fuel and the aircraft allowed to sit with
one wing lower than the other, fuel may drain from the higher tank to
the lower and subsequently out the fuel vent. This will result in loss of
fuel. This fuel loss may be prevented by placing the fuel selector in a
position other than "both".
Some Cessna single-engine airplanes have long, narrow fuel tanks. If
your airplane is so equipped, it may be necessary to partially fill each
tank alternately, and repeat the sequence as required to completely fill
the tanks to their maximum capacity. This method of fueling helps
prevent the airplane from settling to a wing-low attitude because of
increased fuel weight in the fullest wing tank.
It is always the responsibility of the pilot-in-command to ensure
sufficient fuel is available for the planned flight. Refer to the airplane
operating handbook for proper fueling procedures.

6 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL MANAGEMENT WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
UNUSABLE FUEL
Unusable fuel is the quantity of fuel that cannot safely be used in flight.
The amount of unusable fuel varies with airplane and fuel system
design, and the maximum amount is determined in accordance with
Civil or Federal Aviation Regulations (CARs or FARs). Unusable fuel is
always included in the airplane's licensed or basic empty weight for
weight and balance purposes. Unusable fuel should never be included
when computing the endurance of any airplane.
FUEL PLANNING WITH MINIMUM RESERVES

Airplane accidents involving engine power loss continue to reflect fuel
starvation as the primary cause or a contributing factor. Some of these
accidents were caused by departing with insufficient fuel onboard to
complete the intended flight. Fuel exhaustion in flight can mean only
one thing - a forced landing with the possibility of serious damage,
injury, or death.
A pilot should not begin a flight without determining the fuel required
and verifying its presence onboard. To be specific, during VFR
conditions, do not take off unless there is enough fuel to fly to the
planned destination (considering wind and forecast weather
conditions), assuming the airplane's normal cruising airspeed, fly after
that for at least 30 minutes during the day, or at least 45 minutes at
night.
Departure fuel requirements are a little different when operating under
IFR conditions. Do not depart an airport on an IFR trip unless the
airplane has enough fuel to complete the flight to the first airport of
intended landing (considering weather reports and forecasts) and fly
from that airport to the planned alternate airport, and afterwards still fly
at least 45 minutes at normal cruising speed.
FLIGHT COORDINATION VS. FUEL FLOW

The shape of most airplane wing fuel tanks is such that, in certain flight
maneuvers, the fuel may move away from the fuel tank supply outlet. If
the outlet is uncovered, fuel flow to the engine may be interrupted and a
temporary loss of power might result. Pilots can prevent inadvertent
uncovering of the tank outlet by having adequate fuel in the tank
selected and avoiding maneuvers such as prolonged uncoordinated
flight or sideslips which move fuel away from the feed lines.
It is important to observe the uncoordinated flight or sideslip limitations
listed in the respective operating handbook. As a general rule, limit
uncoordinated flight or sideslip to 30 seconds in duration when the fuel
level in the selected fuel tank is 1/4 full or less. Airplanes are usually
considered in a sideslip anytime the turn and bank "ball" is more than
one quarter ball out of the center (coordinated flight) position. The
amount of usable fuel decreases with the severity of the sideslip in all
cases.

PILOT SAFETY AND 6
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL MANAGEMENT
FUEL SELECTION FOR APPROACH/LANDING
On some single-engine airplanes, the fuel selector valve handle is
normally positioned to the BOTH position to allow symmetric fuel feed
from each wing fuel tank. However, if the airplane is not kept in
coordinated flight, unequal fuel flow may occur. The resulting wing
heaviness may be corrected during flight by turning the fuel selector
valve handle to the tank in the "heavy" wing. On other single-engine
airplanes, the fuel selector has LEFT ON or RIGHT ON positions, and
takeoffs and landings are to be accomplished using fuel from the fuller
tank.
Most multi-engine airplanes have fuel tanks in each wing or in wing tip
tanks, and it is advisable to feed the engines symmetrically during
cruise so that approximately the same amount of fuel will be left in each
side for descent, approach, and landing. If fuel has been consumed at
uneven rates between the two wing tanks because of prolonged
single-engine flight, fuel leak or siphon, or improper fuel servicing, it is
desirable to balance the fuel load by operating both engines from the
fuller tank. However, as long as there is sufficient fuel in both wing
tanks, even though they may have unequal quantities, it is important to
switch the left and right fuel selectors to the left and right wing tanks,
respectively, feeling for the detent, prior to the approach. This will
ensure that adequate fuel flow will be available to each operating
engine if a go-around is necessary. In the case· of single-engine
operation, operate from the fuller tank, attempting to have a little more
fuel in the wing on the side with the operating engine prior to descent.
On all multi-engine airplanes equipped with wing tip fuel tanks, the tip
tanks are the main fuel tanks on the tank selector valve controls. Refer
to Supplement 12 of this Pilot Safety and Warning Supplements
Manual and the applicable airplane operating handbook.

PILOT SAFETY AND 7
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRFRAME ICING
AIRFRAME ICING
_______________________________________________________________________________
Pilots should monitor weather conditions while flying and should be

alert to conditions which might lead to icing. Icing conditions should be
avoided when possible, even if the airplane is certified and approved
for flight into known icing areas. A climb normally is the best ice
avoidance action to take. Alternatives are a course reversal or a
descent to warmer air. If icing conditions are encountered inadvertently,
immediate corrective action is required.
FLIGHT INTO KNOWN ICING

Flight into known icing is the intentional flight into icing conditions that
are known to exist. Icing conditions exist anytime the indicated OAT
(outside air temperature) is +10°C or below, or the RAT (ram air
temperature) is +10°C or below, and visible moisture in any form is
present. Any airplane that is not specifically certified for flight into
known icing conditions, is prohibited by regulations from doing so.
Ice accumulations significantly alter the shape of the airfoil and
increase the weight of the aircraft. Ice accumulations on the aircraft will
increase stall speeds and alter the speeds for optimum performance.
Flight at high angles of attack (low airspeed) can result in ice buildup on
the underside of wings and the horizontal tail aft of the areas protected
by boots or leading edge anti-ice systems. Trace or light amounts of
icing on the horizontal tail can significantly alter airfoil characteristics,
which will affect stability and control of the aircraft.
lnflight ice protection equipment is not designed to remove ice, snow, or
frost accumulations on a parked airplane sufficiently enough to ensure
a safe takeoff or subsequent flight. Other means (such as a heated
hangar or approved deicing solutions) must be employed to ensure that
all wing, tail, control, propeller, windshield, static port surfaces and fuel
vents are free of ice, snow, and frost accumulations, and that there are
no internal accumulations of ice or debris in the control surfaces,
engine intakes, brakes, pitot-static system ports, and fuel vents prior to
takeoff.
AIRPLANES CERTIFIED FOR FLIGHT INTO KNOWN ICING

An airplane certified for flight into known icing conditions must have all
required FAA approved equipment installed and fully operational.
Certain airplanes have a flight into known icing equipment package
available which, if installed in its entirety and completely operational,
allows intentional penetration of areas of known icing conditions as
reported in weather sequences or by PIREPS.

7 PILOT SAFETY AND
AIRFRAME ICING WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
This known icing package is designed specifically for the airplane to
provide adequate in-flight protection during normally encountered icing
conditions produced by moisture-laden clouds. It will not provide total
protection under severe conditions such as those which exist in areas
of freezing rain, nor will it necessarily provide complete protection for
continuous operation in extremely widespread areas of heavy cloud
moisture content The installed equipment should be used to protect the
airplane from ice while seeking a different altitude or routing where ice
does not exist. During all operations, the pilot must exercise good
judgment and be prepared to alter his flight if conditions exceed the
capacity of the ice protection equipment or if any component of this
equipment fails.
The airplane's operating handbook will indicate the required equipment
for intentional flight into known icing conditions. Such equipment may
include: wing leading edge deice/anti-ice system, vertical and
horizontal stabilizer leading edge deice/anti-ice system, propeller deice/
anti-ice system, windshield anti-ice, heated pitot tube, heated static
ports and fuel vents, heated stall warning vane/transducer or optional
angle-of-attack lift sensor vane, ice detector light(s), and increased
capacity electrical and vacuum systems.
If there is any doubt whether the airplane is certified or has all the
required equipment, the pilot should assume that the airplane is not
certified for flight into known icing and avoid any encounters with areas
of icing.
KINDS OF ICING
Airframe icing is a major hazard. It is at its worst when the supercooled
(liquid below freezing temperature) water droplets are large and
plentiful. Droplets of this type are usually found in cumulus clouds and
are the cause of "clear ice". Clear ice is transparent ice deposited in
layers, and may be either smooth or rough. This ice coats more of the
wing than "rime ice" because the droplets flow back from the leading
edge over the upper and lower wing surface before freezing, and the
rate of accumulation is higher.
Rime ice is an opaque, granular, and rough deposit of ice that is usually
encountered in stratus clouds. Small supercooled droplets freeze
instantly when struck by the leading edges of the airplane. Rime ice
can quickly change the drag characteristics of the airplane. Under
some conditions, a large "double horn" buildup on the leading edges
can occur which drastically alters the airfoil shape. Altitude changes
usually work well as an avoidance strategy for rime ice. In colder
temperatures, these types of supercooled water droplets quickly
convert to ice crystals.
Icing in precipitation comes from freezing rain or drizzle which falls from
warmer air aloft to colder air below. This results in a very rapid buildup
of clear ice, and must be avoided by all means available to the pilot.

PILOT SAFETY AND 7
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AIRFRAME ICING
If it is snowing, the problem is not so much the snow sticking to the
airplane as the icing caused by the supercooled water droplets in the
clouds from which the snow is falling. The amount of ice will depend
upon cloud saturation.
Pilots should report all icing conditions to ATC/FSS, and if operating
under IFR conditions, request new routing or altitude if icing will be a
hazard. Be sure to give type of airplane when reporting icing. The
following describe how to report icing conditions:
1. Trace - Ice becomes visible. Rate of accumulation is slightly
greater than the rate of sublimation. Anti-ice equipment must be
on and deice equipment may or may not be required.
2. Light - The rate of accumulation may create a problem if flight is
prolonged in this environment (over 1 hour). Occasional use of
deicing equipment and continuous use of anti-icing equipment
removes/prevents accumulation.
3. Moderate - The rate of accumulation is such that even short
encounters become potentially hazardous and use of deicing/
anti-icing equipment and flight diversion is necessary.
4. Severe - The rate of accumulation is such that deicing/anti-icing
equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate flight
diversion is necessary.
RESULTS OF ICING
Airplane performance can be severely reduced by ice accumulation.
Accumulation of 1 /2 inch of ice on the leading edges of the wings and
empennage can cause a large loss in rate of climb, a cruise speed
reduction of up to 30 KIAS, as well as a significant buffet and stall
speed increase. Even if the airplane is certified for flight into known
icing and the equipment is working properly, ice remaining on
unprotected areas of the airplane can cause large performance losses.
With one inch of residual ice accumulation, these losses can double, or
even triple. Ice accumulation also will increase airplane weight.
INADVERTENT ICING ENCOUNTER

Flight into icing conditions is not recommended. However, an
inadvertent encounter with these conditions is possible. The following
are things to consider doing if inadvertent icing is experienced. These
items are not intended to replace procedures described in any
operating handbook. Instead, this list has been generated to familiarize
pilots of older model Cessnas with guidelines they can use in the event
of an inadvertent icing condition. The best procedure is a change of
altitude, or course reversal to escape the icing conditions.

7 PILOT SAFETY AND
AIRFRAME ICING WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
1. Turn pitot heat, stall warning heat, propeller deice/anti-ice, and
windshield anti-ice switches ON (if installed).
2. Change altitude (usually climb) or turn back to obtain an outside air
temperature that is less conducive to icing.
3. Increase power as necessary to maintain cruise airspeed and to
minimize ice accumulation. Maintain a minimum indicated airspeed
of VY + 10 KIAS until assured that all ice is off the airframe.
4. Turn cabin heat and defroster controls full on and open defrost
control to obtain maximum windshield defroster effectiveness.
5. Increase engine speed to minimize ice buildup on propeller blades.
If excessive vibration is noted, momentarily reduce engine speed
with the propeller control, and then rapidly move the control full
forward. Cycling the RPM flexes the propeller blades and high
RPM increases centrifugal force, causing ice to shed more readily.
6. Watch for signs of induction air filter ice. Regain manifold pressure
by increasing the throttle setting and/or selecting alternate air or
carburetor heat. If ice accumulates on the intake filter (requiring
alternate air), a decrease of manifold pressure will be experienced,
and the mixture should be adjusted as required.
7. If icing conditions are unavoidable, plan a landing at the nearest
airport. In the event of an extremely rapid ice buildup, select a
suitable "off airport" landing site.
8. Ice accumulation of 1/4 inch or more on the wing leading edges
may require significantly higher power and a higher approach and
landing speed, and result in a higher stall speed and longer landing
roll.
9. If practical, open the window and scrape ice from a portion of the
windshield for visibility in the landing approach.
10. Approach with reduced flap extension to ensure adequate elevator
effectiveness in the approach and landing.
11. Avoid a slow and high flare-out.
12. Missed approaches should be avoided whenever possible,
because of severely reduced climb capability. However, if a
go-around is mandatory, make the decision much earlier in the
approach than normal. Apply maximum power while retracting the
flaps slowly in small increments (if extended). Retract the landing
gear after immediate obstacles are cleared.

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS WEATHER
WEATHER
_______________________________________________________________________________
ALERTNESS
Most pilots pay particularly close attention to the business of flying
when they are intentionally operating in instrument weather conditions.
On the other hand, unlimited visibility tends to encourage a sense of
security which may not be justified. The pilot should be alert to the
potential of weather hazards, and prepared if these hazards are
encountered on every flight.
VFR JUDGMENT
Published distance from clouds and visibility regulations establish the
minimums for VFR flight. The pilot who uses even greater margins
exercises good judgment. VFR operation in class D airspace, when the
official visibility is 3 miles or greater, is not prohibited, but good
judgment would dictate that VFR pilots keep out of the approach area
under marginal conditions.
Precipitation reduces forward visibility. Although it is perfectly legal to
cancel an IFR flight plan whenever the pilot feels he can proceed VFR,
it is usually a good practice to continue IFR into a terminal area until the
destination airport is in sight.
While conducting simulated instrument flights, pilots should ensure that
the weather provides adequate visibility to the safety pilot. Greater
visibility is advisable when flying in or near a busy airway or close to an
airport.
IFR JUDGMENT
The following tips are not necessarily based on Federal Aviation
Regulations, but are offered as recommendations for pilot
consideration. They do, however, address those elements of IFR flight
that are common causes of accidents.
1. All pilots should have an annual IFR proficiency check,
regardless of IFR hours flown.
2. For the first 25 hours of pilot-in-command time in airplane type,
increase ILS visibility minimums and raise nonprecision
approach minimums.
3. An operating autopilot or wing leveler is strongly recommended
for single pilot IFR operations.
4. Do not depart on an IFR flight without an independent power
source for attitude and heading systems, and an emergency
power source for at least one VHF communications radio, or a
hand-held communications radio.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
WEATHER WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
5. Be sure the airplane has enough fuel to fly to the destination
with a headwind calculated at 125 percent of the forecast wind,
and a tailwind calculated at 75 percent of forecast wind. Also,
include enough fuel to miss the approach at the destination
airport, climb to cruise altitude and fly an approach at an
alternate airport, plus 45 minutes of fuel for low altitude holding.
6. The IFR takeoff runway should meet the criteria of the
accelerate-stop/go distances for that particular twin-engine
airplane, or 200 percent of the distance to clear a 50-foot
obstacle for a single.
7. Do not enter an area of embedded thunderstorms without
on-board weather detection equipment (radar and/or
StormscopeTM) and unless cloud bases are at least 2000 feet
above the highest terrain, terrain is essentially level, and VFR
can be maintained. Avoid all cells by five miles, and severe
storms by 20 miles.
8. Do not enter possible icing conditions unless all deice and
anti-ice systems are fully operational, or the weather provides at
least a 1000 foot ceiling and three miles visibility for the entire
route over level terrain, and the surface temperatures are
greater than 5°C.
9. Adhere to weather minimums, missed approach procedures and
requirements for visual contact with the runway environment. If
an approach is missed, with the runway not in sight at the
appropriate time because of weather conditions, do not attempt
another approach unless there is a valid reason to believe there
has been a substantial improvement in the weather.
10. Observe the minimum runway requirement for an IFR landing.
The minimum IFR runway length for propeller driven airplanes
should be considered 200 percent of maximum landing
distance. Increase these distances 90 percent for a wet runway
and 150 percent for ice on the runway.
11. Make a missed approach if speed and configuration are not
stable inside the middle marker or on nonprecision final, or if the
touchdown aiming point will be missed by more than 1000 feet.
If an approach is missed because of pilot technique, evaluate
the reasons and options before attempting another approach.
12. Use supplemental oxygen above a cabin altitude of 5000 feet at
night, and above 10,000 feet during the day.
WIND
The keys to successfully counteracting the effects of wind are
proficiency, understanding the wind response characteristics of the
airplane, and a thoughtful approach to the operation. Some operating
handbooks indicate a maximum demonstrated crosswind velocity, but
this value is not considered to be limiting. There is an ultimate limit on

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
wind for safe operation, which varies with the airplane and pilot. The
lighter the airplane and the lower the stalling speed, the less wind it will
take to exceed this limit. The way an airplane rests on its landing gear
affects handling characteristics. If it sits nose down, the wing will be
unloaded and the airplane will handle better in wind than an airplane
which sits in a nose up attitude, creating a positive angle of attack. For
the latter type, the full weight of the airplane cannot be on the wheels
as the airplane is facing into the wind. Airplanes with these
characteristics cause pilots to work harder to keep the airplane under
control.
CROSSWIND
While an airplane is moving on the ground, it is affected by the direction
and velocity of the wind. When taxiing into the wind, the control
effectiveness is increased by the speed of the wind. The tendency of an
airplane to weathervane is the greatest while taxiing directly crosswind,
which makes this maneuver difficult. When taxiing in crosswind, speed
and use of brakes should be held to a minimum and all controls should
be utilized to maintain directional control and balance (see Crosswind
Taxi Diagram, Figure 1).
Takeoffs into strong crosswinds are normally performed with the
minimum flap setting necessary for the field length. With the ailerons
deflected into the wind, the airplane should be accelerated to a speed
slightly higher than normal (on multi-engine airplanes, additional power
may be carried on the upwind engine until the rudder becomes
effective), and then the airplane should be flown off abruptly to prevent
possible settling back to the runway while drifting. When clear of the
ground and any obstacle, the pilot should execute a coordinated turn
into the wind to correct for drift. The pilot’s ability to handle a crosswind
is more dependent upon pilot proficiency than airplane limitations.
A crosswind approach and landing may be performed using either the
wing-low, crab, or combination drift correction technique, depending
upon the training, experience, and desires of the pilot. Use of the
minimum flap setting required for the field length is recommended.
Whichever method is used, the pilot should hold a straight course after
touchdown with the steerable nose or tailwheel and occasional
differential braking, if necessary.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
On those airplanes with a steerable tailwheel, landings may be made
with the tailwheel lock (if installed) engaged or disengaged. Although
the use of the lock is left to the individual pilot's preference, it should be
used during strong crosswind landings on rough fields with a heavily
loaded airplane. If the lock were disengaged, this condition could lead
to a touchdown with a deflected tailwheel and subsequent external
forces on the tailwheel that are conducive to shimmy.
LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR

Low level wind shear is the interflow of air masses near the ground,
having different speeds and directions. As an airplane passes through
the narrow boundary between the two air masses, large fluctuations in
airspeed may be encountered depending on the difference in speed
and direction of the air masses. Low level wind shear can be
experienced through both the horizontal and vertical plane. One major
risk with a wind shear encounter is that a sudden loss of airspeed may
render the airplane out of control near the ground. Recovery depends
on altitude and the magnitude of the airspeed loss.
A wind shear encounter can be reported as either positive or negative.
A positive wind shear is one in which the headwind component
suddenly increases. The airplane's inertia makes it tend to maintain the
same velocity through space, not through air, so the first thing a pilot is
likely to notice is an increase in airspeed. The opposite case, a
negative wind shear, is a sudden decrease in headwind component.
The airplane will begin to sink immediately, as lift is decreased by the
reduced airspeed; and as the natural aerodynamics, and/or the pilot,
lowers the nose, the descent rate increases.
The effects of wind shear on smaller airplanes are sometimes less
severe than on large jetliners. Smaller airplanes have less mass (and
therefore less inertia), and their speed can change more quickly. Thus,
a smaller airplane can return to its trimmed speed, after encountering a
wind shear, more rapidly than a larger, heavier one.
TYPES OF WIND SHEAR CONDITIONS

Wind shear is encountered in several distinct weather scenarios. Within
a frontal zone, as one air mass overtakes another, variations in wind
speed and direction can be significant. Fast moving cold fronts, squall
lines, and gust fronts pose the highest risk.
A temperature inversion can present a fast moving air mass directly
above a very stable calm layer at the surface. Under these conditions
an airplane on approach with a headwind aloft will experience a rapid
loss of airspeed during descent through the boundary layer to the calm
air beneath.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
The most violent type of wind shear is that induced by convective
activity and thunderstorms. Downdrafts created by local areas of
descending air (roughly 5 to 20 miles diameter) can exceed 700 feet
per minute. At times, very small areas of descending air (1 mile or so in
diameter), called microbursts, can reach vertical speeds of 6000 feet
per minute or more. Such downdrafts generate significant turbulence
and exceed the climb capability of many airplanes. In addition, as the
downdraft/microburst reaches the ground, the air spreads in all
directions. The pilot entering the area at relatively low altitude will likely
experience an increase in airspeed followed by a dramatic decrease in
airspeed and altitude while exiting the area.
INDICATIONS OF WIND SHEAR

The winds near or around the base of a thunderstorm are largely
unpredictable, but there are identifiable signs that may indicate that
wind shear conditions exist. Small areas of rainfall, or shafts of heavy
rain are clues to possible wind shear conditions. Virga, or rain shafts
that evaporate before reaching the ground, may indicate cool, dense air
sinking rapidly and may contain microburst winds. On the ground, such
signs as trees bending in the wind, ripples on water, or a line of dust
clouds should alert the pilot.
With the presence of a strong temperature inversion, if low clouds are
moving rapidly but winds are calm or from a different direction on the
surface, a narrow wind shear zone might exist and the pilot may elect to
use a higher climb speed until crossing the zone. Conversely, while in
the landing pattern or on an approach, if the reported surface winds are
significantly different than that being experienced in flight, it must be
taken as a warning to the potential of wind shear.
A pilot who has been holding a wind correction angle on final approach,
and suddenly finds that a change has to be made - i.e., the runway (or
CDI needle) starts moving off to the side - most likely encountered wind
shear. The usual techniques apply, such as an appropriate heading
change, but more importantly, the pilot has been alerted to the
presence of a wind shear situation and should be ready to deal with a
more serious headwind to tailwind shear at any time.
COPING WITH WIND SHEAR

A pilot can cope with wind shear by maintaining a somewhat higher
airspeed not to exceed VA (maneuvering speed), since the conditions
conducive to wind shear are also often conducive to turbulence. Pilots
should be alert for negative wind shear; if the airspeed is suddenly
decreasing, the sink rate increasing, or more than usual approach
power is required, a negative wind shear may well have been
encountered. Also, the closer the airplane gets to the ground, the
smaller the margin for sink recovery.

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
Be prepared to go around at the first indication of a negative wind
shear. A positive wind shear may be followed immediately by a
negative shear.
Some larger airports are equipped with a low-level wind shear alerting
system (LLWAS). Many have ATIS, and or AWOS wind information. All
elements of the weather conditions including pilot reports should be
carefully considered and any pilot who experiences wind shear should
warn others.
In summary, all pilots should remain alert to the possibility of low level
wind shear. If wind shear is encountered on final approach, usually
characterized by erratic airspeed and altimeter indications and almost
always associated with uncommanded airplane attitude changes, do
not hesitate to go around. If the approach profile and airspeed cannot
be reestablished, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that a
go-around is often the pilot's best course of action, and the earlier the
decision to go around, the better the chance of recovery.
THUNDERSTORM AVOIDANCE
Much has been written about thunderstorms. They have been studied
for years, and while considerable information has been learned, the
studies continue because questions still remain. Knowledge and
weather radar have modified our attitudes toward thunderstorms. But
any storm recognizable as a thunderstorm should be considered
hazardous. Never regard any thunderstorm lightly, even when radar
observers report the echoes are of light intensity. Avoiding all
thunderstorms is the best policy.
The following are some do's and don'ts of thunderstorm avoidance:
1. Don't land or takeoff in the face of an approaching thunderstorm.
A sudden gust front of low level turbulence (wind shear) could
cause loss of control.
2. Don't attempt to fly under a thunderstorm, even if you can see
through to the other side. Turbulence and wind shear under the
storm is likely and hazardous.
3. Don't fly near clouds containing embedded thunderstorms.
Scattered thunderstorms that are not embedded usually can be
visually circumnavigated.
4. Don't trust the visual appearance to be a reliable indicator of the
turbulence inside a thunderstorm.
5. Do avoid, by at least 20 miles, any thunderstorm identified as
severe or giving an intense radar echo. This is especially true
under the anvil of a large cumulonimbus.
6. Do circumnavigate the entire area if the area has 6/10
thunderstorm coverage.
7. Do remember that vivid and frequent lightning indicates the
probability of a severe thunderstorm.

8 PILOT SAFETY AND
8. Do regard, as extremely hazardous, any thunderstorm with tops
35,000 feet or higher, whether the top is visually sighted or
determined by radar.
9. Do check the convective outlook during weather briefings.
The following are some do's and don'ts during inadvertent
thunderstorm area penetration:
1. Do keep your eyes on the instruments. Looking outside the
cabin can increase the danger of temporary blindness from
lightning.
2. Don't change power settings; maintain settings for the
recommended turbulent air penetration speed.
3. Do maintain a generally constant attitude.
4. Don't attempt to maintain altitude. Maneuvers made in
attempting to maintain an exact altitude increase the stress on
the airplane.
5. Exit the storm as soon as possible.
A pilot on an IFR flight plan must not deviate from an approved route or
altitude without proper clearance, as this may place him in conflict with
other air traffic. Strict adherence to traffic clearance is necessary to
assure an adequate level of safety.
Always remember, all thunderstorms are potentially hazardous and the
pilot is best advised to avoid them whenever possible.
FROM WARM WEATHER TO COLD WEATHER

Flying from warm weather to cold weather can do unusual things to
airplanes. To cope with this problem, pilots must be alerted to a few
preparations. If the airplane is serviced with a heavier grade of oil, such
as SAE 50, the oil should be changed to a lighter grade such as SAE
30 before flying into very cold weather. If use of a multi-viscosity oil is
approved, it is recommended for improved starting in cold weather.
Refer to the airplane operating handbook or maintenance manual for
approved oils. An engine/airplane winterization kit may be available for
the airplane. It usually contains restrictive covers for the cowl nose cap
and/or oil cooler and engine crankcase breather for flight in very cold
weather. Proper preflight draining of the fuel system from all drains is
especially important and will help eliminate any free water
accumulation. The use of fuel additives, such as Prist or EGME, may
also be desirable. Refer to the airplane operating handbook or
maintenance manual for approved fuel additives.
In order to prevent propeller freeze-up when operating in very cold
weather, it may be necessary to exercise the constant speed prop
every few minutes. This can be accomplished by moving the prop
controls forward or aft from their cruise position 300 RPM and back
during flight.

PILOT SAFETY AND 8
ICE, SNOW, FROST, Etc.
For any extended time, it is always best to park an airplane in a hangar,
particularly during inclement weather. When this is not possible, all ice,
snow, frost, etc., must be removed from the entire airframe and
engine(s) prior to starting.
The presence of ice, snow, frost, etc., on the wings, tail, control
surfaces (externally and internally), etc., is hazardous. Safe operation
depends upon their removal. Too often, their effects on airplane
performance are not completely understood or appreciated.
WAKE TURBULENCE
Airplanes are significantly affected by the wake turbulence of any
heavier aircraft or helicopter. Wake turbulence dissipation and
displacement are functions of elapsed time and prevailing wind speed
and direction. During calm conditions, severe turbulence generated by
large aircraft can persist as long as 10 minutes. Delay takeoff to ensure
dissipation and displacement of wake turbulence. When it is necessary
to take off behind a heavier aircraft or helicopter, avoid wake
turbulence, particularly wake vortices, by vertical or lateral spacing or
an appropriate time delay.
Vertical avoidance is appropriate to longer runways where operations
can be completed on portions of the runway not affected by the vortices
of preceding aircraft and flying above areas where vortices will be
present is possible. Become airborne well before the preceding aircraft
rotation point and climb above its flight path, or lift off beyond the
touchdown point of a landing aircraft. When it is necessary to land
behind another aircraft, remain above its approach path and land
beyond its touchdown point. Touchdown prior to the rotation point of a
departing aircraft.
Lateral movement of wake vortices is only possible when a significant
crosswind exists and is not detectable unless exhaust smoke or dust
marks the vortices. Consider offsetting the takeoff path to the upwind
side of the runway.

PILOT SAFETY AND 9
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
_______________________________________________________________________________
SEAT RESTRAINTS
Records of general aviation airplane accident injuries reveal a
surprising number of instances in which the occupants were not
properly using the available restraint system, indicating the presence of
a complacent attitude during airplane preflight briefing inspections. An
unbuckled restraint system during a critical phase of flight, such as
during turbulence, could cause loss of control of the airplane and/or
injuries. Although the ultimate responsibility lies with the
pilot-in-command, each user of a restraint system should be cognizant
of the importance of proper use of the complete restraint system.
Pilots should ensure that all occupants properly use their individual
restraint systems. The system should be adjusted snug across the
body. A loose restraint belt will allow the wearer excessive movement
and could result in serious injuries. The wearer should not allow sharp
or hard items in pockets or other clothing to remain between their body
and the restraint system to avoid discomfort or injury during adverse
flight conditions or accidents. Each occupant must have their own
restraint system. Use of a single system by more than one person
could result in serious injury.
Occupants of adjustable seats should position and lock their seats
before fastening their restraint system. Restraint belts can be
lengthened before use by grasping the sides of the link on the link half
of the belt and pulling against the belt. Then, after locking the belt link
into the belt buckle, the belt can be tightened by pulling the free end.
The belt is released by pulling upward on the top of the buckle.
Restraint systems must be fastened anytime the airplane is in motion.
Before takeoff, the pilot should brief all passengers on the proper use,
including the method of unlatching the entire restraint system, in the
event that emergency egress from the airplane is necessary.
Small children must be secured in an approved child restraint system
as defined in FAR 91.107 "Use of safety belts, shoulder harnesses, and
child restraint systems". The pilot should know and follow the
instructions for installation and use provided by the seat manufacturer.
The child restraint system should be installed in an aircraft seat other
than a front seat. If the child restraint system is installed in a front seat,
the pilot must ensure that it does not interfere with full control
movement or restrict access to any aircraft controls. Also, the pilot
should consider whether the child restraint system could interfere with
emergency egress. Refer to AC 91-62A, "Use of Child Seats In Aircraft"
for more information.
If shoulder restraints are not installed, kits are available from Cessna or
from other approved sources. Cessna strongly recommends the
installation of shoulder harnesses.

9 PILOT SAFETY AND
RESTRAINT SYSTEMS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
SEAT STOPS/LATCHES
The pilot should visually check the seat for security on the seat tracks
and assure that the seat is locked in position. This can be
accomplished by visually ascertaining pin engagement and physically
attempting to move the seat fore and aft to verify the seat is secured in
position. Failure to ensure that the seat is locked in position could result
in the seat sliding aft during a critical phase of flight, such as initial
climb. Mandatory Service Bulletin SEB89-32 installs secondary seat
stops and is available from Cessna.
The pilot's seat should be adjusted and locked in a position to allow full
rudder deflection and brake application without having to shift position
in the seat. For takeoff and landing, passenger seat backs should be
adjusted to the most upright position.
SECURITY IN AFT-FACING SEATS

Some aft-facing seats are adjustable fore and aft, within the limits of the
seat stops. Ensure the seat stop pins are engaged with the holes in the
seat tracks before takeoff and landing. The restraint system should be
worn anytime the seat is occupied. Assure that the seats are installed in
the correct positions. Approved seat designs differ between
forward-facing and rear-facing seats and proper occupant protection is
dependent upon proper seat installation.

PILOT SAFETY AND 10
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION
FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION

_______________________________________________________________________________
ADEQUATE PREFLIGHT OF THE FUEL SYSTEM

A full preflight inspection is recommended before each flight for general
aviation airplanes. Inspection procedures for the fuel system must
include checking the quantity of fuel with the airplane on level ground,
checking the security of fuel filler caps and draining the fuel tank
sumps, fuel reservoir(s), fuel line drain(s), fuel selector drains, and fuel
strainer(s). To ensure that no unsampled fuel remains in the airplane,
an adequate sample of fuel from the fuel strainer must be taken with
the fuel selector valve placed in each of its positions (BOTH, LEFT,
RIGHT, etc.). Some Cessna airplanes are equipped with a fuel
reservoir(s). If so equipped, the pilot should be aware of the location of
the fuel reservoir(s) and its drain plug or quick-drain. The fuel
reservoir(s) on most single-engine airplanes is located near the fuel
system low point where water will accumulate. Therefore, the fuel
reservoir(s) must be drained routinely during each preflight inspection.
Periodically check the condition of the fuel filler cap seals, pawls, and
springs for evidence of wear and/or deterioration which indicates a
need for replacement. Check fuel cap adapters and seals to insure that
the sealing surfaces are clean and not rusted or pitted. Deformed pawls
may affect the sealing capabilities of the seals and/or cause it to be
exposed to detrimental weather elements. Precautions should be taken
to prevent water entry into fuel tanks, due to damaged filler caps and
every effort made to check and remove all water throughout the fuel
system. Umbrella caps will assist in preventing water entry into the fuel
tank through the fuel filler.
It is the pilot's responsibility to ensure that the airplane is properly
serviced before each flight with the correct type of fuel. The pilot must
take the time to inspect the airplane thoroughly, making sure all of the
fuel filler caps are installed and secured properly after visually checking
the fuel quantity with the airplane on level ground. During the check of
the fuel tanks, observe the color and odor of the fuel while draining a
generous sample from each sump and drain point into a transparent
container. Check for the presence of water, dirt, rust, or other
contaminants. Never save the fuel sample and risk the possibility of
contaminating the system. Also, ensure that each fuel tank vent is clear
of restrictions (i.e., dirt, insect nests, ice, snow, bent or pinched tubes,
etc.). Refer to the airplanes Maintenance Manual for fuel tank vent
removal and inspection if needed.

10 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
PROPER SAMPLING FROM QUICK DRAINS
The fuel system sumps and drains should always be drained and
checked for contaminants after each refueling and during each preflight
inspection. Drain at least a cupful of fuel into a clear container to check
for solid and/or liquid contaminants, and proper fuel grade. If
contamination is observed, take further samples at all fuel drain points
until fuel is clear of contaminants; then, gently rock wings and, if
possible, lower the tail to move any additional contaminants to the
sampling points. Take repeated samples from all fuel drain points until
all contamination has been removed. If excessive sampling is required,
completely defuel, drain and clean the airplane fuel system, and
attempt to discover where or how the contamination originated before
the airplane flies again. Do not fly the airplane with contaminated or
unapproved fuel. If an improper fuel type is detected, the mandatory
procedure is to completely defuel and drain the fuel system.
Extra effort is needed for a proper preflight of all fuel drains on a float
plane. If water is detected after rocking the wings and lowering the tail,
the aircraft should not be flown until after the fuel system is completely
drained and cleaned.
80 versus 100 OCTANE FUEL

When 80 octane (red) fuel began to be replaced by 100LL (blue) there
was concern about the service life expectancy of low compression
engines. It was claimed that some engines experienced accelerated
exhaust valve erosion and valve guide wear from the use of highly
leaded 100/130 (green) avgas in engines that were rated to use a
minimum grade of 80 octane fuel. Engine manufacturers have provided
amended operating procedures and maintenance schedules to
minimize problems resulting from the use of high lead 100/130 avgas.
Experience has now proven that low-compression aircraft engines can
be operated safely on 100LL avgas providing they are regularly
operated and serviced in accordance with the operating handbook or
other officially approved document.
AVGAS versus JET FUEL

Occasionally, airplanes are inadvertently serviced with the wrong type
of fuel. Piston engines may run briefly on jet fuel, but detonation and
overheating will soon cause power failure. All piston-engine airplanes
should have fuel filler restrictors installed to prevent jet fuel from being
pumped into the fuel tanks. An engine failure caused by running a
turbine engine on the wrong fuel may not be as sudden, but prolonged
operation on avgas will severely damage the engine because of the
lead content and differing combustion temperature of the fuel. Time
limitations for use of avgas in turbine engines are listed in the operating
handbook.

PILOT SAFETY AND 10
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINATION
AUTOMOTIVE GASOLINE/FUEL
Never use automotive gasoline in an airplane unless the engine and
airplane fuel system are specifically certified and approved for
automotive gasoline use. The additives used in the production of
automotive gasoline vary widely throughout the petroleum industry and
may have deteriorating effects on airplane fuel system components.
The qualities of automotive gasoline can induce vapor lock, increase
the probability of carburetor icing, and can cause internal engine
problems.
FUEL CAP SECURITY

The consequence of a missing or incorrectly installed fuel filler cap is
inflight fuel siphoning. lnflight siphoning may distort the fuel cell on
some airplanes with bladder-type fuel cells. This distortion will change
the fuel cell capacity, and may interfere with the operation of the fuel
quantity indicator sensing mechanism inside the cell. This condition will
generally cause an erroneous and misleading fuel quantity reading and
may result in incomplete filling for the next flight.
CONTAMINATION
Solid contamination may consist of rust, sand, pebbles, dirt, microbes
or bacterial growth. If any solid contaminants are found in any part of
the fuel system, drain and clean the airplane fuel system. Do not fly the
airplane with fuel contaminated with solid material.
Liquid contamination is usually water, improper fuel type, fuel grade, or
additives that are not compatible with the fuel or fuel system
components. Liquid contamination should be addressed as set forth in
the section entitled "Proper Sampling from Quick Drains", and as
prescribed in the airplane's approved flight manual.

PILOT SAFETY AND 11
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS FUEL PUMP OPERATION
FUEL PUMP OPERATION

_______________________________________________________________________________
AUXILIARY FUEL PUMP OPERATION - GENERAL

The engine-driven fuel pump is designed to supply an engine with a
steady, uninterrupted flow of fuel. Temperature changes, pressure
changes, agitation in the fuel lines, fuel quality, and other factors can
cause a release of vapor in the fuel system. Some airplanes (single and
multi-engine) incorporate an auxiliary fuel pump to reduce excess fuel
vapor in the fuel supply for each engine. This pump is also used to
ensure that a positive supply of fuel is available in the event the engine
driven fuel pump should fail.
FUEL VAPOR
Under hot, high altitude conditions, or in situations during a climb that
are conducive to fuel vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the
auxiliary fuel pump(s) to attain or stabilize the fuel flow required for
proper engine operation. Use the auxiliary fuel pump(s) in all conditions
where there is any possibility of excessive fuel vapor formation or
temporary disruption of fuel flow in accordance with operating
handbook procedures.
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION

(CARBURETED ENGINE)
On some carbureted, high wing, single engine airplanes, the auxiliary
fuel pump should be turned on anytime the indicated fuel pressure falls
below the minimum. Typically this would only occur in an extreme climb
attitude following failure of the engine driven fuel pump. Consult the
operating handbook of the affected model for a detailed description of
the procedure.
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION

(PRECISION/BENDIX FUEL INJECTED ENGINE)
The auxiliary fuel pump is used primarily for priming the engine before
starting. Priming is accomplished through the regular injection system.
If the auxiliary fuel pump switch is placed in the ON position for
prolonged periods with the master switch turned on, the mixture rich,
and the engine stopped, the intake manifolds will become flooded.

11 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL PUMP OPERATION WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
The auxiliary fuel pump is also used for vapor suppression in hot
weather. Normally, momentary use will be sufficient for vapor
suppression. Turning on the auxiliary fuel pump with a normally
operating engine pump will result in enrichment of the mixture. The
auxiliary fuel pump should not be operated during takeoff and landing,
since gravity and the engine driven fuel pump will supply adequate fuel
flow to the fuel injector unit. In the event of failure of the engine driven
fuel pump, use of the auxiliary fuel pump will provide sufficient fuel to
maintain flight at maximum continuous power.
To ensure a prompt engine restart after running a fuel tank dry, switch
the fuel selector to the opposite tank at the first indication of fuel flow
fluctuation or power loss. Turn on the auxiliary fuel pump and advance
the mixture control to full rich. After power and steady fuel flow are
restored, turn off the auxiliary fuel pump and lean the mixture as
necessary.
SINGLE ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION (TCM FUEL

INJECTED ENGINE)
The auxiliary fuel pump on single engine airplanes is controlled by a
split rocker type switch labeled AUX PUMP. One side of the switch is
red and is labeled HI; the other side is yellow and is labeled LO.
The LO side operates the pump at low speed, and, if desired, can be
used for starting or vapor suppression. The HI side operates the pump
at high speed, supplying sufficient fuel flow to maintain adequate power
in the event of an engine driven fuel pump failure. In addition, the HI
side may be used for normal engine starts, vapor elimination in flight,
and inflight engine starts.
When the engine driven fuel pump is functioning and the auxiliary fuel
pump is placed in the HI position, a fuel/air ratio considerably richer
than best power is produced unless the mixture is leaned. Therefore,
the auxiliary fuel pump must be turned off during takeoff or landing, and
during all other normal flight conditions. With the engine stopped and
the battery switch on, the cylinder intake ports can become flooded if
the HI or LO side of the auxiliary fuel pump switch is turned on.
In hot, high altitude conditions, or climb conditions that are conducive to
fuel vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the auxiliary fuel
pump to attain or stabilize the fuel flow required for the type of climb
being performed. Select either the HI or LO position of the switch as
required, and adjust the mixture to the desired fuel flow. If fluctuating
fuel flow (greater than 5 lbs/hr) is observed, place the auxiliary fuel
pump switch in the HI or LO position as required to clear the fuel
system of vapor. The auxiliary fuel pump may be operated continuously
in cruise, if necessary, but should be turned off prior to descent. Each
time the auxiliary fuel pump switch is turned on or off, the mixture
should be readjusted.

PILOT SAFETY AND 11
MULTI-ENGINE FUEL PUMP OPERATION
Cessna multi-engine, low wing airplanes utilize engine driven fuel
pumps to assist the continuous flow of fuel to the engine. As a general
rule, the auxiliary fuel pumps should be utilized under the following
conditions:
1. Every takeoff.
2. Initial climb after takeoff (unless the operating handbook
indicates that it is not necessary).
3. When switching the fuel selector(s) from one tank to another.
4. Every approach and landing.
5. Anytime the fuel pressure is fluctuating and the engine is
affected by the fluctuation.
6. During hot weather, such as hot engine ground operation where
fuel vapor problems cause erratic engine operation.
7. High altitude. (For auxiliary fuel pump operation at high altitude
consult the operating handbook.)
8. If the engine driven fuel pump should fail.
9. On some twins when using the auxiliary fuel tanks.
If the auxiliary fuel pump is used during ground operations, such as hot
day engine starts or purging fuel vapor, pilots should check the
condition of the engine driven fuel pump before takeoff by turning the
auxiliary fuel pump OFF briefly, and then back ON for takeoff. If the
engine driven fuel pump has failed, the engine will not continue to
operate.
If the battery or master switch is on while an engine is stopped on the
ground or in flight, the cylinder intake ports can become flooded if the
auxiliary fuel pump is turned on. If this situation occurs in excess of 60
seconds, the cylinders must be purged as follows:
1. With the auxiliary fuel pump OFF, allow the induction manifold to
drain at least five minutes or until fuel ceases to flow from the
drains on the bottom of the engine.
2. If natural draining has occurred, ensure that the auxiliary fuel
pump is OFF, the magnetos or ignition switch is OFF, the
mixture is in IDLE CUT-OFF, and the throttle is FULL OPEN,
then turn the engine with the starter.
3. If natural draining has not occurred, perform maintenance as
required.
A mandatory service bulletin (MEB88-3) was issued to replace the
automatic fuel pressure sensing and the cockpit auxiliary fuel pump
switches for each engine with three-position lever lock type toggle
switches. These modifications provide direct pilot activation of the
auxiliary fuel pumps.

11 PILOT SAFETY AND
FUEL PUMP OPERATION WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
On low wing multi-engine airplanes (except model 310, 310A, and
310B, which are not affected by this change), the switches are labeled
AUX PUMP, L (left engine) and R (right engine) and switch positions
are labeled LOW, OFF, and HIGH. The LOW position operates the
auxiliary fuel pumps at low pressure and can be used, when required,
to provide supplementary fuel pressure for all normal operations. The
switches are OFF in the middle position. The HIGH position is reserved
for emergency operation, and operates the pumps at high pressure.
The switches are locked out of the HIGH position and the switch toggle
must be pulled to clear the lock before it can be moved to the HIGH
setting. The toggle need not be pulled to return the switch to OFF.
The LOW position of the auxiliary fuel pump switches should be used
whenever an original manual/handbook or checklist procedure
specifies either LOW (PRIME, in 310C, 310D 310F, 310G, 310H, 320,
and 320A.) or ON. The LOW position is also used anytime there are
indications of vapor, as evidenced by fluctuating fuel flow. Auxiliary fuel
pumps, if needed, are to be operated on LOW in all conditions except
when an engine driven fuel pump fails.
The HIGH position supplies sufficient fuel flow to sustain partial engine
power and should be used solely to sustain the operation of an engine
in the event its engine driven fuel pump fails. Failure of an engine
driven fuel pump will be evidenced by a sudden reduction in the fuel
flow indication immediately prior to a loss of power while operating from
a fuel tank containing adequate fuel. In an emergency, where loss of an
engine driven fuel pump is involved, pull the applicable auxiliary fuel
pump switch to clear the lock and select the HIGH position. Then adjust
the throttle and mixture controls to obtain satisfactory operation. At high
manifold pressure and RPM, auxiliary fuel pump output may not be
sufficient for normal engine operation. In this case, reduce manifold
pressure to a level compatible with the indicated fuel flow. At low power
settings, the mixture may have to be leaned for smooth engine
operation. If HIGH auxiliary pump output does not restore adequate
fuel flow, a fuel leak may exist. The auxiliary pump should be shut off
and the engine secured.
If the auxiliary fuel pump switches are placed in the HIGH position with
the engine-driven fuel pump(s) operating normally, total loss of engine
power may occur due to flooding.
When performing single engine operations, the auxiliary fuel pump of
the engine to be shutdown should be turned OFF prior to any
intentional engine shutdown, to preclude fuel accumulation in the
engine intake system.

PILOT SAFETY AND 11
In models 310, 310A, and 310B, which are equipped with pressure type
carburetors, the electric fuel boost pumps in the tanks provide a
positive fuel flow as emergency pumps in the event of failure of the
engine driven fuel pumps. They also provide fuel pressure for priming
and starting. The boost pumps are operated by two electric switches,
and the up position is ON. Always take off and land with these pumps
turned ON. Anytime the boost pumps are turned on without the engines
running, mixture controls must be in the idle cut-off position to prevent
flooding the intake manifolds.
CENTERLINE THRUST TWINS (FUEL PUMP OPERATION)

The auxiliary fuel pumps on the centerline thrust models (336 and 337
Skymaster) are controlled by two split rocker type switches. The
switches are labeled AUX PUMPS and F ENGINE R. One side of each
switch is red and is labeled HI. The other side is yellow and is labeled
LO. The LO side operates the pumps at low speed, and if desired, can
be used for starting or vapor suppression. The HI side operates the
pumps at high speed, supplying sufficient fuel flow to maintain
adequate power in the event of an engine driven fuel pump failure. In
addition, the HI side may be used for normal engine starts, vapor
elimination in flight, and inflight engine starts.
When the engine driven fuel pump is functioning and the auxiliary fuel
pump is placed in the HI position, a fuel/air ratio considerably richer
than best power is produced unless the mixture is leaned. Therefore,
these switches must be turned OFF during takeoff or landing, and
during all other normal flight conditions. With the engine stopped and
the battery switch ON, the cylinder intake ports can become flooded if
the HI or LO side of the auxiliary fuel pump switch is turned on.
In hot, high altitude conditions, or climb conditions that are conducive to
fuel vapor formation, it may be necessary to utilize the auxiliary fuel
pumps to attain or stabilize the fuel flow required for the type of climb
being performed. Select either the HI or LO position of the switches as
required, and adjust the mixtures to the desired fuel flow. If fluctuating
fuel flow (greater than 5 lbs/hr) is observed, place the appropriate
auxiliary fuel pump switch in the HI or LO position as required to clear
the fuel system of vapor. The auxiliary fuel pump may be operated
continuously in cruise, if necessary, but should be turned off prior to
descent. Each time the auxiliary fuel pump switches are turned on or
off, the mixtures should be readjusted.

PILOT SAFETY AND 12
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS
AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS

_______________________________________________________________________________
Many twin engine Cessna airplanes incorporate auxiliary fuel tanks to

increase range and endurance. These tanks are usually bladder type
cells located symmetrically in the outboard wing areas and contain no
internal fuel pumps. When selected, the fuel from these tanks is routed
to the engine driven fuel pump.
If the auxiliary fuel tanks are to be used, the pilot must first select main
tank (tip tank) fuel for at least 60 minutes of flight (with use of 40-gallon
auxiliary fuel tanks) or 90 minutes of flight (with use of 63-gallon
auxiliary fuel tanks). This is necessary to provide space in the main fuel
tanks for vapor and fuel returned from the engine driven fuel pumps
when operating on the auxiliary fuel tanks. If sufficient space is not
available in the main tanks for this returned fuel, the tanks can overflow
through the overboard fuel vents. Since part of the fuel from the
auxiliary fuel tanks is diverted back to the main tanks instead of being
consumed by the engines, the auxiliary tanks will empty sooner than
may be anticipated. However, the main tank volume or quantity will be
increased by the returned fuel.
The fuel supply in the auxiliary fuel tanks is intended for use during
cruise flight only. The shape of the auxiliary fuel tanks is such that
during certain flight maneuvers, the fuel will move away from the fuel
tank outlet. If the outlet is uncovered while feeding the engine, fuel flow
to the engine will be interrupted and a temporary loss of power may
result. Because of this, operation from the auxiliary fuel tanks is not
recommended below 1000 feet AGL.
An optional auxiliary fuel tank may be installed on some centerline
thrust twins (336 and 337 Skymaster). The system consists of two
tanks, each containing 18 gallons (108 pounds) usable, one located in
each inboard wing panel. The tanks feed directly to the fuel selector
valves. The left auxiliary tank provides fuel to the front engine only and
the right auxiliary tank provides fuel to the rear engine only. Fuel
quantity for the auxiliary tanks is read on the same fuel quantity
indicators used for the main fuel tanks. This is accomplished when the
fuel selector valve handles are turned to the AUXILIARY position. As
each selector valve handle is turned to this position, it depresses a
gaging button, labeled PUSH TO GAGE, located in the AUXILIARY
quadrant of the fuel selector valve placard. The depressed button
actuates a microswitch and electrically senses auxiliary fuel rather than
main fuel quantity. Auxiliary fuel quantity can be checked without
changing the selector valve handle, by depressing the PUSH TO
GAGE button manually. Depressing the gaging button, either manually
or by rotating the selector valve handle to the AUXILIARY position, will
illuminate the amber AUX FUEL ON indicator lights mounted above the

12 PILOT SAFETY AND
AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
engine instrument cluster. When fuel is being used from the auxiliary
fuel tanks, any excess fuel and vapor from the engine driven pumps is
returned to fuel line manifolds. The returned vapor passes through the
fuel line manifolds to the vent lines and is routed overboard. The
excess fuel passes into the fuel line manifold and is returned to the
engine driven pumps.
On some early model Skymasters, fuel vapor from the engine driven
fuel pumps is returned to the main fuel tanks. When the selector valve
handles are in the AUXILIARY position, the left auxiliary tank feeds only
the front engine and the right auxiliary tank feeds only the rear engine.
If the auxiliary tanks are to be used, select fuel from the main tanks for
60 minutes prior to switching to auxiliary tanks. This is necessary to
provide space in the main tanks for vapor and fuel returned from the
engine driven fuel pumps when operating on auxiliary tanks. On some
models, auxiliary fuel boost pumps are not provided for the auxiliary
fuel tank. Therefore it is recommended to use the auxiliary fuel tanks
only in straight and level flight. When unsure of the type of auxiliary
tank installation, consult the operating handbook for the respective
airplane.
A few single-engine airplanes contain an auxiliary fuel tank. The
system's main components include a fuel tank installed on the baggage
compartment floor and an electric fuel transfer pump. The auxiliary fuel
system is plumbed into the right main fuel tank.
To use the auxiliary fuel system, select the right wing fuel tank in cruise
and operate on that tank until the fuel tank has adequate room for the
transfer of auxiliary fuel. After selecting the left main tank, turn on the
auxiliary fuel transfer pump to refill the right main fuel tank from the
auxiliary tank. Transfer will take from 45 minutes to 1 hour. Prior to
transfer, ensure that adequate fuel is available in the left tank to allow
time for the auxiliary tank to transfer.
Do not operate the transfer pump with the fuel selector valve turned to
either the BOTH or RIGHT positions. Total or partial engine stoppage
will result from air being pumped into fuel lines after fuel transfer has
been completed. If this should occur the engine will restart in 3 to 5
seconds after turning off the transfer pump, as the air in the fuel line will
be evacuated rapidly.
After transfer is complete and the pump has been turned off, the
selector may be returned to BOTH or RIGHT. Takeoff, climb, and
landing should always be conducted with the selector in the BOTH
position for maximum safety.
WING LOCKER FUEL TANK USAGE

Some twins may have wing locker fuel tanks installed in the forward
portion of each wing locker baggage area. These tanks are bladder
type cells for storage of extra fuel to supplement the main tank fuel

PILOT SAFETY AND 12
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AUXILIARY FUEL TANKS
quantity. The fuel in these tanks cannot be fed directly to the engines.
Instead, it has to be transferred to the main tanks by wing locker fuel
transfer pumps. Fuel transfer should begin as soon as adequate
volume is available in the main fuel tanks to hold the wing locker fuel.
Waiting until the main tanks are low before transferring wing locker fuel
does not allow early recognition of possible failure to transfer.
If wing locker fuel is to be used, consult the operating handbook for the
quantity of main tank fuel which must first be used in the respective
main tank for the transferred wing locker fuel. This will prevent
overflowing of the main tank(s) when transferring the wing locker fuel.
Wing locker fuel transfer pump switches are provided to manually
control the transfer of the wing locker fuel to the main tanks. These
switches should be turned ON only to transfer fuel and turned OFF
when indicator lights illuminate to show that fuel has been transferred.
The transfer pumps use the fuel in the wing locker tank for lubrication
and cooling. Therefore, transfer pump operation after fuel transfer is
complete will shorten the life of the pump, Fuel should be cross fed, as
required, to maintain fuel balance.

PILOT SAFETY AND 13
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS INSTRUMENT POWER
INSTRUMENT POWER
_______________________________________________________________________________
VACUUM POWER FAILURES

Many airplanes may be equipped with some type of back-up vacuum
system for operation in the event the primary vacuum system becomes
inoperative in flight. The backup system may be in the form of another
engine-driven vacuum pump, in parallel with the primary pump, or an
electric standby vacuum pump, also in parallel with the primary pump,
or both. If a back-up system is not available and the attitude and
directional indicators are disabled, the pilot must rely on partial
instrument panel operation. This may include using the electrically-
powered turn coordinator or turn and bank indicator and the magnetic
compass, altimeter, airspeed indicator, and rate of climb indicator.
A suction gage, and in some airplanes a low-vacuum warning light,
provides a means of monitoring the vacuum system for proper
operation in flight. Operating handbooks reflect a desired suction range
during normal operation of the airplane. A suction reading outside of
this range may indicate a system malfunction, and in this case, the
vacuum driven instruments should not be considered reliable.
Whenever operation of the airplane's vacuum system is in doubt, land
when practical for repairs.
In the event of a directional indicator and attitude indicator failure due to
vacuum failure, the pilot must rely on partial instrument panel operation
using the remaining instruments. VFR operations can generally be
conducted satisfactorily without the vacuum instruments. However,
instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) can be considerably more
challenging. An instrument rated pilot should stay current on partial
panel flying skills but both VFR and IFR pilots should maintain VFR
conditions if a vacuum failure occurs while clear of clouds. All pilots
should become familiar with the following procedure for executing a
180° turn in clouds with the aid of either the turn coordinator or the turn
and bank indicator.
Upon inadvertently entering clouds, maintain control of the aircraft. If it
is desired to turn back out of the clouds, the following action should be
employed:
1. Note the compass heading.
2. Note the time in both minutes and seconds.
3. When the seconds indicate the nearest half minute, initiate a
standard rate left turn, holding the turn coordinator or turn and
bank indicator (if installed) symbolic airplane wing opposite the
lower left index mark for 60 seconds. Then roll back to level
flight by leveling the miniature airplane.
4. Check accuracy of turn by observing the compass heading
which should be the reciprocal of the original heading.

13 PILOT SAFETY AND
INSTRUMENT POWER WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
5. If necessary, adjust heading primarily with skidding motions
rather than rolling motions so that the compass will read more
accurately.
6. Maintain altitude and airspeed by cautious application of
elevator control. Avoid over controlling by keeping the hands off
the control wheel as much as possible and steering only with the
rudder.
If conditions dictate, a descent through a cloud deck to VFR conditions
may be appropriate. To guard against a spiral dive, choose an easterly
or westerly heading to minimize compass card swings due to changing
bank angles. In addition, keep hands off the control wheel and steer a
straight course with rudder control by monitoring the turn coordinator.
Occasionally check the compass heading and make minor corrections
to hold an approximate course. Before descending into the clouds, set
up a stabilized let-down conditions as follows:
1. Extend landing gear (if applicable).
2. Enrichen the fuel mixture.
3. Use full carburetor heat (if applicable).
4. Reduce power to set up a 500 to 800 ft/min rate of descent.
5. Adjust the elevator trim and rudder trim (if installed) for a
stabilized descent at 5 to 20 knots above the best glide speed
for the airplane.
6. Keep hands off the control wheel.
7. Monitor turn coordinator and make corrections by rudder alone.
8. Check trend of compass card movement and make cautious
corrections with rudder to stop the turn.
9. Upon breaking out of clouds, resume normal cruise flight.
ELECTRICAL POWER FAILURES

Many operating handbooks have emergency procedures for partial or
total loss of electrical power in flight. These procedures should be
reviewed periodically to remain knowledgeable of what to do in the
event of an electrical problem. The pilot should maintain control of the
airplane and land when practical if an electrical power loss is evident.
Early detection of an electrical power supply system malfunction can be
accomplished by periodically monitoring the ammeter and, if equipped,
low voltage warning light. The cause of these malfunctions is difficult to
determine in flight. Common causes of alternator or generator failure
are a broken drive belt, alternator or generator drive, a defective
alternator control unit or voltage regulator or wiring. Problems of this
nature constitute an electrical emergency and should be addressed
immediately.
If alternator power cannot be restored, and a second or back up
alternator is not available, the pilot must rely on the limited power of the

PILOT SAFETY AND 13
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS INSTRUMENT POWER
battery only. Every effort should be made to conserve electrical power
for use with the most essential equipment, such as communication and
navigation radios, by turning off or not using any non-essential
equipment. Electric or electro-hydraulic landing gear systems should
be extended manually and flaps (if electrically operated) should remain
retracted during approach and landing to conserve battery power,
especially in instrument conditions.
If an electrical power loss is experienced, continued flight is possible
but should be terminated as soon as practical. Such things as fuel
quantity and engine temperature indicators and panel lights may no
longer work. Hand-held nav/comm radios and other such products are
widely available and marketed for just such a scenario; otherwise
navigation by pilotage and appropriate loss of communication
procedures for the airspace involved should be conducted. The pilot
should always have a flashlight available for night flights.
LOSS OF PITOT/STATIC SOURCES

A thorough preflight inspection should reveal any blockage of the pitot
tube, drain hole, or static port on the ground to allow corrective action to
be taken prior to flight. Pilots should understand the various conditions
and remedies associated with a loss of pitot-static sources.
Pitot heat should be used whenever flying in visible moisture and the
temperature is near freezing. If airspeed is suspected to be in error
while flying in possible icing conditions with the pitot heat on, the pitot
heat switch should be cycled and the circuit breaker should be
checked. If proper operation cannot be restored, the airspeed indicator
must be considered unreliable.
If the pitot tube ram air inlet becomes blocked, the airspeed will drop to
zero. If this blockage cannot be removed in flight, the pilot must rely on
pitch attitude and power settings to maintain a safe airspeed. A slightly
higher than normal power setting should be used to maintain a
reasonable margin of extra airspeed on final.
When flying in clear ice conditions and pitot heat is unavailable, both
the ram air inlet and the pitot drain hole could become blocked. This will
cause the airspeed indicator to react like an altimeter, indicating a
higher airspeed at higher altitudes and a lower airspeed at lower
altitudes. The airspeed indicator must be ignored. A higher power
setting appropriate to the overall icing problem should be used during
the landing phase.
Many light single engine airplanes equipped with pitot heat may not be
equipped with static source heat. If the static source becomes blocked,
the airspeed indicator will still function, but will give erroneous
indications. If the airplane climbs after the blockage occurs, the
airspeed indicator will indicate lower than normal. If the airplane
descends after the blockage occurs, the airspeed will indicate higher

13 PILOT SAFETY AND
INSTRUMENT POWER WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
than actual. During the landing phase, this condition could deceive the
pilot into thinking the airspeed is too high. The altimeter and vertical
speed indicator will also be affected by a static source blockage. The
altimeter will not indicate a change of altitude and the vertical speed
indicator will indicate zero during climbs and descents. Neither
instrument will reflect any altitude changes.
Many airplanes are equipped with an alternate static air source vented
within the cabin area. If static port blockage is suspected, the alternate
static source should be selected. The cabin pressure will be slightly
lower than ambient air, but will provide a reasonable level of accuracy
to the pitot static system. With slightly less dense air in the cabin, the
airspeed indicator and altimeter will both show slightly higher than
normal indications.
If the airplane is not equipped with an alternate static source, and pitot/
static instruments are essential for continued flight, the glass on the
vertical speed indicator may be broken to provide cabin air to the static
system lines. The vertical speed indicator will no longer be reliable, but
the airspeed indicator and altimeter will be functional again, with slightly
higher than normal indications.
GYRO SPIN UP AND SPIN DOWN

Gyro instruments, such as attitude and directional indicators, contain a
high-speed rotor assembly driven by either electric or vacuum power.
These instruments normally operate at very high RPM and can take up
to 10 minutes or more to spin down after power is removed. Although
some gyro instruments have a "quick erect" mechanism to permit
manual erection of the rotor, which effectively minimizes time required
before use, some gyro instruments still require up to 5 minutes or more
to spin up and stabilize after power is applied. During this spin up or
spin down time, the gyro instruments should not be considered reliable.
A failed gyro can be detected by first checking the suction gage and, if
available, low-voltage or low-vacuum lights as applicable and, second,
checking for slow or erratic indications of the gyro instruments by
cross-referencing with other flight instruments for contradictory
indications.
FAILED GYRO EFFECT ON AUTOPILOT

Some autopilot systems receive roll and/or yaw rate inputs from the
electrically-driven turn coordinator or turn and bank indicator. Other
autopilot systems depend on vacuum-driven attitude and directional
indicators for horizontal and azimuth reference. If a failure should occur
in any of these instruments, the autopilot should be turned off. Random
signals generated by a malfunctioning gyro could cause the autopilot to
position the airplane in an unusual attitude. Use of the autopilot after a
gyro failure may result in an out of trim condition. Be prepared to
correct for this when turning off the autopilot.

PILOT SAFETY AND 14
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM
ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM

_______________________________________________________________________________
An alternate source of air is provided to ensure satisfactory engine

operation in the event the normal induction air filter or air inlet becomes
obstructed. Although alternate air controls vary from one airplane to
another, the types are: carburetor heat, direct manual control,
automatic control, or a combination of automatic and manual controls.
In most cases, the alternate air is extracted from inside the engine
cowling and is, therefore, unfiltered and hotter than normal induction
air. A loss of power will be caused by the hotter air. The richer mixture
may require adjustment of the mixture control. Consult the applicable
airplane operating handbook for details concerning the use of the
alternate air system.
CARBURETOR HEAT AND INDUCTION ICING

Carburetor heat and manually operated alternate air valve(s) are
controlled by the pilot. The carburetor heat system uses unfiltered air
from inside the engine cowling. This air is drawn into a shroud around
an exhaust riser or muffler and then ducted to the carburetor heat valve
in the induction air manifold. The carburetor heat valve is controlled by
the pilot and should be used during suspected or known carburetor
icing conditions. Carburetor heat may also be used as an alternate air
source should the induction air inlet or induction air filter become
blocked for any reason.
The use of full carburetor heat at full throttle usually results in a 1 to 2
inch loss of manifold pressure or a loss of approximately 150 RPM,
depending upon the airplane model. Application or removal of
carburetor heat at higher power settings may require adjustment of the
fuel mixture. It may be impractical to lean the mixture under low engine
power conditions.
When a go-around or balked landing is initiated after use of carburetor
heat during the landing approach, the pilot should usually advance the
throttle first, then move the carburetor heat to off or cold. The throttle
application must be smooth and positive. Rapid throttle advancement in
some icing conditions could result in the engine failing to respond and
the loss of power could become critical because of the low altitude and
low airspeed.
When the relative humidity is more than 50 percent and the ambient air
temperature is between 20°F to 90°F, it is possible for ice to form inside
the carburetor, since the temperature of the air passing through the
venturi may drop as much as 60°F below the ambient air temperature.
If not corrected, ice accumulation may cause complete engine
stoppage.

14 PILOT SAFETY AND
ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
A drop in engine RPM on fixed pitch propeller airplanes and a drop in
engine manifold pressure on constant speed propeller airplanes are
indications of carburetor ice. If the airplane is equipped with a
carburetor air temperature gage, the possibility of carburetor ice may
be anticipated and prevented by maintaining the recommended amount
of heat during cruise and letdown. Without the indications of a
carburetor air temperature gage for reference, a pilot should use only
the full heat or full cold position. An unknown amount of partial heat can
cause carburetor ice. This can occur when ice that would ordinarily
pass through the induction system is melted by partial carburetor heat
and the water droplets then refreeze upon contact with the cold metal of
the throttle plate. A carburetor air temperature gage may allow partial
carburetor heat use, resulting in less power loss.
ALTERNATE AIR FOR FUEL INJECTED ENGINE ICING

Either an automatic alternate air system, a manually controlled
alternate air system, or a combination automatic and manual system
are incorporated on most fuel injected engines to address the potential
of a blocked air induction system.
On engines equipped with automatic alternate air, ram air from the
engine cowling inlet enters an air filter, which removes dust and other
foreign matter that would be harmful to the engine. If the air inlet or the
induction air filter should become blocked, suction created by the
engine will open an alternate air door, allowing air to be admitted from
either inside or outside the cowling, depending upon the airplane
model. This air bypasses the filter and will result in a slight decrease in
full throttle manifold pressure on non-turbocharged engines, and a
notable decrease in manifold pressure from the selected cruise power
setting on turbocharged engines. This manifold pressure, may be
recoverable, up to a particular altitude, with throttle and/or RPM
adjustment. The alternate air doors should be kept closed on the
ground to prevent engine damage caused by ingesting debris through
the unfiltered air ducts. For details concerning a specific model, consult
the airplane operating handbook.
Most twin engine airplanes have a manually controlled alternate air
door in each engine induction air system. If a decrease in manifold
pressure is experienced when flying in icing conditions, the alternate air
doors should be manually opened. On most twins, this manual control
has two positions. When fully in, normal filtered ram air is provided;
when fully out, warm unfiltered air from inside the cowling is provided.
Other twins have alternate air controls with an additional intermediate
or center detent to provide cool, unfiltered ram air to the induction
system in the event the induction air filter is blocked by matter other
than ice.

PILOT SAFETY AND 14
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS ALTERNATE AIR SYSTEM
Since the higher intake air temperature of the alternate air results in a
decrease in engine power and turbocharger capability, it is
recommended that the alternate induction air not be utilized until
indications of induction air blockage (decreased manifold pressure) are
actually observed.
If additional power is required, the pilot should increase RPM as
required, move the throttles forward to maintain desired manifold
pressure and readjust the fuel mixture controls as required. These
recommendations do not replace the procedure in the airplane
operating handbook.
Although most pilots are aware of the potential of carburetor icing,
many may think that a fuel injected engine is not subject to induction
icing. Although a fuel injected engine will not form carburetor ice, other
parts of the induction system such as bends in the system or the air
filter can gather ice. Slush and/or snow can block the induction air filter.
Induction air blockage can cause loss of manifold pressure or engine
stoppage.

PILOT SAFETY AND 15
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS CARBON MONOXIDE
CARBON MONOXIDE
_______________________________________________________________________________
Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, tasteless product of an

internal combustion engine and is always present in exhaust fumes.
Even minute quantities of carbon monoxide breathed over a long
period of time may lead to dire consequences. Carbon monoxide has a
greater ability to combine with the blood than oxygen. Once carbon
monoxide is absorbed in the blood, it prevents the oxygen from being
absorbed.
The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are difficult to detect by
the person afflicted and may include blurred thinking, a feeling of
uneasiness, dizziness, headache, and loss of consciousness. If any of
these symptoms occur, immediately open all cabin vents and turn the
cabin heater off. Land as soon as possible at the nearest airport and
seek medical attention if needed.
HEATER OPERATION
Many cabin heaters in general aviation airplanes operate by allowing
ambient air to flow through an exhaust shroud where it is heated before
being ducted into the cabin. Therefore, if anyone in the cabin smells
exhaust fumes when using the cabin heater, immediately turn off the
cabin heater and open all cabin vents. Land as soon as possible at the
nearest airport and seek medical attention if needed.
WINDOW VENTILATION
If carbon monoxide is suspected in the cabin at any time, it is
imperative that immediate ventilation be initiated, including the opening
of cabin windows. Observe the maximum speed for window opening in
flight. Opening a cabin window is probably the best means of ventilating
the cabin while on the ground. However, care should be taken when
parked with engine(s) operating or when in the vicinity of other
airplanes that have their engines running. The exhaust gases from your
airplane or the other airplane could enter the cabin through the open
window. Also, engine exhaust could be forced into the cabin area
during taxi operations or when taxiing downwind.
PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES
Refer to the operating handbook and/or approved flight manual for
appropriate ventilation procedures.
Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1/2(blank)

PILOT SAFETY AND 16
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS TURBOCHARGER
TURBOCHARGER
_______________________________________________________________________________
When operating turbocharged engines, any power increases should be

accomplished by increasing the propeller RPM first, then increasing the
manifold pressure. Power reductions should be accomplished by
reducing the manifold pressure first, then the RPM.
During cold weather operation, care should be exercised to insure that
overboost does not occur during takeoff as a result of congealed oil in
the waste gate actuating system. Before takeoff engine checks should
not be accomplished until oil temperature is at least 75°F (minimum
approved operating limit). Takeoff should not be started until oil
temperature is above 100°F and oil pressure below 100 psi to assure
proper oil flow to the turbocharger and its actuating system. Monitor
manifold pressure during takeoff so as not to exceed specified takeoff
limits. Advance the throttle slowly, pausing momentarily at
approximately 30" MP to permit turbine speed to stabilize, then
gradually open the throttle to obtain takeoff manifold pressure.
Prior to engine shut down, operate the engine at idle RPM for
approximately 5 minutes to allow the turbocharger to cool and slow
down. This reduces the possibility of turbine bearing coking caused by
oil breakdown. This 5 minutes may be calculated from landing
touchdown.
During pilot training, simulated engine out operation requiring the
engine be shut down by closing the mixture should be held to an
absolute minimum.
TURBOCHARGER FAILURE
The turbocharger system's purpose is to elevate manifold pressure and
thus engine power to a level higher than can be obtained without it. A
failure of the system will cause either an overboost condition or some
degree of power loss. An overboost can be determined on the manifold
pressure instrument and can be controlled by a throttle reduction.
If turbocharger failure results in power loss, it may be further
complicated by an overly rich mixture. This rich mixture condition may
be so severe as to cause a total power failure. Leaning the mixture may
restore partial power. Partial or total power loss may also be caused by
an exhaust system leak. A landing should be made as soon as practical
for either an overboost or partial/total power loss.

PILOT SAFETY AND 17
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS IN-FLIGHT FIRES
IN-FLIGHT FIRES
_______________________________________________________________________________
FIRES IN FLIGHT
A preflight checklist is provided to aid the pilot in detecting conditions
which could contribute to an airplane fire. Flight should not be
attempted with known fuel, oil, or exhaust leaks, since they can lead to
a fire. The presence of fuel or unusual oil or exhaust stains may be an
indication of system leaks and should be corrected prior to flight.
Fires in flight must be controlled as quickly as possible by identifying
and shutting down the affected system(s), then extinguishing the fire.
Until this process is complete, the pilot should assume the worst and
initiate action for an immediate landing. A pilot must not become
distracted by the fire to the point that control of the airplane is lost. The
pilot must be able to complete a deductive analysis of the situation to
determine the source of the fire. Complete familiarity with the airplane
and its systems will prove invaluable should a fire occur.
ENGINE COMPARTMENT FIRES

An engine compartment fire is usually caused by fuel contacting a hot
surface, an electrical short, bleed air leak, or exhaust leak. If an engine
compartment fire occurs on a single engine airplane, the first step
should be to shut off the fuel supply to the engine by placing the
mixture to idle cut off and the fuel selector/shutoff valve to the OFF
position. The ignition switch should be left ON in order for the engine to
use up the fuel which remains in the fuel lines and components
between the fuel selector/shutoff valve and the engine. The airplane
should be put into a sideslip, which will tend to keep the flames away
from the occupants and the fuel tanks. If this procedure is ineffective,
the pilot must make the most rapid emergency descent possible and an
immediate landing.
In multi-engine airplanes, both auxiliary fuel pumps should be turned
off to reduce pressure in the total fuel system (each auxiliary fuel pump
pressurizes a crossfeed line to the opposite fuel selector). If equipped,
the emergency crossfeed shutoff should also be activated. The engine
on the wing in which the fire exists should be shut down and its fuel
selector positioned to OFF even though the fire may not have
originated in the fuel system. The cabin heater draws fuel from the
crossfeed system on some airplanes, and should be turned off as well.
The engine compartment fire extinguisher should be discharged if the
airplane is so equipped.
An open foul weather window or emergency exit may produce a low
pressure in the cabin. To avoid drawing the fire into the cabin area, the
foul weather window, emergency exits, or any openable windows
should be kept closed. This condition is aggravated on some models,
with the landing gear and wing flaps extended. Therefore, it is

17 PILOT SAFETY AND
IN-FLIGHT FIRES WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
recommended to lower the landing gear as late in the landing approach
as possible. A no flap landing should also be attempted, if practical.
ELECTRICAL FIRES
The initial indication of an electrical fire is usually the distinct odor of
burning insulation. Once an electrical fire is detected, the pilot should
attempt to identify the effected circuit by checking circuit breakers,
instruments, avionics, etc. If the affected circuit cannot be readily
detected and flight conditions permit, the battery/master switch and
alternator switch(es) should be turned OFF to remove the possible
sources of the fire. If at night, ensure the availability of a flashlight
before turning off electrical power. Then, close off ventilating air as
much as practical to reduce the chances of a sustained fire. If an
oxygen system is available in the airplane and no visible signs of flame
are evident, occupants should use oxygen until smoke clears.
If electrical power is essential for the flight, an attempt may be made to
identify and isolate the effected circuit by turning the Master Switch and
other electrical (except magneto) switches off and checking the
condition of the circuit breakers to identify the affected circuit. If the
circuit can be readily identified, leave it deactivated and restore power
to the other circuits. If the circuit cannot be readily identified, turn the
Master Switch on, and select switches that were on before the fire
indication, one at a time, permitting some time to elapse after each
switch is turned on, until the short circuit is identified. Make sure the fire
is completely extinguished before opening vents. Land as soon as
possible for repairs.
CABIN FIRES
Fire or smoke in the cabin should be controlled by identifying and
shutting down the affected system, which is most likely to be electrical
in nature, and landing as soon as possible. Smoke may be removed by
opening the cabin air controls. However, if the smoke increases in
intensity when the air controls are opened, they should be closed as
this indicates a possible fire in the heating system, nose compartment
baggage area, or that the increase in airflow is aggravating this
condition.
In pressurized airplanes, the pressurization air system will remove
smoke from the cabin. However, if the smoke is intense, it may be
necessary to either depressurize at altitude, if oxygen is available for all
occupants, or execute an emergency descent to 10,000 feet, terrain
permitting. "Ram Air Dump" handle may be pulled to aid the clearing of
smoke from the cabin.

PILOT SAFETY AND 17
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS IN-FLIGHT FIRES
The pilot may choose to expel the smoke through the foul weather
window(s). The foul weather window(s) should be closed immediately if
the fire becomes more intense when the window(s) are opened. If
smoke is severe, and there are no visible signs of flame, use oxygen
masks (if installed) and begin an immediate descent.
If a fire extinguisher is used, ventilate the cabin promptly after
extinguishing the fire to reduce the gases produced by thermal
decomposition. If the fire cannot be extinguished immediately, land as
soon as possible.

PILOT SAFETY AND 18
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS IN-FLIGHT OPENING OF DOORS
IN-FLIGHT OPENING OF DOORS

_______________________________________________________________________________
The occurrence of an inadvertent door opening is not as great of a

concern to the safety of the flight, as the pilot's reaction to the opening.
If the pilot is overly distracted, loss of airplane control may result even
though disruption of airflow by the door is minimal. While the shock of a
sudden loud noise and increase in sustained noise level may be
surprising, mental preparation for this event and a plan of action can
eliminate inappropriate pilot reaction.
INADVERTENT OPENING OF BAGGAGE/CARGO DOORS

The flight characteristics of an airplane will not normally be affected by
an open baggage or cargo door. The aerodynamic effects on an open
door can vary, depending on the location of the door on the airplane
and the method used to hinge the door in relation to the slipstream.
Baggage/cargo doors mounted on the side of the aft fuselage and
hinged at the front will tend to stay in a nearly closed position at most
airspeeds and pose no special problems as long as the airplane is not
in uncoordinated flight in a direction which would permit unsecured
baggage to fall out of the airplane. Because of the door location and the
presence of baggage in the immediate area, the door may not be
accessible for closing in flight. Passengers, especially children, should
never be allowed to occupy the baggage portion of the cabin for the
purpose of closing the door in flight. The pilot should slow the airplane
to minimize buffeting of the door and land as soon as practical.
Top hinged baggage/cargo doors will react differently than front hinged
doors if improperly latched before takeoff. Doors of this type, may pop
open at rotation because of the increase in angle of attack and the
slipstream pushing underneath the edge of the unsecured door. After
the initial opening, a baggage door will generally tend to stay open and
then may gently close as speed is reduced and the aircraft is
configured for landing (the doors will probably tend to open again
during flair). A top hinged door on the side of the aft fuselage of a high
wing airplane can sometimes be moved to a nearly closed position by
lowering the wing flaps full down (within approved airspeed limitations)
so that wing downwash will act upon the door. Unlatched nose baggage
doors and large cargo doors on the side of the aft fuselage cannot be
closed in flight and a landing should be made as soon as practical. The
pilot should avoid any abrupt airplane maneuvers in multi-engine
airplanes with an open nose baggage door, as this could throw loose
objects out of the baggage compartment and into the propeller.

18 PILOT SAFETY AND
IN-FLIGHT OPENING OF DOORS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Front hinged wing locker doors in the aft part of the engine nacelle of
multi-engine airplanes will likely trail open a few inches if they become
unlatched. Near stall speed just prior to landing, an unlatched door may
momentarily float to a full open position.
If a door comes open on takeoff and sufficient runway remains for a
safe abort, the airplane should be stopped. If the decision is made to
continue the takeoff, maintain required airspeed and return for landing
as soon as practical.
INADVERTENT OPENING OF CABIN/EMERGENCY EXIT

DOORS (UNPRESSURIZED)
If a cabin or emergency exit door should inadvertently open during
unpressurized flight, the primary concern should be directed toward
maintaining control of the airplane. Then, if a determination is made to
close the door in flight, establish a safe altitude, trim the airplane at a
reduced airspeed, and attempt to close the door. To facilitate closing
the door, slide the adjacent seat aft slightly to obtain a better grasp of
the door handle. The door handle must be in the close position prior to
pulling the door closed, followed by rotating the handle to the locked
position. Under no circumstances should the pilot leave his/her seat, or
unfasten the restraint system to secure a door.
If a cabin door reopens when latched closed, the flight should be
terminated as soon as practical and repairs made.
INADVERTENT OPENING OF CABIN/EMERGENCY EXIT

DOORS (PRESSURIZED)
An inadvertent opening of a cabin/emergency exit door while the cabin
is pressurized and the aircraft is above 12,500 feet, will require the use
of supplemental oxygen or an emergency descent to an altitude below
12,500 feet. The pilot may attempt to close the door after ensuring that
all occupants are using supplemental oxygen or the cabin altitude is
below 10,000 feet. However, the primary concern should be
maintaining control of the airplane. The flight should be terminated as
soon as practical and the cause of the door opening determined before
pressurized flight is continued. Under no circumstances should the pilot
leave his/her seat, or unfasten the restraint system to secure a door.

PILOT SAFETY AND 19
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AUTOPILOTS AND ELECTRIC
TRIM SYSTEMS
AUTOPILOTS AND ELECTRIC TRIM SYSTEMS

_______________________________________________________________________________
Because there are several different models of autopilots and electric

trim systems installed in airplanes and different installations and switch
positions are possible from airplane to airplane, it is essential that every
pilot review the airplane operating handbook and/or the Garmin
Integrated Flight Deck Cockpit Reference Guide (CRG) and Pilot’s
Guide (PG) if equipped with a Garmin Automatic Flight Control System
(AFCS) for the specific autopilot and trim systems installed in their
airplane. Each pilot prior to flight, must be fully aware of the proper
procedures for operation, and particularly disengagement, for the
system as installed.
In addition to ensuring compliance with the autopilot manufacturer's
maintenance requirements, all pilots should thoroughly familiarize
themselves with the operation, function and procedures described in
the airplane operating handbook and/or the Garmin Integrated Flight
Deck Cockpit Reference Guide (CRG) and Pilot’s Guide. Ensure a full
understanding of the methods of engagement and disengagement of
the autopilot and trim systems. Compare the descriptions and
procedures to the actual installation in the airplane to ensure it
accurately describes the system installed. Test that all buttons,
switches and circuit breakers function properly as described. If they do
not function as described, have them repaired by a qualified service
facility prior to using them in flight.
A preflight check as stated in all airplane operating handbooks for the
autopilot and trim systems must be conducted before every flight. The
preflight check assures not only that the systems and all the features
are operating properly, but also that the pilot, before flight, is familiar
with the proper means of engagement and disengagement of the
autopilot and trim system.
Autopilot airplane operating handbooks caution against trying to
override the autopilot system during flight without disengaging the
autopilot because the autopilot will continue to trim the airplane and
oppose the pilot's actions. This could result in a severely out of trim
condition. This is a basic feature of all autopilots with electric trim
follow-up.
Do not try to manually override the autopilot during flight.

19 PILOT SAFETY AND
AUTOPILOTS AND ELECTRIC WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
TRIM SYSTEMS
WARNING
OVERRIDING AN ENGAGED AUTOPILOT SYSTEM
DURING FLIGHT CAUSES THE TRIM SYSTEM TO TRIM
THE AIRPLANE AND OPPOSE THE PILOT’S INPUT,
RESULTING IN A SEVERELY OUT OF TRIM
CONDITION.
CAUTION
IN CASE OF EMERGENCY, YOU CAN OVERPOWER
THE AUTOPILOT TO CORRECT THE ATTITUDE, BUT
THE AUTOPILOT AND ELECTRIC TRIM MUST THEN
IMMEDIATELY BE DISENGAGED. DO NOT RE-ENGAGE
THE AUTOPILOT OR USE THE ELECTRIC TRIM
SYSTEM FOR THE REMAINDER OF THE FLIGHT OR
ANY FUTURE FLIGHTS UNTIL THE SYSTEMS HAVE
BEEN REPAIRED.
It is often difficult to distinguish an autopilot malfunction from an electric
trim system malfunction. The safest course is to deactivate both. Do not
re-engage either system until after you have safely landed. Then have
the systems checked by a qualified service facility prior to further flight.
Depending upon the installation on your airplane, the following
additional methods may be available to disengage the autopilot or
electric trim in the event the autopilot or electric trim does not
disengage utilizing the disengage methods specified in the
Supplements and/or the Garmin CRG and PG.
CAUTION
TRANSIENT CONTROL FORCES MAY OCCUR WHEN
THE AUTOPILOT IS DISENGAGED.
1. Push the autopilot or autopilot trim disconnect switch on the
yoke, if installed.
2. Operate the electric trim switch on the yoke, if installed.
3. Push the autopilot (AP) switch or button on the autopilot
controller (this switch or button when pushed alternately
engages and disengages the autopilot), if installed.
4. Turn off the autopilot master switch, if installed.
5. Pull the autopilot and trim circuit breaker(s) or turn off the
autopilot switch breaker, if installed.
6. Push the go around (GA) switch or button on throttle grip or
located on the instrument panel by the throttle control.
The above ways may or may not be available on your autopilot. It is
essential that you the pilot, read your airplane's AFM supplement and/

PILOT SAFETY AND 19
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS AUTOPILOTS AND ELECTRIC
TRIM SYSTEMS
or the Garmin CRG and PG, for your autopilot system and check each
function and operation on your system.
The engagement of the autopilot must be done in accordance with the
instructions and procedures contained in the airplane operating
handbook and/or the Garmin CRG and PG.
Particular attention must be paid to the autopilot settings prior to
engagement. If the autopilot is engaged when the airplane is out of
trim, a large attitude change may occur.
CAUTION
IT IS ESSENTIAL THAT THE PROCEDURES SET FORTH
IN THE APPROVED AFM SUPPLEMENTS AND/OR THE
GARMIN CRG AND PG, FOR YOUR SPECIFIC
INSTALLATION BE FOLLOWED BEFORE ENGAGING
THE AUTOPILOT.

PILOT SAFETY AND 20
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS MAINTENANCE
MAINTENANCE
_______________________________________________________________________________
Airplanes require inspection and maintenance on a regular basis as

outlined in the operating handbook, service/maintenance manuals,
other servicing publications, and in Federal Aviation Regulations. A
good visual inspection is a continuing maintenance procedure and
should be performed by anyone who is involved with an airplane. This
includes pilots, line personnel, and the maintenance department. When
worn or damaged parts are discovered, it is essential that the defective
parts be repaired or replaced to assure all systems remain operational.
The source of information for proper maintenance is the airplane
Service/Maintenance Manual and Service Letters or Service Bulletins.
Cessna's Service/Maintenance Manuals are occasionally revised.
Maintenance personnel should follow the recommendations in the
latest revision. The owner/operator must ensure that all unacceptable
conditions are corrected and the airplane receives repetitive and
required inspections.
UNAUTHORISED REPAIRS/MODIFICATIONS
All repair facilities and personnel should follow established repair
procedures. Cessna does not support modifications to Cessna
airplanes, whether by Supplemental Type Certificate or otherwise,
unless those modifications are approved by Cessna. Such
modifications may void any and all warranties on the airplane, since
Cessna may not know the full effects on the overall airplane. Cessna
has not tested and approved all such modifications by other
companies. Operating procedures and performance data specified in
the operating handbook and maintenance procedures specified in the
Service/Maintenance Manual may no longer be accurate for the
modified airplane. Operating procedures, maintenance procedures and
performance data that are effected by modifications not approved by
Cessna should be obtained from the STC owner.
AIRWORTHINESS OF OLDER AIRPLANES

For an airplane to remain airworthy and safe to operate, it should be
operated in accordance with Cessna recommendations and cared for
with sound inspection and maintenance practices.
An aging airplane needs more care and attention during maintenance
processes and may require more frequent inspection of structural
components for damage due to the effects of wear, deterioration,
fatigue, environmental exposure, and accidental damage. Typical areas
requiring more frequent inspection are:

20 PILOT SAFETY AND
MAINTENANCE WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
1. Wing attach points and fuselage carry-through structure.
2. Wing spar capstrips, especially the lower ones.
3. Horizontal and vertical stabilizer attach points and spar
structure.
4. Control surface structure and attach points.
5. Engine mounts, beams, and cowlings.
6. Landing gear structure and attach points.
7. Structural and flooring integrity of seat and equipment
attachments.
8. Pressurized structures, especially around all doors, windows,
windshields and other cutouts on pressurized airplanes.
9. Exhaust and cabin heater systems.
The final responsibility for airplane care rests with the owner/operator.
All airplane owners/operators should use the following steps as a
minimum guideline to ensure continued airworthiness of their airplanes:
1. Always follow recommended maintenance and inspection
procedures.
2. Recognize that corrosion, overloading, or damage to structure
can drastically shorten fatigue life.
3. Comply with all applicable Service Bulletins, Service Letters,
and FAA Airworthiness Directives.
4. Use one of Cessna’s Progressive Care Inspection and
maintenance programs to get the maximum utilization of your
airplane at a minimum cost and downtime.
CORROSION
Corrosion can cause structural failure if left unchecked. The
appearance of the corrosion varies with the metal. On aluminum and
magnesium, it appears as surface pitting and etching, often combined
with a grey or white powdery deposit. On copper and copper alloys the
corrosion forms a greenish oxide and on steel, a reddish rust. When
grey, white, green or red deposits are removed, each of the surfaces
may appear etched and pitted, depending upon the length of exposure
and severity of the attack. If the damage is not too deep, it may not
significantly alter the strength of the metal. However, the pits may
become sites for crack development. Some types of corrosion can
travel beneath surface coatings and spread until the part fails.
Remove corrosion as soon as possible because it attacks and holds
moisture in contact with the metal, which causes more corrosion to
form. Every visible trace must be removed by some mechanical or
chemical means. The surface must then be chemically treated to form a
film which prevents oxygen or moisture from contacting the surface.
Then, the protective surface (paint) must be restored.

PILOT SAFETY AND 20
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS MAINTENANCE
There are several different types of corrosion and different ways of
detecting it in its early stages. Uniform surface corrosion is the most
common type of corrosion. When an area of unprotected metal is
exposed to the atmosphere, there will be a uniform attack over the
entire unprotected area. On a polished surface, this type of corrosion is
first seen as a general dulling of the surface. If the corrosion is allowed
to continue, the surface becomes rough and possibly frosted in
appearance.
If surface corrosion is allowed to go untreated, it can progress into the
next type of corrosion, called pitting. Pits form in localized areas and
appear as white or grey powdery deposits. Metal is converted to salts,
and when deposits are cleaned away, tiny pits or holes can be seen on
the surface. If allowed to continue, pitting can progress completely
through the metal in extreme cases.
Stress corrosion cracking is caused by the simultaneous effects of
tensile stress and corrosion. Stress may be either internal or applied.
Residual stress from the processes of heat treatment and forming, or
sustained operating or static loads, can lead to stress corrosion.
Fretting corrosion is corrosion damage between close fitting parts
which are allowed to rub together. It is the corrosive attack on one or
both metals because of chafing under a load. The results of fretting are
removal or pitting of the metal in the area of contact, galling, seizing,
cracking or fatigue of the metal, loss of tolerance in accurately fitted
parts, and loosening of bolted or clamped surfaces.
Corrosion is a universal problem that costs considerable amounts of
time and money. It is essential that each airplane owner maintain his or
her airplane based on the operating conditions, environment, and
service experience. Corrosion can be effectively prevented and/or
controlled if appropriate action is taken early.

PILOT SAFETY AND 21
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS SEAT AND RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
SEAT AND RESTRAINT SYSTEMS

_______________________________________________________________________________
ADJUSTABLE SEAT ASSEMBLIES

Most Cessna manually-adjustable seats are suspended on two parallel,
cabin floor mounted seat tracks by roller assemblies which allow the
seat to move forward and rearward along the tracks. A series of holes
are provided, usually in the forward end of either or both seat tracks, to
accommodate a mechanical locking pin(s) which allows intermediate
positioning and locking of the seat. To prevent the seat from
disengaging from the seat tracks when reaching the ends, a
mechanical seat stop is installed near both ends of the track(s).
Incidents of manually-adjustable seats slipping rearward or forward
during acceleration or deceleration of the airplane have been reported.
The investigations following these incidents have revealed
discrepancies such as gouged lockpin holes, bent lockpins, excessive
clearance between seat rollers and tracks, and missing seat stops, to
name a few. Also, dust, dirt, and debris accumulations on seat tracks
and in the intermediate adjustment holes have been found to contribute
to the problem. A close check of each seat during daily preflight,
improved cabin cleanliness, and replacement of parts when necessary
will help prevent accidents involving seats. Visual checks of the
airplane should always include the cabin interior.
When inspections are made, examination of the following items is
recommended:
1. Check the seat assembly for structural integrity.
2. Inspect the roller assemblies for separation and wear.
3. Check the locking mechanism (actuating arm, linkage, locking
pin or pins) for wear.
4. Check all seat track stops for security and proper installation.
5. Inspect seat tracks for condition and security, and the locking pin
holes for wear, and dirt or debris accumulation.
6. Determine that the floor structure in the vicinity of the seat tracks
is not cracked or distorted.
7. Ensure that the secondary seat stop addressed in mandatory
Service Bulletin SEB89-32 is installed.
Damaged or worn parts are a potential hazard which should be
immediately repaired or replaced. Cessna recommends repair and/or
replacement of damaged components in accordance with the airplane's
service or maintenance publications and Service Bulletins.

21 PILOT SAFETY AND
SEAT RESTRAINT SYSTEMS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
RESTRAINT SYSTEMS
While performing the cabin portion of the daily preflight, it is
recommended that pilots check each restraint system installed in the
airplane. This should include a functional check of the restraint belt
locking and releasing mechanism. If new passengers or students are to
be carried, it is a good practice to insist that they operate the restraint
system to become familiar with the procedures.
During inspections, maintenance personnel should check each
restraint system installation for serviceability in accordance with current
publications applicable to the airplane. Special attention should be
given to restraint attachment points and to the nylon bushing on the belt
at the point where the shoulder restraint harness attaches. Undetected
cracks or broken connections could cause a serious situation to
develop when it is least expected. The restraint system webbing should
be inspected for degradation. Repair or replace the restraint system per
Cessna instructions if damage is detected.

PILOT SAFETY AND 22
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS EXHAUST AND FUEL SYSTEMS
EXHAUST AND FUEL SYSTEMS

_______________________________________________________________________________
THE ENGINE EXHAUST SYSTEM

The primary function of an engine exhaust system is to route exhaust
gases safely overboard. Other functions of the exhaust system may
include use as the driving source for a turbocharger turbine and/or use
as a heat source for carburetor and/or cabin heat requirements.
Heat and carbon monoxide are the unavoidable byproducts of all
reciprocating engine operations. The temperatures within the exhaust
system of an engine can exceed 1750°F. Consequently, if an exhaust
leak should occur, heat damage can occur to the engine mounting
structure, and accessories such as hoses, belts, wire bundles, etc. In
some cases, the position of the leak could lead to engine stoppage
and/or an engine compartment fire.
An exhaust system leak can also lead to carbon monoxide poisoning.
This colorless, odorless, tasteless combustion byproduct is always
present in exhaust fumes. For this reason, special seals are provided
wherever cables, hoses, wire bundles, etc. pass through the engine
firewall. For even greater protection from carbon monoxide, special
window, door, and fuselage seals are installed. No leakage of exhaust
into the cabin should be tolerated.
Exhaust systems should be checked for stains indicative of exhaust
leaks at cylinder heads or cracks in the exhaust or tailpipe. The
condition and security of the exhaust system in the area of the exhaust
muffler shroud should be checked. Any cracks or leaks in this area
could be a source for exhaust to enter the cabin.
ENGINE COMPARTMENT TEMPERATURES

High engine compartment temperatures can degrade the operational
efficiency of the engine and also accelerate the deterioration of engine
components. Several conditions could cause or contribute to a higher
than normal engine compartment temperature; however, improper
operating techniques are found to be the most common cause. Avoid
excessive operation of an engine on the ground. Prolonged ground
operations should be done into the wind at rich mixture settings. If the
cowling has been removed for maintenance, cooling airflow is poor and
cylinder head temperature and oil temperature gages must be
monitored during engine runups.
On virtually all air-cooled reciprocating engines, the engine and engine
compartment are cooled by utilizing a pressure cooling baffle system
with airflow as the cooling medium. The condition of these baffles and
their seals is important.

22 PILOT SAFETY AND
EXHAUST AND FUEL SYSTEMS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
Baffles should be secure and baffle seals should be positioned in a
direction which would seal airflow around the engine baffles. Even a
slight reduction in cooling efficiency can cause the engine to operate
hotter than normal, thus increasing the potential for heat damaged
components.
An inspection of the engine compartment, plus careful observation of
the engine temperatures during normal flight, can be of great
assistance in verifying the condition of the engine. If the pilot takes the
time to record engine temperatures on a regular basis, trends within the
engine can be detected early and corrected before a serious condition
occurs.
HOSE AND WIRE HARNESS INTEGRITY

All fuel, oil, and hydraulic components should be checked for condition,
security and any evidence of leakage. All leaks should be repaired
before starting the engine.
As airplanes and engines age, there is a need to re-emphasize the
inspection or replacement requirements of engine hoses or lines that
carry fuel, oil, or hydraulic fluid. For newer Cessnas, a replacement
requirement for hoses in the engine compartment (except teflon lined)
has been established at each 5 years or at engine overhaul, whichever
occurs first. This is considered to include "shelf"· life. All hose
manufactured for airplane use is marked indicating the quarter-year in
which they were manufactured. For instance, a listing of "4Q85" means
the hose was manufactured in the fourth quarter of 1985. Maintenance
personnel should not use hoses with a high "shelf" life age.
Like time, heat is always a detriment to hoses. The prudent pilot
realizes during the daily preflight, that an engine hose might look good,
but if it is wiggled, a telltale "crackle" may be heard. This means that the
hose is brittle and should be replaced. Also if he slides his hand over
the back side of the hose, he may find an abrasion or wear not visible
from the front side.
Ignition leads/wire harnesses and spark plugs are also affected by
excessive heating in the engine compartment. Overheating of the spark
plug barrels, sometimes caused by damaged cylinder baffles or
missing cooling air blast tubes, may seriously deteriorate the ignition
leads. Any overheating of a spark plug by a defective baffle or exhaust
gas leak at the exhaust pipe mounting flange can generate
temperatures sufficient to cause pre-ignition and piston distress.

PILOT SAFETY AND 23
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR
RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR

_______________________________________________________________________________
The adjustment and rigging of a retractable landing gear system should

be done by trained maintenance personnel. Continued reliability of the
landing gear system is only possible if it is properly maintained in the
prescribed published manner. The rigging process must be performed
exactly as published in the Cessna Service/Maintenance Manual and
Service Bulletins. For complete emergency procedures concerning
landing gear extension, refer to the airplane operating handbook.

PILOT SAFETY AND 24
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES
PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES
_______________________________________________________________________________
DOOR SECURITY
The conventional and air-stair doors on pressurized airplanes have a
series of pins, actuated by an overcenter locking handle, to maintain
the door seal during the pressurization cycle. Some air-stair doors are
sealed by pressurization air pressing against the cabin door windlace
which covers the door gap. Door security can be verified by visually
checking the locking indicator for the door handle safety lock, in the
case of single-engine airplanes, and checking for correct locking
indications provided in the door of multi-engine airplanes. It is
recommended that pilots check the locking pins and door seals for
cracks or damage during each preflight. Any damaged parts should be
repaired prior to pressurized flight.
WINDOWS AND WINDSHIELDS

The windows in pressurized airplanes are exposed to a fatigue cycle
each time the airplane is pressurized. These cycles could lead to
fatigue cracks in and around the windows. Windows should be
inspected frequently for condition and serviceability. Windows or
windshields having replacement life limits should be replaced prior to
intervals defined in applicable service/maintenance manuals.
The windows and windshields on pressurized airplanes are particularly
sensitive to crazing and scratches. Any crazing, cracks, or deep
scratches cannot be tolerated for pressurized flight. Consult the
airplane's operating manual when in doubt about the severity of the
damage. Repairs should be completed prior to pressurized flight.
THE PRESSURE VESSEL

There are significant structural differences between the fuselage of a
non-pressurized airplane and one which is pressurized. The pressure
vessel is the portion of the cabin area to be pressurized. Pressure
differential is the difference between the atmospheric pressure at the
altitude at which the airplane is flying and the pressure inside the cabin.
Any seam, joint, or hole where wire bundles or tubing pass through the
pressure vessel must be sealed to maintain the selected
pressurization. If any of these seals are deteriorated or missing, the
normal cabin pressure differential may be impossible to attain.
Maintenance personnel should inspect the pressure seals for
serviceability. Any cracks in the skin of the pressure vessel could lead
to sudden depressurization. Maintenance personnel should carefully
inspect the pressure vessel for cracks, corrosion, and deterioration.
Any damage should be corrected before pressurized flight.

24 PILOT SAFETY AND
PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
If the airplane cabin is pressurized and it becomes necessary to use
the heated alternate induction air on both engines, the pressurization
controls must be selected OFF to preventing nacelle fumes from
entering the cabin. The cabin should be depressurized and maximum
ventilation provided. Therefore, if the flight altitude is above 10,000
feet, all occupants should use oxygen, if available, or descent should
be initiated.

PILOT SAFETY AND 25
WARNING SUPPLEMENTS POTENTIAL HAZARDS
POTENTIAL HAZARDS
_______________________________________________________________________________
PROPELLERS
WARNING
ALWAYS STAND CLEAR OF PROPELLER BLADE
PATHS, ESPECIALLY WHEN MOVING THE
PROPELLER. PARTICULAR CAUTION SHOULD BE
PRACTICED AROUND WARM ENGINES.
Review of propeller accidents indicates that most were preventable. A
propeller under power, even at slow idling speed, has sufficient force to
inflict fatal injuries. Pilots can be most effective in ensuring that
passengers arrive and depart the vicinity of the airplane safely by
stopping the engine(s) during loading and unloading.
Cessna airplanes are delivered with propellers using paint schemes to
increase visibility of the blades. Owners should maintain the original
paint scheme.
Pilots and Service personnel should develop the following safety
habits:
1. Before moving a propeller or connecting an external power
source to an airplane, be sure that the airplane is chocked,
ignition switches are in the OFF position, throttle is closed,
mixture is in IDLE CUT-OFF position, and all equipment and
personnel are clear of the propeller. Failed diodes in airplane
electrical systems have caused starters to engage when
external power was applied regardless of the switch position.
2. When removing an external power source from an airplane,
keep the equipment and yourself clear of the propeller.
3. Pilots should make certain that all personnel are clear of the
propeller, prior to engine start.
4. Attach pull ropes to wheel chocks located close to a rotating
propeller(s).
5. Before removing the wheel chocks, the pilot should hold brakes
or apply the parking brake.
6. Be absolutely sure that all equipment and personnel are clear of
the airplane before releasing the brakes.
7. Ground personnel should be given recurrent propeller safety
training to keep them alert to the dangers of working around
airplanes.
The pilot should carefully inspect the propeller during each preflight
inspection. Some constant speed propellers manufactured by
McCauley are subject to a requirement that they be filled with a
red-dyed oil. This oil helps lubricate and prevent corrosion of internal

25 PILOT SAFETY AND
POTENTIAL HAZARDS WARNING SUPPLEMENTS
propeller parts and may assist in detection of cracks. If a crack is
detected, the airplane should not be flown until the propeller is
replaced.
AIR CONDITIONING FREON

The refrigerant R-12 (Freon) is relatively safe to handle when using
proper protective safety equipment. Since at sea level the boiling point
of R-12 is -21.6°F, any contact with bare skin will immediately burn
(freeze) the area. If R-12 should contact your eye, it will burn and can
cause permanent blindness. Treat spills or splashes on your body by
washing with clean, cool, water, and seek immediate medical attention.
R-12, when heated to a high temperature such as with an open flame
or spillage on a hot manifold, generates phosgene gas (a colorless gas
with an unpleasant odor). This gas is a severe respiratory irritant and
should be considered as a deadly poison.
USED ENGINE OIL

Pilots and maintenance personnel who handle engine oil are advised to
minimize skin contact with used oil, and promptly remove any used
engine oil from their skin.
The following are some do's and don'ts concerning used engine oil:
1. Do follow work practices that minimize the amount of skin
exposed, and the length of time used oil stays on the skin.
2. Do thoroughly wash used oil off skin as soon as possible.
3. Do wash oil-soaked clothing before wearing them again. Discard
oil soaked shoes.
4. Do use gloves made from material that oil cannot penetrate.
5. Don't use kerosene, gasoline, thinners, or solvents to remove
used engine oil. These products can cause serious toxic effects.
6. Don't put oily rags in pockets, or tuck them under a belt. This
can cause continuous skin contact.
7. Don’t pour used engine oil on the ground or down drains and
sewers. This is a violation of Federal Law. The Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) encourages collection of used engine
oil at collection point in compliance with appropriate state and
local ordinances.
AVIATION FUEL ADDITIVE

Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether (EGME), which is a primary
ingredient in aviation fuel additives, is toxic. It creates a dangerous
health hazard when breathed or absorbed into the skin. When inhaled,
EGME is primarily a central nervous system depressant, and acute
inhalation overexposure may cause kidney injury. The primary
symptoms of inhalation overexposure include headache, drowsiness,

PILOT SAFETY AND 25
blurred vision, weakness, lack of coordination, tremor,
unconsciousness, and even death. EGME is irritating to the eyes and
skin and can be readily absorbed through the skin in toxic amounts.
Symptoms of overexposure due to skin absorption are essentially the
same as those outlined for inhalation.
When servicing fuel with an anti-ice additive containing EGME, follow
the manufacturers instructions and use appropriate personal protective
equipment. These items would include chemical safety goggles or
shield, respirator with organic vapor cartridges, nonabsorbing neoprene
rubber gloves and an apron and long-sleeved shirt as additional skin
protection from spraying or splashing anti-ice additive.
In the event EGME contact is experienced, the following emergency
and first aid procedures should be used.
1. If EGME is inhaled, remove person to fresh air. If breathing is
difficult, administer oxygen. If the person is not breathing give
artificial respiration. Always call a physician.
2. If eye or skin contact is experienced, flush with plenty of water
(use soap and water for skin) for at least 15 minutes while
removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Call a physician.
Thoroughly wash contaminated clothing and shoes before
reuse.
3. If ingested, drink large quantities of water and induce vomiting
by placing a finger far back in throat. Contact a physician
immediately. If vomiting cannot be induced, or if victim is
unconscious or in convulsions, take immediately to a hospital or
physician. Do not induce vomiting or give anything by mouth to
an unconscious person.
Diethylene glycol monomethyl ether (DIEGME), a fuel anti-icing
additive approved for use in some airplanes, is slightly toxic if
swallowed and may cause eye redness, swelling and irritation.
DIEGME also is combustible. Before using DIEGME, refer to all safety
information on the container.
BIRDS, INSECTS, AND RODENTS

Bird, insect, and mouse nests in airplanes are both hazardous and
costly. They seem to find even the smallest opening on an airplane to
make their nests. Evidence of nest building activities may include the
following:
1. Any mud smears or droplets at pitot/static masts, fuel tank vents,
crankcase breathers, stall warning vanes, cabin air vents, and
any fluid drain holes are indications of mud dauber wasp
activities.
2. Straw, string, or blades of grass extending from cowling
openings, carburetor air intakes, blast tubes, or exhaust stacks
are signs of birds at work.

25 PILOT SAFETY AND
3. Cotton batting, shreds of fabric, and/or paper at wheel wells and
empennage openings are frequently indicators that rodents
such as mice have been or may still be on board. They may
gnaw an any material in the airplane including wire bundles and
rubber or plastic tubing.
If nests or building materials are found on the airplane, they must be
removed before flight. It is strongly recommended that a qualified
mechanic thoroughly inspect components such as pitot/static systems
for remains of any nesting material after its removal and before flight to
ensure complete removal. Even small amounts of foreign material can
result in significant problems in flight.
Some precautions can be taken to prevent problems. Always use the
pitot tube cover and any other external covers when the airplane is
being stored. If the airplane is hangared, make sure the hangar is kept
clean and neat to prevent insects and mice from lodging in the hanger
in the first place. If need be, set traps for rodents and/or spray the area
for insects. Models of predators that appear life-like such as owls or
snakes may also be effective at preventing some birds from lodging in a
hangar.
Removal of the nest of an insect, bird, or rodent does not prevent
reconstruction elsewhere on the airplane or even in the same location
again. Some creatures are not easily discouraged and may return to
cause problems within a very short time period. Regardless of
precautions used to prevent such problems, the pilot should be alert to
the evidence of small animal activities during every preflight inspection.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER AGENTS

Halon, Bromochloromethane (CB), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and dry
chemical extinguishing agents are four of the most common types of
fire extinguishing agents found in and around airplanes. Prolonged
exposure (5 minutes or more) to any of these agents in a confined area
could cause serious injury or even death. Pilots and ground personnel
should become familiar with the precautions associated with each
particular agent. Adequate respiratory and eye protection from
excessive exposure, including the use of oxygen when available,
should be sought as soon as the primary fire emergency will permit.
The discharge of large amounts of carbon dioxide to extinguish a fire
may create hazards to personnel such as oxygen deficiency and
reduced visibility. The dilution of the oxygen in the air, by the carbon
dioxide concentrations that will extinguish a fire, may create an
atmosphere that will not sustain life. Personnel rendered unconscious
under these conditions can usually be revived without any permanent ill
effects when promptly removed from the adverse condition.
The discharge of large amounts of dry chemical agents may create
hazards to personnel such as reduced visibility and temporary

PILOT SAFETY AND 25
breathing difficulty. Where there is a possibility that personnel may be
exposed to dry chemical agents, suitable safeguards should be
provided to ensure prompt evacuation.
OXYGEN
Before servicing any airplane with oxygen, consult the specific airplane
service/maintenance manual to determine the proper type of servicing
equipment to be used. Airplanes should not be serviced with oxygen
during refueling, defueling, or other maintenance work which could
provide fuel and a source of ignition. Also, oxygen servicing of an
airplane should be accomplished outside, not in hangars.
Oxygen is a very reactive material, combining with most of the chemical
elements. The union of oxygen with another substance is known as
oxidation. Extremely rapid or spontaneous oxidation is known as
combustion. While oxygen is non-combustible in itself, it strongly and
rapidly accelerates the combustion of all flammable materials; some to
an explosive degree.
The following are some do's and don'ts when handling or using
oxygen:
1. Do check that only "aviators breathing oxygen" is going into the
airplane system.
2. Don’t confuse aviators breathing oxygen with “hospital/medical”
oxygen. (The latter is pure enough for breathing, but the
moisture content is usually higher which could freeze and plug
the lines and valves of an airplane oxygen system).
3. Do reject any oxygen that has an abnormal odor (good oxygen
is odorless).
4. Do follow the published applicable instructions regarding
charging, purging, and maintenance of airplane oxygen
systems.
5. Don't use oil or grease (including certain lipsticks and lip balms)
around oxygen systems.
6. Don't expose oxygen containers to high temperatures.
COMPRESSED AIR
Compressed air is a mechanic's tool as versatile as electricity, and can
be as deadly. The use of compressed air to blow dust or dirt from parts
of the body or clothing is a dangerous practice. As little as 12 psi can
dislocate an eyeball. Air can enter the navel through a layer of clothing
and inflate and rupture the intestines. Compressed air has been known
to strike a small wound on a person's hand and inflate the arm.
Never look into or point any compressed air apparatus toward any part
of the body. Always wear prescribed personal protective equipment.
Also, continuously check the condition of air tools and air hoses to

25 PILOT SAFETY AND
make sure they do not show signs of damage or looseness. A loose
hose carrying pressure is like a bullwhip and can cause serious injury
to personnel and/or cause damage to surrounding equipment. If a
situation such as this should occur, do not attempt to catch the hose
end; shut off the air source first.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity, by definition, is a negative or positive charge of
electricity that an object accumulates, and creates a spark when the
object comes near another object. Static electricity may accumulate on
an airplane during flight or while it is on the ground, as long as air is
flowing over its surfaces. Unless static electricity is carried away by
ground wires, an explosion may be caused during any fueling
operations.
Grounding an airplane is a good safety precaution because static
electricity cannot be seen until it's too late. To properly ground an
airplane, attach one end of a static ground wire to an unpainted point
on the airplane and the other end to an approved grounding stake.
Attaching the ground wire to the airplane first will ensure that any spark
of static electricity will occur at the grounding stake and not at the
airplane. Do not attach a ground wire to any antenna. Antennas are
poor grounding attachment points because they are insulated from the
airplane structure.
On some airplanes, wick-type static dischargers are installed to
improve radio communications during flight through dust or various
forms of precipitation (rain, snow or ice crystals). Under these
conditions, the build-up and discharge of static electricity from the
trailing edges of wings, rudder, elevator, and propeller tips can result in
loss of usable radio signals on all communications and navigation radio
equipment. Usually the ADF is first to be affected and VHF
communication equipment is the last to be affected. Installation of static
dischargers reduces interference from precipitation static, but it is
possible to encounter severe precipitation static conditions which might
cause the loss of radio signals, even with static dischargers installed.
Static dischargers lose their effectiveness with age, and therefore
should be checked at every scheduled inspection by a qualified
technician. If testing equipment is not available, it is recommended that
the wicks be replaced every two years, especially if the airplane is
operated frequently in IFR conditions.

PILOT SAFETY AND 25
ELT BATTERY AND GAS SPRING/DAMPER DISPOSAL
To prevent bodily injury, do not compact (compress) or incinerate an
ELT battery-pack or gas spring/damper. The ELT battery pack should
be discarded in accordance with local EPA standards.
A gas spring or gas damper contains an inert gas and oil under
pressure, and reacts much like an aerosol can when compressed or
heated; it may explode. Therefore, all unserviceable gas springs or
dampers should be depressurized, using the maintenance manual
instructions.
HEARING LOSS
Hearing loss due to overexposure to loud noise levels is a real
possibility while working near operating airplane engines. Continuous
exposure to excessive noise diminishes hearing acuity, with high
frequency response failing first. If the overexposure continues, the
middle frequencies, most important in conversation, are also lost.
Earmuffs, some headset types, and earplugs are very useful to avoid
hearing loss. By far, the earplug has proven to be the best protection
overall. Limits have been established which relate sound level (dB) to
exposure time. These limits are based on daily exposures for long
intervals.
Sound Level
(dB) 115 110 105 100
Maximum Time
(min.) 15 30 60 120
WEATHER RADAR EXPOSURE

The dangers of exposure to airborne weather radar operated on the
ground include the possibility of damage to low tolerance parts of the
human body and ignition of combustible materials by radiated energy.
Low tolerance parts of the body include the eyes and testes. Airborne
weather radar should be operated on the ground only by qualified
personnel. The radar should not be operated while the airplane is in a
hangar or other enclosure unless the radar transmitter is disconnected,
or the energy is directed toward an absorption shield which dissipates
the radio frequency (RF) energy.
Personnel should never stand near or directly in front of a radar
antenna which is transmitting. When the antenna is transmitting and
scanning, personnel should not be allowed within 15 feet of the area
being scanned by the antenna.

25 PILOT SAFETY AND
Personnel should not be allowed at the end of an open waveguide
(hollow duct work through which electromagnetic waves are conducted
to and from the antenna) unless the radar is off and will remain off.
Radar should not be operated with an open waveguide unless a
"dummy load" is connected to the portion which is connected to the
transmitter. Personnel should not look into a waveguide, or the open
end of a coaxial connector or line connected to a radar transmitter.
Weather radar installed on any airplane should not be operated while
that airplane, or an adjacent airplane is being refueled or defueled.

NOTES
NOTES
NOTES

Pilot Safety

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pilot Safety

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pilot Safety

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Pilot Safety

The information contained in this document is not intended to supersede the

SYSTEM OPERATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 i (ii blank)

Pilots should know the information contained in the airplane's operating

• PILOT PHYSICAL CONDITION AND PROFICIENCY

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1

2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 3

4 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1

2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

DRINKING THE RIGHT FLUIDS

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 3

4 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 5

6 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 7

8 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

CHECKLIST ARRANGEMENT (ORGANIZATION OF

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1

2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 20188

AIRPLANE CENTER-OF-GRAVITY RANGE

LOCATING THE LOAD

The relative position of any two terms indicates the mathematical

2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

EFFECTS OF LOADING ON THE FLIGHT

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 3

LOAD AND LATERAL TRIM

WEIGHT AND BALANCE TERMINOLOGY

Arm The horizontal distance from the reference datum

4 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Center-of-Gravity The point at which an airplane or item of

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 5

Tare The weight of chocks, blocks, stands, etc., used

6 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

SINGLE ENGINE FLIGHT INFORMATION

SINGLE ENGINE TAKEOFF AND CLIMB

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1

2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

turn-and-bank indicator should not be centered, but should be

SINGLE ENGINE CRUISE

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 3

affected engine should also be verified. If the engine failure was

SINGLE ENGINE APPROACH AND LANDING OR

4 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

TRAFFIC PATTERN MANEUVERS

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 1

PARTIAL PANEL FLYING

2 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

EMERGENCY DESCENT THROUGH CLOUDS

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 3

RECOVERY FROM A SPIRAL DIVE

USE OF LANDING GEAR AND FLAPS

4 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 5

6 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018

Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018 7

8 Reissue 2 - 28 September 2018