RESEARCH / ASSIGNMENT

IN

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

(HYDP5513)

DESIGN OF STORM DRAINAGE SYSTEM.

DULFO, ALLYSON MAE A. ENGR. JESSA GOMEZ

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NOVEMBER 20, 2019

STORM WATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Designing a storm water drainage system is a complex project that requires designing engineers
and pipeline contractors to comply with standard provisions at city, state, and federal levels.
Plans are submitted to city planning offices for review and approval before pipeline construction
can commence. Civil engineering firms have to prepare storm water drainage system plans,
drawings, drainage area maps, and storm sewer designs. Upon approval, pipeline construction
companies then obtain necessary permits, performance and payment bonds, and insurance
certificates.

Storm drainage systems are vital for preventing flooding in residential, commercial and
industrial areas. These systems help remove excess water that has accumulated from rainfall or
ground water by transporting it to an outlet pipe where it is discharged into a retention or
detention pond, or large bodies of water such as rivers and oceans.

Storm water drainage systems are comprised of a minor and major system that are designed
based on storm event calculations. The primary function of minor systems is to collect and
remove storm water from sidewalks, streets, and roadways. Minor systems are actually quite
complex and consist of a pipeline network connected through ditches, underground pipes, street
gutters, channels and swales. The major system takes over when water levels exceed the minor
system's capacity, such as excessive rainfall or flooding. Combined, these systems can quickly
collect and transport storm water runoff to an appropriate location for discharge.

Many factors must be addressed when designing storm water drainage systems. Engineers need
to calculate the level of runoff that accumulates upstream, along with the flow rate into streets.
Calculations of water flow help engineers determine the type of street gutters required for open
channel flow, along with inlet types required to collect runoff and debris. The type of inlet
depends on the type of road and can be comprised of a grate inlet, curb-opening inlets, combined
inlets, or grate inlet in sags.

Storm water detention ponds are necessary to control the peak flow at outlet pipes to ensure
runoff water does not have an adverse effect on properties located downstream of the system.
Everywhere people live and where business is conducted, there is a storm water drainage system
nearby. With drainage systems comes pollutants because water runs off roofs, streets, parking
lots, and land prior to being discharged into waterways.

To control the level of toxins released into the environment and protect watershed health,
contractors must comply with EPA storm water management practices. The management of
completed public systems is overseen by state environmental services offices, while also in some
cases catch basin type of drainage inlets near major highways and intersections may call for
management by the Department of Transportation.

Catch basins are positioned at street corners or lower elevation land masses, such as the bottom
of hills, to provide an entry point to the drainage system. These "catching" devices are installed
along the storm pipeline network to trap pollutants, sediment, and litter and prevent it from
entering the watershed.

It is imperative to work with pipeline companies, such as Kana Pipeline, to ensure storm

drainage projects comply with Best Management Practices (BMP), which was established in
1996 between the Environmental Protection Agency and American Society of General
Engineers. Having a great drainage system is crucial to maintaining the integrity of any above-
ground structure for years to come.

RERENCE:

https://www.water.gov.my/jps/resources/auto%20download%20images/58464680f26c6.pdf

https://www.kanapipeline.com/storm-water-drainage-system.html

https://dep.wv.gov/WWE/Programs/stormwater/MS4/Documents/Chapter_6_Design_Examples_
WV-Stormwater-Manual-11-2012.pdf
 RESEARCH / ASSIGNMENT

IN

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

(HYDP5513)

TYPES OF IRRIGATION SYSTEM AND ILLUSTRATE.

DULFO, ALLYSON MAE A. ENGR. JESSA GOMEZ

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NOVEMBER 20, 2019

DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRRIGATION AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMS STORAGE

Agriculture is the nerve of any country as it is needed for survival of living beings. For growing
crops, irrigation is major process. Irrigation is described as the artificial application of water to
the land or soil. It is the substitute or supplement of rainwater with another source of water. It is
used in dry areas and during periods of insufficient rainfall. It is considered as basic
infrastructure and vital input required for agricultural production (Mamata Swain, 1999). Major
aim of irrigation systems is to help out in the growing of agricultural crops and vegetation by
maintaining with the minimum amount of water required, maintenance of landscapes, and re-
vegetation of disturbed soils. Irrigation systems are also used for dust repression, removal of
sewage, and in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or
artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given region. Agricultural scientists
stated that irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants
against frost, suppressing wild plant growing in grain fields and helping to avert soil
consolidation. On the contrary, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-
fed or dry-land farming.

Irrigation has been a vital characteristic of agriculture for over centuries and the result of work of
many cultures, and was the basis of the wealth and society ranging from Asia to the American
Southwest.

In brief, irrigation also has many applications in crop production, which include:

Protecting plants against frost

Suppressing weed growth in grain fields

Preventing soil consolidation.

for dust suppression,

Disposal of sewage, and in mining.

Irrigation water may be applied to the crops in three basic methods that include surface
irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and sub-surface irrigation method. Every irrigation method has
advantages and disadvantages. Therefore before choosing a specific technique, the irrigation
engineer must evaluate all the factors and choose method which is most suited for local condition
(Dr. B. C. Punmia, 2009).

Techniques of irrigation

Type of Irrigation Technique:

In India, the irrigated area consists of about 36 per cent of the net sown area. There are various
techniques of irrigation practices in different parts of India. These methods of irrigation differ in
how the water obtained from the source is distributed within the field. In general, the goal of
irrigation is to supply the entire field homogeneously with water, so that each plant has the
amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little. Irrigation in India is done through
wells, tanks, canals, perennial canal, and multi-purpose river valley projects.

Surface Irrigation:

In this technique water flows and spreads over the surface of the land. Varied quantities of water
are allowed on the fields at different times. Therefore, flow of water under surface irrigation
comes under wobbly flow. Consequently, it is very difficult to understand the hydraulics of
surface irrigation. However, suitable and efficient surface irrigation system can be espoused after
taking into consideration different factors which are involved in the hydraulics of surface
irrigation.

Surface slope of the field

Roughness of the field surface

Depth of water to be applied

Length of run and time required

Size and shape of water-course

Discharge of the water-course

Field resistance to erosion

If the surface irrigation method is perfectly selected, it fulfils following requirements:

It assists in storing required amount of water in the root-zone-depth.

It reduces the wastage of irrigation water from the field in the form of run-off water.

It reduces the soil erosion to minimum.

It helps applying uniform application of water to the fields.

Amount of manual labour required is less.

It is suitable to the size of the field and at the same time it uses minimum land for making
ditches, furrows, strips, etc.

It does not avert use of machinery for land preparation, cultivation, harvesting.

Surface irrigation technique is broadly classified as basin irrigation; border irrigation; furrow
irrigation and uncontrolled flooding.

Phases of surface irrigation:

 This divided into the four component systems: (1) water supply; (2) water conveyance or
delivery; (3) water use; and (4) drainage.

Basin irrigation: Basin irrigation is common practice of surface irrigation. This method is

employed for watering orchards (Basak, 1999). It is useful especially in regions with layouts of
small fields (Shah et al. 2002). If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin.
A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular
configurations. It may be furrowed or ridged, have raised beds for the benefit of certain crops,
but as long as the inflow is undirected and uncontrolled into these field modifications, it remains
a basin.

Basin Method (Source: Basak, 1999)

Furrow Irrigation: In furrow irrigation technique, trenches or “furrows” are dug between crop
rows in a field. Farmers flow water down the furrows (often using only gravity) and it seeps
vertically and horizontally to refill the soil reservoir. Flow to each furrow is individually
controlled. Furrow irrigation is suitable for row crops, tree crops and, because water does not
directly contact the plants, crops that would be damaged by direct inundation by water such as
tomatoes, vegetables, potatoes and beans. It is one of the oldest system of irrigation. It is
economical and low-tech making it particularly attractive in the developing world or places
where mechanized spray irrigation is unavailable or impractical.
 Furrow technique (Source: Basak, 1999 )

In different situations, different furrow methods are used (Surajbhan 1978). They are mainly of
five types:

Sloppy Furrow

Levelled Furrow

Contour Furrow
Serial Furrow

Corrugated Furrow

There are numerous advantages of Furrow technique of irrigation:

Large areas can be irrigated at a time.

It saves labour since once the furrow is filled, it is not necessary to give water a second time.

It is a reasonably cheaper method.

Plants get proper quantity of water by this system.

Furrow irrigation is also beneficial for growing of tree crops. In the early stages of tree planting,
one furrow alongside the tree row may be sufficient but as the trees develop then two or more
furrows can be constructed to provide sufficient water. Sometimes a special zig-zag system is
used to improve the spread of water (Basak, 1999).

Major drawback of furrow system of irrigation is ensuring uniform dispersal of water over a
given field. To tackle this problem, some farmers engage in field levelling to remove any small
hills that would have been bypassed by the gravity flow of the water. Other problem with furrow
irrigation is the increased potential for water loss due to runoff. Building retention ponds along
the edges of fields can help capture this runoff, allowing it to be pumped back to the upslope side
of the field for use in further irrigation cycles.
Uncontrolled flooding: There are many cases where croplands are irrigated without regard to
efficiency or consistency. These are usually situations where the value of the crop is very small
or the field is used for grazing or recreation purposes. Small land holdings are generally not
subject to the range of surface irrigation practices of the large industrial farming systems. The
assessment methods can be applied if desired, but the design techniques are not generally
applicable nor need they be since the irrigation practices tend to be minimally managed.

Free Flooding:

This flooding system of irrigation is used from ancient times. Flooding method consists in
applying the water by flooding the land of rather smooth and flat topography. In current
irrigation practice, several flooding methods have been developed. In free flooding method,
water is applied to the land from field ditches without any check or guidance to the flow. The
land is divided into plots or kiaries of suitable size depending on porosity of soil. Water is spread
over the field from watercourse. The irrigation operation begins at the higher area and proceeds
towards the lower levels. The flow is stopped when the lower end of the field has received the
desired depth of water. The field watercourse is properly spaced, the spacing depends on the
topography, oil texture, depth of soil and size of stream.

Free Flooding for erodible soil

This technique is beneficial for newly established farms where making furrows is very
expensive. This method is economical and can be effectively used where water supply is in
plenty. This method is suitable for the fields with irregular surface in which other techniques are
difficult to apply. Major drawback of this method is that there is no perfect control over the flow
of water to attain high efficiency. Sometimes the flow of water over the soil is too rapid to fulfil
soil moisture deficiency. On the other hand, sometimes water is retained on the field for a very
long time and consequently the water is lost in infiltration or deep percolation.

Border Strip Method:

In this technique of irrigation, a field is divided into number of strips. The width of strip varies
from 10 to 15 metres and length varies from 90 m to 400 m. Strips are separated by low
embankments or levees. The water is diverted from the field channel into the strips. The water
flows gradually towards lower end, wetting the soil as it advances. The surface between two
embankments should essentially be level. It assists in covering the entire width of the strip. There
is a general surface slope from opening to the lower end. The surface slope from 2 to 4 m/1000
m is best suited. When the slope is steeper, special arrangement is made to prevent erosion of
soil.

Well and Tube Well Irrigation:

A well is a hole dug in the ground to get the subsoil water. Normal well is about 3-5 metres deep
but deeper wells up-to 15 metres are also dug. This system of irrigation has been used in India
from ancient time. Various methods are used to lift the ground water from the well for irrigation,
drinking, bathing and for other purposes. Well irrigation is more popular in those regions where
ground water is in ample and where there are few canals. These areas include a large part of the
Great Northern Plain, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the
Cauvery, parts of the Narmada and the Tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the Deccan Trap
and crystalline rocks and the sedimentary zones of the Peninsula. However, the greater part of
the Penisnular India is not appropriate for well irrigation due to stony structure, rough surface
and lack of underground water. Large dry tracts of Rajasthan, the adjacent parts of Punjab,
Haryana, and Gujarat and some parts of Uttar Pradesh have salty ground water which is not
suitable for irrigation and human use and hence inappropriate for well irrigation.

Tube well: A tube well is a deeper well (generally over 15 metres deep) from which water is
lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an electric motor, a diesel engine or solar
power. A tube well cannot be constructed in all places and requires some geographical
conditions favouring its installation. The main factors for Tube well construction are:

There should be enough quantity of ground water because a tube well can generally irrigate 2
hectares per day against 0.2 hectares per day irrigated by an ordinary well.

The water level should be nearly 15 metres. If the water table is more than 50 metres deep the
cost of pumping out water from the tube well becomes uneconomic.

There should be normal supply of cheap electricity or diesel so that water from the tube well can
be taken out at the hour of need.

The soil in the immediate neighbourhood of the tube-well should be productive so that there is
demand for irrigation and the cost involved in the construction and operation of the tube well can
be recovered by the increased farm production.

Advantages of Well and Tube Well Irrigation:

Well is simplest and cost-effective source of irrigation and the poor Indian farmer can easily
afford it. Well is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity
arises. Several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. are generally found mixed in
well water. They make soil fertility when they reach the agricultural field along with well water.
It is more reliable during periods of famine when surface water dries up.
Disadvantages of well and Tube Well Irrigation: With these methods, only limited area can be
irrigated. Normally, a well can irrigate 1 to 8 hectares of land. The well may dry up and may be
rendered ineffective for irrigation if excessive water is taken out. In the drought situation, the
ground water level falls and enough water is not available in the well when it is needed the most.

Tube wells can draw a lot of groundwater from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry
and not suitable for agriculture. Well and tube well irrigation is not possible in areas of salty
groundwater.

Canal Irrigation:

Canals are most important source of irrigation from the period of 1960s, but in the 1970s, they
yielded first place to wells and tube wells and now constitute the second most important source
of irrigation in India. Canals are most effective techniques of irrigation in areas of low level
relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area. Therefore, the
main concentration of canal irrigation is in the northern plain of India, especially the areas
comprising Uttar Pradesh Haryana and Punjab.

The digging of canals in stony and uneven areas is difficult and unprofitable. Thus the canals are
practically absent from the Peninsular plateau area. However, the coastal and the delta regions
in South India do have some canals for irrigation.

Canals in India are of two types:

Inundation canals, which are taken out from the rivers without any regulating system like weirs
at their head. Such canals supply irrigation mainly in the rainy season when the river is in flood
and there is excess water. When the rainy season is over, the flood in the river subsides, the level
of water falls below the level of the canal head and the canal dries up. Some canals taken off
from the Satluj in Punjab were of this type. Since irrigation from this type of canals is unsure,
they have been converted in perennial canals.

Perennial Canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage
across the river. Most of the canals in India today are perennial.
Advantages of Canal Irrigation: Most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and supply water
as and when required. This saves the crops from drought conditions and helps in increasing the
farm production. Canals carry a lot of residue brought down by the rivers. This sediment is
deposited in the agricultural fields which make soil more fertile. Some of the canals are parts of
multipurpose projects and, therefore, provide inexpensive source of irrigation. Although the
initial cost involved in canal irrigation is more, it is quite cheap in the long run.

Drawbacks of Canal Irrigation: The canal water soaks into the ground and results in water-
logging along the canal route. Excessive flow of water in the fields raises the ground water level.
Capillary action brings alkaline salts to the surface and makes large areas unfit for agriculture.
Huge areas in Panjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh suffer from the problem caused by canal
irrigation. The muddy areas near the canals act as reproduction grounds of mosquitoes which
result in widespread malaria. Many canals overflow during rainy season and flood the
surrounding areas. Canal irrigation is suitable in plain areas only.

Tank Irrigation:

A tank act as an irrigation storage system which is developed by constructing a small bund of
earth or stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation and
for other purposes. Some tanks are built partly as dugouts and partly by enclosing bunds. Tanks
are of varying size but most of the tanks are of small size and are built by individual farmers or
groups of farmers. Tank irrigation is more suitable in the peninsular plateau area such as Andhra
Pradesh (Including Telangana) and Tamil Nadu.

Andhra Pradesh is the largest state of tank irrigation which has about 29 per cent of tank irrigated
area of India. About 16 per cent of the total irrigated area of the state is irrigated by tanks. The
drainage areas of the Godavari and its tributaries have large number of tanks. Nellore and
Warangal are the main districts of tank irrigation.

According to reports, Tamil Nadu has the second largest area which is over 23 per cent of tank
irrigated area of India and about one-fifth of the total irrigated area of the state. Tanks comprise
an important source of irrigation in the Karnataka Plateau, eastern Madhya Pradesh, eastern
Maharashtra, interior Orissa and Kerala. Outside the Peninsular plateau, West Bengal, Bihar,
Bundelkhand area of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat have tank irrigation.
Advantages of Tank Irrigation: Most of the tanks are natural and not expensive for their
construction. Even an individual farmer can have his own tank. Tanks are normally constructed
on rocky bed and have long life. In many tanks, fishing is also done. This supplements both the
food resources and income of the farmer.

Drawbacks of Tank Irrigation: Major problem with tanks water storage is that tanks dry up
during the dry season and fail to provide irrigation when it is needed the most. Silting of the tank
bed is a serious problem and it requires de-silting of the tank at regular intervals. Much water is
evaporated from the large expanse of shallow water and is therefore not available for irrigation.
Tanks cover large areas of cultivable land. In many areas, other sources of irrigation have been
adopted and the dry beds of tanks have been reclaimed for agriculture. Furthermore, lifting of
water from tanks and carrying it to the fields is a tiring and expensive effort which discourages
the use of tanks as a source of irrigation.

Micro-Irrigation or Localized irrigation:

Drip irrigation:

In the area of irrigation process, drip irrigation is modern technique. It is also called trickle
irrigation, which was originally developed in Israel in the early 1960s and became popular in
areas of water scarcity. The drip irrigation is the most competent and it can be practised in array
of crops, especially in vegetables, orchard crops, flowers and plantation crops (Mamata Swain,
1999).

Drip irrigation was used to the ancient custom in certain parts of India of irrigating a tulsi plant
kept in the courtyard. During the summer months, the plant was irrigated by a hanging pitcher
containing water and a minute hole at its bottom to allow the trickling of water on to the plant.
The tribal farmers of Arunachal Pradesh practiced a primitive form of drip irrigation system
using a slender bamboo as the conduit for water flow. The use of drippers in sub-surface
irrigation network was first experimented in Germany in 1869. The noticeable growth of the
petrochemical industry during and after the 1950s aided manufacturing of plastic pipes at a cost
much cheaper than the cost of metallic or cement concrete pipes. Plastic pipes are convenient for
water conveyance under pressure and the plastic material are easily formed into the desired
configuration. These features of plastic made the field-scale use of drip irrigation practicable.
The drip system was developed for field crops in Israel in the early 1960s and in Australia and
North America in the late 1960s. The area under drip irrigation system in the USA is about 1 M
ha, followed by India, Spain, and Israel. In India, there has been a tremendous growth in the area
under drip irrigation during the last 15 years. At present, around 3.51akh ha area is under drip
irrigation with the efforts of the Government of India, while it was only 40 ha in 1960.
Maharashtra (94,000 ha), Karnataka (66,000 ha) and Tamil Nadu (55,000 ha) are some of the
states where large areas have been brought under drip irrigation. Many crops are irrigated by the
drip method in India with the tree crops occupying the maximum percentage of the total area
under drip irrigation, followed by vine crops, vegetables, field crops, flowers and other crops.

In drip irrigation, water is applied near the plant root through emitters or drippers, on or below
the soil surface. The soil moisture is kept at an optimum level with frequent irrigations. In this
method irrigation water is conveyed on the surface in 12 to 16 mm diameter tubing’s fed from
large feeder pipes. The water is allowed to drip or trickle slowly through the nozzle or orifices at
practically zero pressure. In this way the soil in the root-zone of crops is constantly kept wet.
Drip irrigation results in a very high-water application efficiency of about 90-95 per cent.

The area under drip irrigation system in the USA is about 1 M ha, followed by India and other
countries.

Major component of drip irrigation:

Pump station

By pass assembly

Control valves.

Filtration system

Fertilizer tank/venturi

Pressure gauge

mains/Sub mains

Laterals
Emitting devices

Micro tubes.

Pump station takes water from the source and provides the right pressure for delivery into the
pipe system.

Control valves control the discharge and pressure in the entire system.

Filtration system cleans the water. Common types of filter include screen filters and graded sand
filters which remove fine material suspended in the water.

Fertilizer tank/venturi slowly add a measured dose of fertilizer into the water during irrigation.
This is one of the major advantages of drip irrigation over other methods.

Mainlines, submains and laterals supply water from the control head into the fields. They are
usually made from PVC or polyethylene hose and should be buried below ground because they
easily degrade when exposed to direct solar radiation. Lateral pipes are usually 13-32 mm
diameter.

Emitters or drippers are devices used to control the discharge of water from the lateral to the
plants. They are typically spaced more than 1 metre apart with one or more emitters used for a
single plant such as a tree. For row crops more closely spaced emitters may be used to wet a strip
of soil. Many different emitter designs have been produced in recent years. The basis of design is
to produce an emitter which will provide a specified constant discharge which does not vary
much with pressure changes, and does not block easily.

In India, there has been a fabulous growth in the area under drip irrigation during the last many
years. At present, major area is under drip irrigation with the help of the Government of India.
Reports indicated that Maharashtra (94,000 ha), Karnataka (66,000 ha) and Tamil Nadu (55,000
ha) are some of the states where large areas have been brought under drip irrigation. Many crops
are irrigated by the drip method in India with the tree crops occupying the maximum percentage
of the total area under drip irrigation, followed by vine crops, vegetables, field crops, flowers and
other crops.

Crop suitable for drip irrigation:

The National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH), Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India, has approximate a total of 27 million hectares area in the
country that has the potential of drip irrigation application. Through this method, crops can be
grown productively over the saline lands also. This technique has been beneficial in reclaiming
and developing desert and arid areas. The main disadvantage of this method is that it is
expensive. But with growing realisation of the value of water this method has been introduced in
other countries of the world particularly in desert areas. The method is still in preliminary stages
of development in nation.

Drip irrigation layout and its parts

The advantages of drip irrigation are under:

Possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals.

Fertilizer and nutrient loss is minimized due to localized application and reduced leaching.
Water application efficiency is high.

Field levelling is not necessary. Fields with irregular shapes are easily accommodated.

Recycled non-potable water can be safely used.

Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.

Soil erosion is lessened.

Weed growth is lessened.

Water distribution is highly uniform, controlled by output of each nozzle.

Labour cost is less than other irrigation methods.

Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers.

Plants remains dry, reducing the risk of disease.

Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing energy
costs.

The shortcomings of drip irrigation are:

Initial cost can be more in this technique.

The sunrays can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.

If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not suitably maintained, it can result in
blockage.

For subsurface drip the irrigator cannot see the water that is applied. This may lead to the farmer
either applying too much water (low efficiency) or an insufficient amount of water, this is
particularly common for those with less experience with drip irrigation.

Drip irrigation might be inadequate if herbicides or top dressed fertilizers need sprinkler
irrigation for activation.
Drip tape causes extra clean-up costs after harvest. Users need to plan for drip tape winding,
disposal, recycling or reuse.

Waste of water, time and harvest, if not installed properly. These systems require careful study of
all the relevant factors like land topography, soil, water, crop and agro-climatic conditions, and
suitability of drip irrigation system and its components.

In lighter soils subsurface, drip may be unable to wet the soil surface for germination. Requires
careful consideration of the installation depth.

One of the main purposes of drip irrigation is to decrease the water consumption by reducing the
leaching factor. However, when the available water is of high salinity or alkalinity, the field soil
becomes gradually unsuitable for cultivation due to high salinity or poor infiltration of the soil.
Consequently, drip irrigation converts fields in to fallow lands when natural leaching by rain
water is not adequate in semi-arid and arid regions.

Most drip systems are designed for high efficiency and have little or no leakage. Without
sufficient leaching, salts applied with the irrigation water may build up in the root zone. On the
other hand, drip irrigation avoids the high capillary potential of traditional surface-applied
irrigation, which can draw salt deposits up from deposits below. Drip irrigation systems cannot
be used for damage control by night frosts.

Sprinkler Irrigation:

In the sprinkler technique of irrigation, water is sprinkled into the air and allowed to fall on the
ground surface just like rainfall. The spray is done by the flow of water under pressure through
small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is generally obtained by pumping. Through proper
selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation water
required to refill the crop root zone can be applied almost uniform at the rate to suit the
infiltration rate of soil. In agriculture, almost all crops are suitable for sprinkler irrigation system
except crops such as paddy and jute. The dry crops, vegetables, flowering crops, orchards,
plantation crops like tea, coffee are all suitable and can be irrigated through sprinklers techniques
of irrigation.
The sprinkler irrigation is categorized according to the functions which are mentioned as under:
1. The main irrigation system
2. The supplementary irrigation system
3. The protective irrigation system

The sprinkler irrigation system is effective for irrigation on uneven lands and on shallow soils. It
is also suitable to coarse sandy terrain where the percolation loss is more and where as a
consequence, the frequency of irrigation required is more. The sprinkler irrigation system is
appropriate in rising and falling land where land shaping is expensive or technically not
practicable. The elimination of fertile soil cover by land shaping is not advisable. Sprinkler
irrigation system can also be espoused in hilly regions where plantation crops are grown.

Historical facts signified that though sprinkler irrigation system is known since 1946, yet the
farmers started adopting it in huge scale only since 1980s. It began in the hilly areas of Western
Ghats in states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka and in the North eastern states mainly for
plantation crops like coffee, tea, cardamom, rubber. Gradually it spreads to the water scarcity and
light soil states of Rajasthan and Haryana in addition to the black soil area of Madhya Pradesh.
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation:

Elimination of the channels for conveyance, therefore no conveyance loss.

It is Suitable to all types of soil apart from heavy clay.

It is appropriate technique for irrigating crops where the plant population per unit area is very
high. It is most suitable for oil seeds and other cereal and vegetable crops.

It saves water.

With this technique of irrigation, there is control of water application convenient for giving light
and frequent irrigation and higher water application efficiency.

Sprinkle irrigation increases in yield.

There is a mobility of system.

It may also be used for undulating area.

It saves land as no bunds are required.

This technique influences greater conducive micro-climate.

Areas located at a higher elevation than the source can be irrigated.

In this technique there is a possibility of using soluble fertilizers and chemicals.

In this method of irrigation there is less problem of clogging of sprinkler nozzles due to sediment
laden water.

The overall cost of labour is generally reduced in this method of irrigation.

Erosion of soil cover which is common in surface irrigation can be reduced.

Disadvantages of sprinkler system:

In this technique, initial cost of implementation is high.

High and constant energy requirement for operation.

Under high wind condition and high temperature distribution and application efficiency is poor.

Highly saline water causes leaf burning when temperature is higher than 95 F.

When lands have been already levelled and developed for surface or other irrigation methods
sprinkler irrigation is not so economical.

There is loss of water due to evaporation from the area during irrigation.

Other Irrigation methods:

Surge Irrigation: Surge Irrigation is an alternative of furrow irrigation where the water supply is
pulsed on and off in planned time periods (e.g. on for 1 hour off for 1½ hour). The wetting and
drying cycles reduce infiltration rates resulting in faster advance rates and higher uniformities
than constant flow.

Ditch Irrigation: Ditch Irrigation is type of traditional method, where ditches are dug out and
seedlings are planted in rows. The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in
between the rows of plants. Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the
canals.

Sub irrigation or seepage irrigation: It is a system of irrigation where water is allowed to the
plant root zone from below the soil surface and absorbed upwards. The excess may be collected
for reuse. Sub irrigation is used in growing field crops such as tomatoes, peppers, and sugar cane
in areas with high water tables. Major benefits of this system are water and nutrient conservation,
and labor-saving. The outfitting cost is comparatively high. Main problems include possibility of
increased presence of disease in recycle water.

To summarize, Irrigation is a technique of supplying water to the dry land as a supplementation

of rain water. It is mainly aimed for farming. There are various types of systems of irrigation
practices in different parts of India. Irrigation in India is carried on through wells, tanks, canals,
perennial canal, multi-purpose river valley projects. The irrigation engineer should be acquainted
with the type of soil moisture, quality of irrigation water, frequency of irrigation for the proper
implementation of irrigation system.

REFERENCE:
https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-Studies/notes/different-types-of-irrigation-
and-irrigation-systems-storage.html
 RESEARCH / ASSIGNMENT

IN

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

(HYDP5513)

TYPES AND FUCTIONS OF HYDRO POWER PLANT.

DULFO, ALLYSON MAE A. ENGR. JESSA GOMEZ

BSCE-V

WF / 6:30-8:00

NOVEMBER 20, 2019

Hydroelectric Power Plant: Layout, Working and Types

Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the cleanest

methods of producing electric power. In 2012, hydroelectric power plants contributed about 16%
of total electricity generation of the world. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of
renewable energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is
relatively low. This article talks about the layout, basic components and working of a
hydroelectric power station.

Layout and Working of Hydroelectric Power Plant

The above image shows the typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic
components.
Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient
water storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir behind it. The height of water level
(called as water head) in the reservoir determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.

Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine.
The amount of water which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate.
When the control gate is fully opened, maximum amount of water is released through the
penstock.

Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the
penstock due to gravity.

Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is
mechanically coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and
consequently the generator gets driven. There are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse
turbine and (ii) Reaction turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines
are used for low and medium heads.

Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the
turbine shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is
generated which is then stepped up with the help of a transformer for the transmission purpose.

Surge Tank: Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when
considerably long penstock is required. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at
the top. It is fitted between the reservoir and the power house. The water level in the surge tank
rises or falls to reduce the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is sudden reduction in
load on the turbine, the governor closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This
causes pressure to increase abnormally in the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank,
in which the water level rises to reduce the pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides
excess water needed when the gates are suddenly opened to meet the increased load demand.
Types of Hydro-Power Plants

Conventional Plants:

Conventional plants use potential energy from dammed water. The energy extracted depends on
the volume and head of the water. The difference between height of water level in the reservoir
and the water outflow level is called as water head.

Pumped Storage Plant:

In pumped storage plant, a second reservoir is constructed near the water outflow from the
turbine. When the demand of electricity is low, the water from lower reservoir is pumped into the
upper (main) reservoir. This is to ensure sufficient amount of water available in the main
reservoir to fulfil the peak loads.

Run-Of-River Plant:

In this type of facility, no dam is constructed and, hence, reservoir is absent. A portion of river is
diverted through a penstock or canal to the turbine. Thus, only the water flowing from the river is
available for the generation. And due to absence of reservoir, any oversupply of water is passed
unused.

Advantages of a Hydroelectric Power Plant

No fuel is required as potential energy is stored water is used for electricity generation

Neat and clean source of energy

Very small running charges - as water is available free of cost

Comparatively less maintenance is required and has longer life

Serves other purposes too, such as irrigation

Disadvantages

Very high capital cost due to construction of dam

High cost of transmission – as hydro plants are located in hilly areas which are quite away from
the consumers

What is Hydropower Plant?

Hydropower plant uses hydraulic energy of water to produce electricity. The power obtained
from this plant is termed as hydroelectric power. Nearly 16% of total power used by the world is
represented by hydropower.

There are several types of hydropower plants classified on different characteristics. But for every
hydropower plant some important principal components are needed and those are explained here.
Components of a Hydropower Plant

The major components of a hydroelectric plant are as follows.

Forebay

Intake structure

Penstock

Surge chamber

Hydraulic turbines

Power house

Draft tube

Tailrace

1. Forebay

A forebay is a basin area of hydropower plant where water is temporarily stored before going
into intake chamber. The storage of water in forebay is decided based on required water demand
in that area. This is also used when the load requirement in intake is less.

We know that reservoirs are built across the rivers to store the water, the water stored on
upstream side of dam can be carried by penstocks to the power house. In this case, the reservoir
itself acts as forebay.

2. Intake Structure

Intake structure is a structure which collects the water from the forebay and directs it into the
penstocks. There are different types of intake structures are available and selection of type of
intake structure depends on various local conditions.

Intake structure contain some important components of which trash racks plays vital role. Trash
racks are provided at the entrance of penstock to trap the debris in the water.
If debris along with water flows into the penstock it will cause severe damage to the wicket
gates, turbine runners, nozzles of turbines etc. these trash racks are made of steel in rod shape.
These rods are arranged with a gap of 10 to 30 cm apart and these racks will separate the debris
form the flowing water whose permissible velocity is limited 0.6 m/sec to 1.6 m/sec.

In cold weather regions, there is chance of formation of ice in water, to prevent the entrance of
ice into the penstocks trash racks heated with electricity and hence ice melts when it touches the
trash racks.

Other than trash racks, rakes and trolley arrangement which is used to clean the trash racks and
penstock closing gates are also provided in intake structure.

3. Penstock

Penstocks are like large pipes laid with some slope which carries water from intake structure or
reservoir to the turbines. They run with some pressure so, sudden closing or opening of penstock
gates can cause water hammer effect to the penstocks.

So, these are designed to resist the water hammer effect apart from this penstock is similar to
normal pipe. To overcome this pressure, heavy wall is provided for short length penstock and
surge tank is provided in case of long length penstocks.
Steel or Reinforced concrete is used for making penstocks. If the length is small, separate
penstock is used for each turbine similarly if the length is big single large penstock is used and at
the end it is separated into branches.

4. Surge Chamber

A surge chamber or surge tank is a cylindrical tank which is open at the top to control the
pressure in penstock. It is connected to the penstock and as close as possible to the power house.

Whenever the power house rejected the water load coming from penstock the water level in the
surge tank rises and control the pressure in penstock.

Similarly, when the huge demand is needed in power house surge tank accelerates the water flow
into the power house and then water level reduces. When the discharge is steady in the power
house, water level in the surge tank becomes constant.

There are different types of surge tanks available and they are selected based on the requirement
of plant, length of penstock etc.
5. Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbine, a device which can convert the hydraulic energy into the mechanical energy
which again converted into the electrical energy by coupling the shaft of turbine to the generator.

The mechanism in this case is, whenever the water coming from penstock strike the circular
blades or runner with high pressure it will rotate the shaft provided at the center and it causes
generator to produce electrical power.

Generally hydraulic turbines are of two types namely

Impulse turbine

Reaction turbine

Impulse turbine is also called as velocity turbine. Pelton wheel turbine is example for impulse
turbine. Reaction turbine is also called as pressure turbine. Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine
come under this category.
6. Power House

Power house is a building provided to protect the hydraulic and electrical equipment. Generally,
the whole equipment is supported by the foundation or substructure laid for the power house.

In case of reaction turbines some machines like draft tubes, scroll casing etc. are fixed with in the
foundation while laying it. So, the foundation is laid in big dimensions.

When it comes to super structure, generators are provided on the ground floor under which
vertical turbines are provided. Besides generator horizontal turbines are provided. Control room
is provided at first floor or mezzanine floor.
7. Draft Tube

If reaction turbines are used, then draft tube is a necessary component which connects turbine
outlet to the tailrace. The draft tube contains gradually increasing diameter so that the water
discharged into the tailrace with safe velocity. At the end of draft tube, outlet gates are provided
which can be closed during repair works.

8. Tailrace

Tailrace is the flow of water from turbines to the stream. It is good if the power house is located
nearer to the stream. But, if it is located far away from the stream then it is necessary to build a
channel for carrying water into the stream.

Otherwise the water flow may damage the plant in many ways like lowering turbine efficiency,
cavitation, damage to turbine blades etc.
This is because of silting or scouring caused by unnecessary flow of water from power house.
Hence, proper design of tailrace should be more important.

REFERENCE:

https://www.electricaleasy.com/2015/09/hydroelectric-power-plant-layout.html

https://theconstructor.org/structures/hydropower-plant-components-functions/19705/

https://www.usbr.gov/power/edu/pamphlet.pdf