Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195 – 1203

Microstructural analysis of recycled aggregate concrete produced

from two-stage mixing approach
Vivian W.Y. Tama,1, X.F. Gaob, C.M. Tama,*
a
Department of Building and Construction, City University of Hong Kong, 83 Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
b
Faculty of Science, XiTan Jiaotong University, XiTan, 710049, PR China

Received 5 April 2004; accepted 25 October 2004

Abstract

Owing to the shortage of space for land reclamation in Hong Kong, it is difficult to dispose of tons of masonry waste generated daily from
construction activities. Adoption of recycled aggregate from concrete waste thus becomes a burning issue. The Hong Kong SAR Government
has set-up a recycling plant in Tuen Mun Area 38 aiming at turning concrete waste into recycled aggregate with a practice note and
specifications issued for controlling the quality of recycled aggregate. However, the use of recycled aggregate concrete to high-grade
applications is rarely reported because of its poorer compressive strength and high variability in mechanical behavior. This paper proposes a
new approach in mixing concrete, namely, btwo-stage mixing approach (TSMA),Q intended to improve the compressive strength for recycled
aggregate concrete and hence lower its strength variability. Based upon experimental works, improvements in strength to recycled aggregate
concrete were achieved. The effect can be attributable to the porous nature of the recycled aggregate, and hence, the premix process can fill
up some pores and cracks, resulting in a denser concrete, an improved interfacial zone around recycled aggregate and thus a higher strength
when compared with the traditional mixing approach.
D 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Compressive strength; Two-stage mixing approach; Recycled aggregate concrete; Waste management; Construction

1. Introduction In Denmark, Netherlands and Japan, there have been

records of 80%, 75% and 65% of recycling rates [3–5].
As sustainability is a pressing issue all over the world, To achieve these rates, special site arrangements, such as
the word brecycleQ forms one of the most important selective demolition, need to be implemented. Different
keywords today [1]. Recycling and resource saving have types of materials (bricks and masonry, roofing tiles,
been advocated in the construction industry, but the concrete and timber) need to be removed separately as
effectiveness of these has been constrained because the much as possible [5] and sorted at the source to facilitate
conditions in applying these approaches were not provided recycling. Recovery of materials from these wastes can
[2]. These conditions include the lack of site space and reduce the consumption of landfill areas and natural
equipment for waste sorting, experience in waste recycling gravel resources. Although the recycling rate is high in
operations, trained supervisors and employees, knowledge some countries, the use of recycled aggregate (RA) is
of secondary materials markets, environmental and safety confined to low-grade applications, such as unbound road
regulations. base, fill and hardcore. For higher grade applications, new
recycling technology needs to be developed. In Japan,
higher grade utilization of concrete has been recorded,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2788 7620; fax: +852 2788 7612.
E-mail addresses: tam.vivian@student.cityu.edu.hk (V.W.Y. Tam)8
leading to a recycling rate of 65% for concrete [5]. One
bctam@cityu.edu.hk (C.M. Tam). of these is the use of RA as aggregate for new structural
1
Tel.: +852 2784 4377; fax: +852 2788 7612. concrete. Similarly, in the United Kingdom, it is the
0008-8846/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.10.025
1196 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203

Table 1
Quality standard of recycled aggregate concrete for public works [11]
Type Recycled coarse aggregate (2) Recycled fine aggregate
Type C1 Type C2 Type C3 Type F1 Type F2
Absorption (%) 3 or less 3 or less 5 or less 7 or less 5 or less 10 or less
Sulfate soundness (%) 12 or less 40 or less 12 or less – 10 or less –
40 or less (1)
(1) Where freezing and thawing resistance is not required.
(2) Grading and content of injurious impurities are also stipulated.

government policy to increase the level of RA to promote Under the above context, this paper aims to achieve the
natural resources conservation and improve environmental following objectives:
protection [6].
The use of recycled aggregate has been strongly (i) examining the current practices in the applications of
advocated in Hong Kong [6–10]. Various government recycled aggregate concrete (RAC);
departments have been encouraging adoption of recycled (ii) proposing the two-stage mixing approach (TSMA) to
aggregate. The Civil Engineering Department of the Hong improve the quality of RAC;
Kong Special Administrative Region (HKSAR) has set-up a (iii) experimenting the TSMA and assessing the benefits
recycling plant to produce recycled aggregate in Tuen Mun possibly gained; and
Area 38; the Buildings Department of HKSAR has issued a (iv) conducting microstructural analyses to explore the
practice note on the buse of recycled aggregates in mechanism of TSMA.
concrete;Q and the Environment, Transport and Works
Bureau has published a Technical Circular (Ref: 12/2002)
entitled bSpecifications facilitating the use of recycled 2. Recycled aggregate concrete
aggregates.Q All aims at promoting the use of recycled
aggregate and setting standards and practice guidelines for As revealed from previous studies, the quality of
the product. The Architectural Services Department of aggregate is commonly classified according to the absorption
HKSAR has examined the possibility of using 20% recycled rates [11]. High absorption indicates high level of cement
aggregate for project development, and the Hong Kong mortar attachment, which generally leads to concrete with
Housing Authority of HKSAR and local universities are inferior strength, durability and deformation and shrinkage
finding ways to improve the quality of recycled aggregate. properties. Accordingly, the maximum allowable design

Table 2
Types of recycled aggregate concrete and suggested uses in civil and building works [11]
Type Coarse aggregate Fine aggregate Suggested design Suggested use of recycled
strength (MPa) aggregate concrete
Civil works applications
CI Recycled coarse Normal fine aggregate 18 to 24 Reinforced or plain concrete;
aggregate Type C1 lower structure of bridges,
tunnel lining, retaining walls, etc.
CII Recycled coarse Normal or recycled 16 to 18 Plain concrete; masonry units,
aggregate Type C2 fine aggregate Type F1 bases for road attachment, gutters,
gravity type retaining walls, etc.
CIII Recycled coarse Recycled fine aggregate Less than 16 Subslab concrete, back filling concrete,
aggregate Type C3 Type F2 leveling concrete, etc.

Building works applications

BI Recycled coarse Normal fine aggregate 18 or more Ordinary reinforced concrete
aggregate Type C1 buildings
BII Recycled coarse Normal fine aggregate 18 or more Concrete attached to ground;
aggregate Type C2 foundation, cast-in-place concrete
piles, concrete slabs on steel decks, etc.
BIII Recycled coarse Recycled fine aggregate 18 or more Foundation slabs, earthen floor slabs,
aggregate Type C2 Type F1 subslab concrete, back filling concrete,
leveling concrete, etc.
BIV Recycled coarse Recycled fine aggregate 18 or more Subslab concrete, back filling concrete,
aggregate Type C3 Type F2 leveling concrete, etc.
 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203 1197

Table 3 Table 4
Potential areas of application of recycled materials [33] Symbols used for representing various materials
Recycled material Use Areas of application
Crushed concrete As aggregate Concrete roads and
aprons
Drainage work
Shallow storage tanks
Pipes and culverts
Sewage/water treatment
plants
Permeable backing to
earth retaining structures
Bedding materials to
reinforced concrete
structures
Crushed Building partition walls
concrete/brick Floors and foundation
Garbage/refuse disposal
plant combinations of recycled coarse aggregate and recycled fine
Crushed concrete As aggregate in Base course materials in aggregate (see Table 1), Type CI RAC can be designed up to
new asphalt pavement
18 to 24 MPa, thus suitable for reinforced and plain
Crushed As unbound base Runways, taxiway and
concrete/brick course aprons concrete, lower structure of bridges, tunnel lining and
Parking lots and other retaining walls. The four types of building work applications
yards of RAC, namely, BI, BII, BIII and BIV (see Table 1), can all
Crushed As fill material Cable trenches be designed with a strength of 18 MPa or higher for various
concrete/brick or
types of application including ordinary reinforced concrete
recycled aggregate
(b4.75 mm) building structures, foundations, foundation slabs and back-
filling concrete, respectively. Several potential areas in the
application of recycled material are tabulated in Table 3.
strength and the members and portions to which such
concrete may be applied are limited. From the research in
Ref. [11], three types of RA are classified: Types C1, C2 and 3. Materials and methods
C3 for recycled coarse aggregate and Types F1 and F2 for
recycled fine aggregate (see Table 1). For the recycled coarse Since there are many unsolved problems encountered in
aggregate, Type C1 has the best quality with the lowest water controlling the quality of RAC, which include low
absorption rate of 3% or less and sulfate soundness of 12% or compressive strength, wide variability of quality, high
less, while recycled coarse aggregate Type C3 is designed to drying shrinkage, large creep and low elastic modulus
have 7% or less of water absorption. For the recycled fine [11,12], applications of RAC are hampered. These problems
aggregate, Types F1 and F2 are designed to have 5% or less are mainly resulted from the following two reasons:
and 10% or less of water absorption, respectively.
From these three types of recycled coarse aggregate, C1, ! concrete wastes are always contaminated with foreign
C2 and C3, and two types of recycled fine aggregate, F1 and materials; and
F2, four types of suggested RAC applications are recom- ! recycled aggregate particles are always attached with
mended for civil and building works, as tabulated in Table 2. substantial amount of relatively soft cement mortar paste,
Among the three types of civil engineering applications of making these aggregates more porous and less resistant
RAC, namely, CI, CII and CIII with respect to different to mechanical attacks [13].

Fig. 1. Mixing procedures of the (i) normal mixing approach and (ii) two-stage mixing approach.
1198 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203

Table 5 As most studies recommend a limit of 30% of RA used,

Mix proportions 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% of RA have been
Ingredients of concrete Mass (kg) experimented using the NMA and TSMA with the
Ordinary Portland cement 100 designated mix proportions according to the specifications
Fine aggregate 180 of Buildings Department (BD) [22] with a water to cement
20-mm coarse aggregate 180
ratio of 0.45 (see Table 5). The compressive strengths of the
10-mm coarse aggregate 90
mixes are then compared, which is one of the most
important mechanical properties of concrete in concrete
Under normal situations, some modifications to the mix mix design. One hundred-millimeter-sized cubes are used
proportion are needed in the production of RAC, which can for testing compressive strength development under the
then be produced with the same production procedure as the standard curing conditions for 7, 14, 28 and 56 days. Three
conventional concrete does. However, such an approach will cubes of 7, 14, 28 and 56 days were tested, and the average
produce concrete with poorer quality, depending directly on was taken according to BS 1881: Part 116 [23].
the proportion of RA added. Hence, most studies recom-
mend a limit of 30% of RA [14]. Many researchers have
successfully applied RA on pavement and roadwork [15– 4. Results and discussion
17] or simple structures, underground structures, founda-
tions, piles and mass concrete [18]. However, its application All the mix proportions of recycled aggregate concrete
to higher grade concrete is not common. using TSMA and NMA are controlled with slump of 75
These weaknesses of RA, including high porosity, high mm, as required by BD [22]. The results of compressive
amount of cracks, high level of sulphate and chloride strengths and the percentages of improvement in different
contents, high level of impurity and high cement mortar proportions of RA using NMA and TSMA are tabulated in
remains, will affect the mechanical performance of RAC Table 6 with the improvement trends for 7-, 14-, 28- and 56-
[19]. The prerequisite in applying RA to high-grade day strengths, as shown in Figs. 2–5, respectively. As shown
concrete is to overcome these weaknesses. A new mixing in Figs. 2–5, a clear strength enhancement in using TSMA
approach, two-stage mixing approach (TSMA), is proposed. can be found when compared with that of NMA. In general,
For NMA, the mixer is firstly charged with about one-half gradual improvements in strength with increased percen-
of coarse aggregate, then with fine aggregate, then with tages of RA can be observed when using TSMA.
cement and finally with the remaining coarse aggregate. Concrete is of a three-phase system, comprising coarse
Water is then added immediately before the rotation of the aggregate, mortar matrix with fine aggregate and interfacial
drum or starting the pan [20], while TSMA divides the zones (ITZ) between coarse aggregate and the mortar matrix
mixing process into two parts and proportionally splits the [24–26]. In concrete, the interfacial zone between cement
required water into two which are added at different timing. paste and aggregate plays a critical role. At the macroscopic
Fig. 1 illustrates the TSMA mixing procedure, while Table 4 level, concrete is a composite material consisting of discrete
shows the symbols used. aggregates dispersed in a continuous cement paste matrix
The RA adopted in experimenting NMA and TSMA [27]. As with other composites, the bond between these two
collected from Tuen Mun Area 38 recycling plant has water major components of concrete critically determines the
absorption values of 1.65% for 20 mm- and 2.63% for 10- mechanical performance.
mm aggregate; while the moisture contents are 0.33% and Although the ITZ itself is quite narrow, it occupies a
0.49% for 20 and 10 mm, respectively, according to BS 812: relatively large proportion of the cement paste. In a typical
Part 109 [21]. The quality of RA is weaker than that of concrete composite, the mean spacing between aggregate
virgin aggregate (water absorption of virgin aggregate at particles is 75 to 100 Am. Assuming a 40-Am thickness for
only 0.77% and 0.57% for 20 and 10 mm, respectively), the ITZ, it has been estimated that the ITZ makes up 20% to
indicating that the major weakness of RA is its high 40% of the total volume of the cementitious matrix [28]. The
porosity. weakness of the interfacial zone inhibits the achievement of

Table 6
Compressive strengths and percentages of improvement in different proportions of RA using NMA and TSMA
Mixing Normal mixing approach (days) Two-stage mixing approach (days) Improvement percent (days)
methods % % 7 14 28 56 7 14 28 56 7 14 28 56
Compressive 0 43.87 53.01 55.72 67.60 45.0 54.0 56.0 68.0 2.59 1.86 0.51 0.59
strength (MPa) 10 50.29 54.53 58.98 74.60 54.0 61.4 64.5 79.2 7.41 12.62 9.41 6.18
15 45.14 51.72 56.26 70.19 49.6 55.7 61.3 72.4 9.83 7.67 8.88 3.15
20 42.21 51.92 53.68 68.84 45.1 56.6 65.1 72.0 6.96 9.02 21.19 4.64
25 51.09 52.62 52.31 67.23 53.0 57.1 63.1 77.7 3.82 8.44 20.64 15.61
30 45.49 54.58 58.07 72.78 54.8 60.6 66.2 77.5 20.46 11.05 13.94 6.44
 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203 1199

Fig. 2. Seven-day compressive strengths using normal mixing approach and two-stage mixing approach.

Fig. 3. Fourteen-day compressive strengths using normal mixing approach and two-stage mixing approach.

Fig. 4. Twenty-eight-day compressive strengths using normal mixing approach and two-stage mixing approach.
1200 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203

Fig. 5. Fifty-six-day compressive strengths using normal mixing approach and two-stage mixing approach.

composite action in normal strength concrete [29]. Hence, other between the RA and the old mortar attached (old ITZ),
the interfacial region is generally regarded as the dweak linkT which are schematically shown in Fig. 6. The cement mortar
in concrete [30–35]. remains at the ITZ of RA form the weak link in RAC, which
In fact, the structure of RAC is much more complicated is composed of many minute pores and cracks, and they
than that in normal concrete. RAC possesses two ITZs, one critically affect the ultimate strength of the RAC. These
between the RA and new cement paste (new ITZ) and the pores and cracks increase consumption of water leading to
less water for hydration at the ITZ of RAC.
During the first stage of mixing, TSMA uses half of the
required water for mixing leading to the formation of a thin
layer of cement slurry on the surface of RA which will
permeate into the porous old cement mortar, filling up the
old cracks and voids. At the second stage of mixing, the
remaining water is added to complete the concrete mixing
process. Under the examination of scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM), the cracks within RA are filled after adopting
TSMA (see Fig. 7), while similar cracks in RA still remain
unfilled for NMA (see Fig. 8). Furthermore, more voids and
cracks are found between RA and mortar for NMA (see
Fig. 6. Interfaces of recycled aggregate.
Figs. 9 and 10) since complete hydration of the mortar at
ITZ is hampered due to inadequacy of water. Figs. 11 and 12

Fig. 7. Filled crack in RA using TSMA. Fig. 8. Unfilled crack in RA using NMA.
 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203 1201

Fig. 9. Crack in RA using NMA. Fig. 12. Loose cement paste for NMA.

Fig. 10. Voids in RA using NMA. Fig. 13. New interfacial zone for TSMA.

Fig. 11. Dense cement paste for TSMA. Fig. 14. Poorer new interfacial zone for NMA.
1202 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203

Fig. 15. Old interfacial zone for TSMA. Fig. 17. Old interfacial Zone for NMA.

show the SEM photography of the dense and loose cement clearly seen that both the new and old interfacial zones for
paste mixed by TSMA and NMA, respectively. TSMA are stronger than those for NMA. Therefore, the two-
The experiments show that the two-stage mixing stage mixing approach can improve the ITZ of RA and, thus,
approach can enhance the compressive strength of RAC the compressive strength of the RAC. Fig. 18 illustrates the
by developing a stronger interfacial zone. The quality of ITZ concrete matrix scenario for TSMA schematically.
depends on surface characteristics of the aggregate particles,
the degree of bleeding, chemical bonding and the specimen
preparation technique which, however, are notoriously 5. Conclusion
difficult to measure. Although these effects have been
reported by some investigations, the results are difficult to The poor quality of RAC resulted from the higher water
reconcile. Nonetheless, it is generally agreed that as the absorption, higher porosity, weaker ITZ between RA and
paste-aggregate bond strength increases, the concrete new cement mortar hampers the application of RAC for
strength also increases [28]. higher grade applications. In this study, the two-stage
Under the examination of SEM, both the new interfacial mixing approach is proposed to strengthen the weak link
zone and old interfacial zone of RAC are identified. Fig. 13 of RAC, which is located at the interfacial transition zone
shows a stronger and denser new interfacial zone in RAC (ITZ) of the RA. The two-stage mixing approach gives way
after adopting TSMA compared to the poorer ITZ for NMA, for the cement slurry to gel up the RA, providing a stronger
as shown in Fig. 14. Fig. 15 shows a stronger and denser old ITZ by filling up the cracks and pores within RA. From the
interfacial zone around RA after adopting TSMA compared laboratory experiments, the compressive strengths have
to the old ITZ for NMA, as shown in Figs. 16 and 17. It is been improved. This two-stage mixing approach can
provide an effective method for enhancing the compressive
strength and other mechanical performance of RAC, and
thus, the approach opens up a wider scope of RAC
applications.

Fig. 16. Old interfacial zone for NMA. Fig. 18. RA structure after adopting TSMA.
 V.W.Y. Tam et al. / Cement and Concrete Research 35 (2005) 1195–1203 1203

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