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6.14 Energy-efficient kiln walls 151

6.14 Energy-efficient kiln walls

The energy cost of one firing cycle of a large pottery kiln (Figure 6.25) is
considerable. Part is the cost of the energy that is lost by conduction through
the kiln walls; it is reduced by choosing a wall material with a low con-
ductivity, and by making the wall thick. The rest is the cost of the energy used
to raise the kiln to its operating temperature; it is reduced by choosing a wall
material with a low heat capacity, and by making the wall thin. Is there a
material index that captures these apparently conflicting design goals? And if
so, what is a good choice of material for kiln walls? The choice is based on the
requirements of Table 6.25.

The model. When a kiln is fired, the internal temperature rises quickly from
ambient, To, to the operating temperature, Ti, where it is held for the firing
time t. The energy consumed in the firing time has, as we have said, two
contributions. The first is the heat conducted out: at steady state the heat loss by

Insulation
Conductivity λ
Heater Specific heat Cp

Temperature T Temperature
To

Figure 6.25 A kiln. On firing, the kiln wall is first heated to the operating temperature, then held at this
temperature. A linear gradient is then expected through the kiln wall.

Table 6.25 Design requirements for kiln walls

Function Thermal insulation for kiln (cyclic heating and cooling)

Constraints  Maximum operating temperature 1000 C
 Possible limit on kiln-wall thickness for space reasons
Objective Minimize energy consumed in firing cycle
Free variables  Kiln wall thickness, w
 Choice of material
152 Chapter 6 Materials selection — case studies

conduction, Q1, per unit area, is given by the first law of heat flow. If held for
time t it is
dT ðTi ÿ To Þ
Q1 ¼ ÿ t¼ t ð6:53Þ
dx w
Here  is the thermal conductivity, dT/dx is the temperature gradient and w
is the insulation wall-thickness. The second contribution is the heat absorbed
by the kiln wall in raising it to Ti, and this can be considerable. Per unit
area, it is
 
Ti ÿ To
Q2 ¼ Cp w ð6:54Þ
2
where Cp is the specific heat of the wall material and  is its density. The total
energy consumed per unit area is the sum of these two:
ðTi þ To Þt Cp wðTi ÿ To Þ
Q ¼ Q1 þ Q2 ¼ þ ð6:55Þ
w 2
A wall that is too thin loses much energy by conduction, but absorbs little
energy in heating the wall itself. One that is too thick does the opposite. There
is an optimum thickness, which we find by differentiating equation (6.54) with
respect to wall thickness w and equating the result to zero, giving:

2t 1=2
 
w¼ ¼ ð2atÞ1=2 ð6:56Þ
Cp 
where a ¼ /Cp is the thermal diffusivity. The quantity (2at)1/2 has dimen-
sions of length and is a measure of the distance heat can diffuse in time t.
Equation (6.56) says that the most energy-efficient kiln wall is one that only
starts to get really hot on the outside as the firing cycle approaches com-
pletion. Substituting equation (6.55) back into equation (6.55) to eliminate
w gives:
Q ¼ ðTi ÿ To Þð2tÞ1=2 ðCp Þ1=2
Q is minimized by choosing a material with a low value of the quantity
(Cp)1/2, that is, by maximizing

a1=2
M ¼ ðCp Þÿ1=2 ¼ ð6:57Þ


By eliminating the wall thickness w we have lost track of it. It could, for
some materials, be excessively large. Before accepting a candidate material
we must check, by evaluating equation (6.56) how thick the wall made from
it will be.

The selection. Figure 6.26 shows the  ÿ a chart with a selection line cor-
responding to M ¼ a1/2/ plotted on it. Polymer foams, cork and solid
 6.14 Energy-efficient kiln walls 153

polymers are good, but only if the internal temperature is less than 150 C.
Real kilns operate near 1000 C requiring materials with a maximum service
temperature above this value. The figure suggests brick (Table 6.26), but

1000
Vol. specific heat 107
T-conductivity - T-diffusivity ρCCp (J/m3.K) Cu alloys
Al alloys
Zn alloys
W alloys 106
Mg alloys
l
Metals
100 High volumetric Ni alloys Silicon
specific heat Carbon
steels SiC
W m.K)

Cast
irons AlN
A
Stainless WC
105
Thermal conductivity, λ (W/

steels B 4C
Ti alloys
o Lead

10
alloys
Al2O3
Technical
cerami
cal
eramics
eramic M = a1/2 / λ
Non-technic
call Stone
ne Si3N4
ceramics
Concrete
ncre
λ
Soda
oda glass a
Polymers and
1 elastomers B
Brick CFRP
E
Epoxies
PTFE
TF Composites
ites λ
PC Silicone
PVC
C elastomers
s
a1/2
PMMA
MM
M GFRP Search
Neopr
PP
P
Neoprene
Neo
Wood region
0.1 Flexible
Fl ibl polymer
l
Isoprene foams
Low volumetric
Butyl rubber
Guidelines for specific heat
Cork
thermal design

Rigid polymer
mer
foams
ams Foams
MFA, 04
0.0
01
10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4
Thermal diffusi
siv y a (m2/s)
vity,

Figure 6.26 Materials for kiln walls. Low density, porous or foam-like ceramics are the best choice.

Table 6.26 Materials for energy-efficient kilns

Material M ¼ a1/2/ Thickness Comment

(m2K/W.s1/2) w (mm)

Brick 10ÿ3 90 The obvious choice: the lower the

density, the better the performance.
Special refractory bricks have values
of M as high as 3  10ÿ3
Concrete 5  10ÿ4 110 High-temperature concrete can withstand
temperatures up to 1000 C
Woods 2  10ÿ3 60 The boiler of Stevenson’s ‘‘Rocket’’ steam
engine was insulated with wood
Solid elastomers 2  10ÿ3–3  10ÿ3 50 Good values of material index. Useful if
and solid the wall must be very thin. Limited to
polymers 2  10ÿ3 temperatures below 150 C
Polymer foam, 3  10ÿ3 ¼ 3  10ÿ2 50–100 The highest value of M — hence their
cork use in house insulation. Limited to
temperatures below 150 C
154 Chapter 6 Materials selection — case studies

here the limitation of the hard-copy charts becomes apparent: there is not
enough room to show specialized materials such as refractory bricks and
concretes. The limitation is overcome by the computer-based methods
mentioned in Chapter 5, allowing a search over 3000 rather than just 68
materials.
Having chosen a material, the acceptable wall thickness is calculated from
equation (6.55). It is listed, for a firing time of 3 h (approximately 104 s) in
Table 6.26.

Postscript. It is not generally appreciated that, in an efficiently-designed kiln,

as much energy goes in heating up the kiln itself as is lost by thermal con-
duction to the outside environment. It is a mistake to make kiln walls too thick;
a little is saved in reduced conduction-loss, but more is lost in the greater heat
capacity of the kiln itself.
That, too, is the reason that foams are good: they have a low thermal con-
ductivity and a low heat capacity. Centrally heated houses in which the heat is
turned off at night suffer a cycle like that of the kiln. Here (because Ti is lower)
the best choice is a polymeric foam, cork, or fiberglass (which has thermal
properties like those of foams). But as this case study shows — turning the heat
off at night does not save you as much as you think, because you have to supply
the heat capacity of the walls in the morning.

Further reading Holman, J.P. (1981) Heat Transfer, 5th edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, USA.

Related case 6.13 Insulation for short-term isothermal containers

studies 6.15 Materials for passive solar heating

6.15 Materials for passive solar heating

There are a number of schemes for capturing solar energy for home heating:
solar cells, liquid filled heat exchangers, and solid heat reservoirs. The simplest
of these is the heat-storing wall: a thick wall, the outer surface of which is
heated by exposure to direct sunshine during the day, and from which heat is
extracted at night by blowing air over its inner surface (Figure 6.27). An
essential of such a scheme is that the time-constant for heat flow through the
wall be about 12 h; then the wall first warms on the inner surface roughly 12 h
after the sun first warms the outer one, giving out at night what it took in during
the day. We will suppose that, for architectural reasons, the wall must not be
more than 12 m thick. What materials maximize the thermal energy captured
by the wall while retaining a heat-diffusion time of up to 12 h? Table 6.27
summarizes the requirements.