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4
Tribal Verse
G.N. Devy

F Look for these expressions in the text and guess the meaning from
the context

marginalisation of communities accelerated pace

canonized written texts rich repository of folk songs
tribal vision of life cohesive and organically unified
itinerant street singers

INTRODUCTION

The roots of India’s literary traditions can be traced to the

rich oral literatures of the tribes/adivasis. Usually in the
form of songs or chanting, these verses are expressions of
the close contact between the world of nature and the world
of tribal existence. They have been orally transmitted from
generation to generation and have survived for several ages.
However, a large number of these are already lost due to
the very fact of their orality. The forces of urbanisation,
print culture and commerce have resulted in not just the
marginalisation of these communities but also of their
languages and literary cultures. Though some attempts
have been made for the collection and conservation of tribal
languages and their literatures, without more concerted
efforts at an acelerated pace, we are in danger of losing an
invaluable part of our history and rich literary heritage.
This section is a small attempt to familiarise students
with some aspects of the enormous wealth of oral tribal
literature. It begins with an extract from an essay by G.N.
Devy in which he discusses the need to create a space for
the study of tribal literature within the framework of
canonized written texts. What he argues for is the need for a

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new method to identify and read literature in which orality

is not dismissed as casual utterances in different dialects.
This is followed by two songs—one sung on the occasion
of childbirth by the Munda tribals and the other on the
occasion of death by the Kondh tribals. The third verse is a
chanting in the ritualistic religious language of the Adi
tribe, not the same as their language of conversation. Even
though this is merely a small representation of a treasure
of tribal/adivasi songs, it indicates the immense diversity
that exists amongst tribal groups. Inevitably influenced by
their very specific historical, cultural and geographical
locations, tribal societies continue to retain and reproduce
their distinctive traditions which usually find expression
through their different languages. However, it is equally
true that though possessing their very specific languages,
most tribal societies such as Munda, Kondh, Adi and Bondo
are bilingual. Moreover, while tribal groups like the Santhal
become important subjects in dominant literary streams
such as Bangla literature, there is a fairly well developed
Santhali literature too. Besides this, tribes like Santhal
and Munda have also played a prominent role in the socio-
political movements of their regions. [Birsa Munda
(1874–1901) spent his whole life fighting against
colonialism and the exploitation of labourers]. The Santhals
have emerged as a prominent group at the regional and
state levels through their participation in the Jharkhand
Movement.
The three selected songs give us a small glimpse into
the rich repository of folk songs that is an expression of
the tribal vision of life. Their close connection with nature
is evident from their belief in the interdependence between
human beings and nature. Nature for them is living and
responsive to human existence and human actions,
demanding respect essential for any kind of coexistence.
The songs exist originally in the native languages of
the tribals and are sung or chanted. The effort to bring
them to students in English naturally involves some loss
of the original flavour and spirit but that is a problem of all
translation and constant attempts need to be made to
minimise this loss. But for some conscious effort being

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made to first preserve these songs, these pieces of literature

would have been lost to us completely. However limitedly,
it is only through translation that we are able to even access
these works.

‘INTRODUCTION’ TO PAINTED WORDS

...Most tribal communities in India are culturally

similar to tribal communities elsewhere in the world. They
live in groups that are cohesive and organically unified.
They show very little interest in accumulating wealth or in
using labour as a device to gather interest and capital.
They accept a world-view in which nature, human beings
and God are intimately linked and they believe in the human
ability to spell and interpret truth. They live more by intution
than reason, they consider the space around them more
sacred than secular, and their sense of time is personal
rather than objective. The world of the tribal imagination,
therefore, is radically different from that of modern Indian
society.

Once a society accepts a secular mode of creativity

within which the creator replaces God, imaginative
transactions assume a self-conscious form. The tribal
imagination, on the other hand, is still, to a large extent,

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dreamlike and hallucinatory. It admits fusion between

various planes of existence and levels of time in a natural
way. In tribal stories, oceans fly in the sky as birds, mountains
swim in the water as fish, animals speak as humans and
stars grow like plants. Spatial order and temporal sequence
do not restrict the narrative. This is not to say that tribal
creations have no conventions or rules but simply that they
admit the principle of association between emotion and the
narrative motif. Thus stars, seas, mountains, trees, men and
animals, can be angry, sad or happy.
It might be said that tribal artists work more on the
basis of their racial and sensory memory than on the basis
of a cultivated imagination. In order to understand this
distinction, we must understand the difference between
imagination and memory. In the animate world,
consciousness meets two immediate material realities:
space and time. We put meaning into space by perceiving
it in terms of images. The image making faculty is a genetic
gift to the human mind—this power of imagination helps
us understand the space that envelops us. In the case of
time, we make connections with the help of memory; one
remembers being the same person as one was yesterday.
The tribal mind has a more acute sense of time than
sense of space. Somewhere along the history of human
civilization, tribal communities seem to have realised that
domination over territorial space was not their lot. Thus,
they seem to have turned almost obsessively to gaining
domination over time. This urge is substantiated in their
ritual of conversing with their dead ancestors: year after
year, tribals in many parts of India worship terracotta, or
carved-wood objects, representing their ancestors, aspiring
to enter a trance in which they can converse with the dead.
Over the centuries, an amazingly sharp memory has helped
tribals classify material and natural objects into a highly
complex system of knowledge. The importance of memory
in tribal systems of knowledge has not yet been sufficiently
recognised but the aesthetic proportions of the houses that
tribals build, the objects they make and the rituals they
perform fascinate the curious onlooker. It can be hard to
understand how, without any institutional training or

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tutoring, tribals are able to dance, sing, craft, build and

speak so well ...
A vast number of Indian languages have yet remained
only spoken, with the result that literary compositions in
these languages are not considered ‘literature’. They are a
feast for the folklorist, anthropologist and linguist but, to a
literary critic, they generally mean nothing. Similarly,
several nomadic Indian communities are broken up and
spread over long distances but survive as communities
because they are bound by their oral epics. The wealth and
variety of these works is so enormous that one discovers
their neglect with a sense of pure shame. Some of the songs
and stories I heard from itinerant street singers in my
childhood are no longer available anywhere. For some years
now I have been collecting songs and stories that circulate
in India’s tribal languages, and I am continually
overwhelmed by their number and their profound influence
on the tribal communities.
The result is that I, for one, can no longer think of
literature as something written. Of course I do not dispute
the claim of written compositions and texts to the status of
literature; but surely it is time we realise that unless we
modify the established notion of literature as something
written, we will silently witness the decline of various
Indian oral traditions. That literature is a lot more than
writing is a reminder necessary for our times.
One of the main characteristics of tribal arts is their
distinct manner of constructing space and imagery, which
might be described as ‘hallucinatory’. In both oral and visual
forms of representation, tribal artists seem to interpret
verbal or pictorial space as demarcated by an extremely
flexible ‘frame’. The boundaries between art and non-art
become almost invisible. A tribal epic can begin its narration
from a trivial everyday event; tribal paintings merge with
living space as if the two were one and the same. And
within the narrative itself, or within the painted imagery,
there is no deliberate attempt to follow a sequence. The
episodes retold and the images created take on the
apparently chaotic shapes of dreams. In a tribal Ramayan,
an episode from the Mahabharat makes a sudden and

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surprising appearance; tribal paintings contain a curious

mixture of traditional and modern imagery. In a way, the
syntax of language and the grammar of painting are the
same, as if literature were painted words and painting were
a song of images.
Yet it is not safe to assume that the tribal arts do not
employ any ordering principles. On the contrary, the
ordering principles are very strict. The most important
among these is convention. Though the casual spectator
may not notice, every tribal performance and creation has,
at its back, another such performance or creation belonging
to a previous occasion. The creativity of the tribal artist
lies in adhering to the past while, at the same time, slightly
subverting it. The subversions are more playful than ironic.
Indeed, playfulness is the soul of tribal arts. Though
oral and pictorial tribal art creations are intimately related
to rituals—the sacred can never be left out—the tribal arts
rarely assume a serious or pretentious tone. The artist
rarely plays the role of the Creator. Listening to tribal epics
can be great fun as even the heroes are not spared the
occasional shock of the artist’s humour. One reason for
this unique mixture of the sacred and the ordinary may be
that tribal works of art are not created specifically for sale.
Artists do expect a certain amount of patronage from the
community, like artists in any other context; but, since
those performing rituals are very often artists themselves,
there is no element of competition in the patron-artist
relationship. The tribal arts are, therefore, relaxed, never
tense... One question invariably asked about the tribal arts
is whether they are static—frozen in tradition— or dynamic.
A general misconception is that the orally transmitted arts
are entirely tradition-bound, with little scope for individual
experimentation beyond the small freedom to distort the
previously created text. This misconception arises from the
habit of seeing art only with reference to the text but the tribal
arts involve not just text but performance and audience
reception. Experimentation in the tribal arts can be understood
only when they are approached as performing arts.
Non-tribals usually fail to notice that all of India’s tribal
communities are basically bilingual. All bilingual

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communities have an innate capacity to assimilate outside

influences and, in this case, a highly evolved mechanism
for responding to the non-tribal world. The tribal oral stories
and songs employ bilingualism in such a complex manner
that a linguist who is not alert to this complexity is in
danger of dismissing the tribal languages altogether as
dialects of India’s major tongues...
The language into which the works have been
translated, English, carries massive colonial baggage. When
the works of contemporary Indian writers—who inherit a
multilingual tradition several thousand years old—were
classified as ‘new literature’, Western academics had no
idea how comical this classification looked to the literary
community in India. Hence it is neccessary to assert that
the literature of the adivasis is not a new ‘movement’ or a
fresh ‘trend’ in the field of literature; most people have
simply been unaware of its existence and that is not the
fault of the tribals themselves. What might be new is the
present attempt to see imaginative expression in tribal
language not as ‘folklore’ but as literature and to hear tribal
speech not as a dialect but as a language. This attitude
may be somewhat unconventional but only until we recall
that scripts themselves are relatively new, and that the
printing of literary text goes no further back than a few
centuries—in comparison with creative experiments with
the human ability to produce speech in such a way that it

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transcends time. In fact, every written piece of literature

contains substantial layers of orality. This is particularly
true for poetry and drama but, even in prose fiction, the
elements of orality need to be significant if the work is to
be effective.

1. A MUNDA SONG: SONG OF BIRTH AND DEATH

My mother, the sun rose

A son was born.
My mother, the moon rose
A daughter was born.
A son was born
The cowshed was depleted;
A daughter was born
The cowshed filled up.
(Translated from the original Mundari)

Note on the Munda Tribe

The Munda tribals live in parts of Jharkhand, West
Bengal, Assam, Tripura, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. They
are also known as Horohon or Mura, meaning headman of a
village. One of the most studied tribal communities of India,
they also have an encyclopaedia on them, Encyclopaedia
Mundarica (16 Volumes) by Reverend John Baptist Hoffman
(1857–1928) and other Jesuit scholars.
The Munda are probably the first of the adivasis to
resist colonialism and they revolted repeatedly over agrarian
issues. The Tamar insurrection of 1819–20 protested
against the break-up of their agrarian system. In their quest
to establish Munda Raj and reform their society to enable
it to cope with the challenges of time, they organised the
famous millennial movement under Birsa Munda (1874–
1901) where their leaders used ‘both Hindu and Christian
idioms to create a Munda ideology and worldview’. However,
the uprising was quelled by the British.
Note on the Munda Song
Many ceremonies and rituals of the Munda are
associated with birth, death and marriage. Living in close

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harmony with nature, their lives are synchronised

with the changing rhythms of nature, the
seasons, the rising and setting of the sun and so
on, and not by clock time. The selected Munda
song is sung to rhythmic folk tunes at the birth
of a son or daughter and invariably communicates
their close association with nature. Cattle set off
to the pastures in the morning and return to
their sheds at sundown. The birth of a daughter
is associated with a cowshed full of cows and
that of the son with its depletion. Clearly the
daughter is considered to be a more precious asset
than the son. This is probably because, in Munda
society, the women have a dominant role to play
in the various economic, social and ritual
activities.

2. A KONDH SONG

This we offer to you.

We can,
Because we are still alive;
If not,
How could we offer at all,
And what ?
We give a small baby fowl.
Take this and go away
Whichever way you came.
Go back, return.
Don’t inflict pain on us
After your departure.
(Translated from the original Kondh)
A note on the Kondh Tribe
The term ‘Kondh’ is most probably derived
from the Dravidian word, konda, meaning hill.
Divided into several segments and distributed
over the districts of Andhra Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Orissa, these
hill people speak the Kondh language though

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most of them are bilingual and so conversant

with the major language of the state to which
they belong.
The Kondh religion is a mixture of the
traditional faith of the adivasis and Hinduism.
They do not have any dowry system but they do
fix a bride price that the groom pays to the bride
either in cash or in kind.
A Note on the Kondh Song
The Kondhs observe a number of rituals in
connection with birth, puberty, marriage and
death, with specific folk dances and songs for
each occasion. They believe in the existence of
gods and spirits, both benevolent and malevolent.
The song here is sung at the death of a person
beseeching the spirit of the dead to stop troubling
the living. It is based on the Kondh belief that
people love their homes so much that their souls
are reluctant to leave the hearth even after death.
These spirits, though generally kind, can become
harmful at times since they are now unable to
participate in earthly life. It is, therefore,
customary to make generous offerings to the
spirit. The song begins by saying that the dead
spirit will be able to receive offerings only if the
others in the family continue to live and prosper.
They reveal their willingness to do anything to
make the spirit happy but, in return, the spirit
must also promise not to trouble them with its
visits.

3. ADI SONG FOR THE RECOVERY OF LOST HEALTH

Oh my beloved one
If you lost your health due to ill luck
I come forward here to save you
With this Emul
To call back your lost health.
Listen to the sound of this sweet ornament

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And follow me to your sweet home.

I tie this Ridin creeper
To fasten your soul to your body.
Follow the footprint of this cock
Come, come with me to your home.
(Translated from the original Miri Agom)
A Note on the Adi Tribe
Adi is a generic term denoting hill people and it includes
a number of groups. It may be applied to all the hill tribes
around the Brahmaputra valley. The Adi are, however,
concentrated in the East and West Siang district of
Arunachal Pradesh. They belive that every object in the
universe, be it human beings, animals, trees or birds, have
a spirit that needs to be nourished and propitiated.
Dependent on nature for many of their needs, they believe
that equilibrium in nature must always be maintained.
Even though hunting is considered not just a means of
procuring food but also an expression of courage and skill,
they still believe that human beings must hunt for survival
and not for greed.
The Adi have two major languages that they use for
two different purposes. The language for routine
conversation is called Adi Agom. The second major language
still in use is Miri Agom, a highly rhythmic language used
for chanting during their rituals. The headman of the village
is generally the best hunter as well as an expert in Miri
Agom. Both languages are living languages and rituals and
ceremonies provide the occasion for the teaching of Miri
Agom to the younger generation.
A Note on the Adi Song
The song selected here is actually a mantra that is
chanted in Miri Agom to lure the spirit of good health back
to the body of a sick person. The Adi believe that a person
falls ill when the spirit of good health abandons the body
due to some shock it may suffer. The above lines are chanted
in a ritual performed by the maternal uncle of the sick
person.

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Notes
Beloved one: the loved nephew or niece who is ill.
I come forward here to save you: the maternal uncle of the
sick person comes forward to perform the ritual for the return of the
spirit of good health.
Emul: amulet, here a healing ornament.
Listen to the sound of this ornament: this line and the ones
that follow are addressed to the spirit of good health to request it to
return to the ill body.
Your sweet home: the ill body which is the real home of the
spirit of good health.
Ridin: a creeper that is supposed to have special medicinal
qualities.
Fasten your soul to your body: the Ridin creeper will tie the
spirit of good health to the body to ensure its continued presence.
Follow the footprints of this cock: usually an offering like a
cock or a hen is made to propitiate the spirit of good health and
presuade it to return to the ill body.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

G.N. Devy, (born 1950) formerly professor of English at
Maharaja Sayaji Rao University of Baroda, is the Founder
Director of the Tribal Academy at Tejgarh, Gujarat. He is
the Director of Sahitya Akademi’s Project on Literature in
Tribal Languages and Oral Traditions. He received the
Sahitya Akademi Award for his book After Amnesia and the
SAARC Writer’s Foundation Award for his work on the
‘denotified tribes’.

UNDERSTANDING THE TEXT

1. Identify the common characteristics shared by tribal
communities all over the world.
2. What distinguishes the tribal imagination from the secular
imagination?
3. How does G.N. Devy bring out the importance of the oral literary
tradition?
4. List the distinctive features of the tribal arts.
5. ‘New literature’ is a misnomer for the wealth of the Indian literary
tradition. How does G.N. Devy explain this?

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TALKING ABOUT THE TEXT

Discuss the following in pairs or in groups of four

1. ‘It is time to realise that unless we modify the established notion
of literature as something written, we will silently witness the
decline of various Indian oral traditions.’
2. ‘Tribal arts are not specificlly meant for sale.’ Does this help or
hamper their growth and preservation?
3. Because India’s tribal communities are basically bilingual there
is a danger of dismissing their languages as dialects of India’s
major tongues.
4. While tribal communities may not seem to possess the scientific
temper, there are many ideas from tribal conventions that could
enrich modern societies.

APPRECIATION

1. How does ‘A Munda Song’ show that the perspective of the tribal
mind towards the girl child is different from that of (other)
mainstream communities?
2. How does ‘A Kondh Song’ substantiate the tribal urge to gain
domination over time by conversing with their dead ancestors?
3. ‘Adi Song for the Recovery of Lost Health’ is in Miri Agom while
Adi Agom is the Adi community’s language for routine
conversation. How does this reflect upon the high level of
language sensitivity of the Adi? Can you think of other parallels
in modern languages between the literary variety and the
colloquial variety?

LANGUAGE WORK

1. Comment on the symbols used in ‘A Munda Song’. What aspect

of the tribal worldview do they reflect?
2. Explain the significance of the lines
‘I tie this Ridin creeper
To fasten your soul to your body.’
3. What is the central argument of the speaker?

SUGGESTED READING

1. Cultural Diversity, Linguistic Plurality and Literary Traditions in

India, ed. Sukinta Paul Kumar, for University of Delhi.

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