CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter is conducting about the development of irrigation through ages and the modern
methods of irrigation. The new technologies, methods and the usage of sensors in the systems. Also
the objectives of the study are mentioned below. The previous studies close to the subject of the
project.

6000 BC
Irrigation began at about the same time in Egypt and Mesopotamia (present day Iraq and Iran) using
the water of the flooding Nile or Tigris/Euphrates rivers. The flood waters, which occurred July
through December, were diverted to fields for 40 to 60 days. The water was then drained back into
the river at the right moment in the growing cycle.

1700 BC (Shaduf)
A large pole balanced on a crossbeam, a rope and bucket on one end and a heavy counter weight at
the other. By pulling the rope it lowered the bucket into a canal or river. The operator would then
raise the full bucket of water by pushing down on the counter weight. The pole could be swung
around and the bucket emptied in a field or different canal. This development enabled irrigation
when a river wasn’t in flood which meant higher ground could be used for farming.

Irrigation Shaduf

550-331 BC (Qanat)
The development of this technique allowed the use of ground water to become the primary source
for crop irrigation. A Qanat was built by first digging a vertical well into sloping ground. Once the
well was completed a tunnel was dug nearly horizontal to the lower end of the well. The natural
slope would allow well water to travel by gravity down the tunnel and emerge some distance down
slope from the well. Construction of Qantas was labor intensive and vertical openings were placed
every 20-30 meters to allow the tunnel diggers to breathe and to remove the debris from the tunnel.
Once the tunnel was completed, the area had a constant source of water. Qantas are still in use today
and at least 20,000 still operate from China to Morocco.

Qanat System

500 BC (Sakia)
The first use of what is now called a pump. This device was an endless series of pots on a rope
which ran over two pulleys. The oxen-powered device powered a cogged wheel allowing the pots to
enter the water supply, fill and then be raised and emptied. The Sakia was similar to the Noria
except that it was powered by an external force rather than the flow of the river’s current.

Persian Water Wheel (Sakia)

MODERN IRREGATION:
Surface Irrigation
Surface irrigation stands for a large group of irrigation methods in which water is distributed by
gravity over the surface of the field. The three most common methods are basin irrigation, border
irrigation and furrow irrigation. Water is typically introduced at the highest point or along the edge
of a field, which allows covering the field by overland flow. Historically, surface irrigation has been
the most common method of irrigating agricultural land. The defining feature of surface irrigation
methods is that the soil is used as the transport medium as opposed to pipeline.

Surface irrigation methods contain two basic categories ponding (surface water pooled in a puddle)
and moving water. The moving water methods require some runoff or ponding to guarantee
adequate infiltration at the lower end of the field. The soil type controls the length of the run and the
depth of infiltrated over time.

The better the quality of the soil is the less is the unnecessary runoff and the better the infiltration
into the soil and therefore the use for the crops (Burt, 2000). Due to ponding however, it is
important not to irrigate the crops during the day but in the early morning or at night in order to
avoid water loss due to evaporation.

Each surface system has its own unique advantages and disadvantages depending on such factors as
initial development costs, size and shape of individual fields, soil characteristics, nature and
availability of thewater supply, climate, cropping pattern, social preferences and structures, and
historical experience (Walker, 2003).
Surface Irrigation
Basin Irrigation
Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions with layouts
of small fields. If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff, and
provides an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin. If the basins are small
or if the discharge rate available is relatively large, there are few soils not amenable to basin
irrigation. Generally, basin irrigation is favored by moderate to slow intake soils and deep-rooted,
closely spaced crops. Crops, which do not tolerate flooding and soils subject to crusting can be
basin irrigated by furrowing or using raised bed planting. Basin irrigation is an effective method of
leaching salts from the soil profile into the deeper groundwater. Basin irrigation systems can be
automated with relatively simple and inexpensive flow controls at the basin inlet. However, basin
irrigation has a number of limitations in association with agriculture in the less developed countries:
Accurate land levelling is prerequisite to high uniformities and efficiencies, but this is difficult to
accomplish in small areas; the perimeter dikes must be well maintained to eliminate breaching and
waste; and it is difficult and often infeasible to incorporate the use of modem farm machinery in
small basins, thereby limiting small-scale basin irrigation to hand and animal powered cultivation
(Walker, 2003).

Border Irrigation System

In many circumstances, border irrigation can be viewed as an expansion of basin irrigation to
include long rectangular or contoured field shapes, longitudinal but no lateral slope, and free
draining or blocked conditions at the lower end. In border irrigation, a field is divided into strips
separated by border ridges running down the slope of the field. The width of the stripes is usually
from 20 to 100 feet (6 to 30 meters). The area between the ridges is flooded during irrigation.
Border irrigation is used for tree crops and for crops as alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and small
grains (UCCE, 2003).

Furrow Irrigation
An alternative to flooding the entire field surface is to construct small channels along the primary
direction of water movement. Water introduced in these furrows infiltrates through the wetted
perimeter and moves vertically and laterally thereafter to refill the soil. Furrows can be used in
conjunction with basins and borders to overcome topographical variation and crusting (Walker,
2003). Furrows are well adapted to row crops and orchards or vineyards (Burt, 2000).
Furrow systems require more labor than border or basin systems. Some disadvantages are salinity
hazards between the furrows, limited machinery mobility across the lateral field direction and an
increased erosion potential. On the other hand, topographical conditions can be more severe and
variable, and the smaller wetted area can reduce evaporation loss (Walker, 2003).

Sprinkler Heads
Impact and gear-drive sprinklers are two general types of sprinklers used in lawns, gardens and
pastures. They produce moving streams of water and spray nozzles that discharge water on the
whole wetted pattern at all times. Impact or gear-drive sprinklers can accommodate only full or part
circle application patterns. Since each sprinkler covers a large area (typically 12 m head-to-head
spacing), they are used on pastures and larger lawn areas.

Sprinkler System

Sprinkler Irrigation

With sprinkler irrigation, artificial rainfall is created. The water is carried to the field through a
pipe system in which the water is under pressure. The spraying is accompanied by using
several rotating sprinkler heads or nozzles or a single gun type sprinkler (Benami et al., 1984).

PROPOSED SYSTEM: Drip Irrigation System

African regions with extensive periods of drought and inadequate rainfall contribute to the
continent‟s food shortage problem. While nature cannot be controlled, society does have the
ability to develop and practice more efficient water usage techniques in order to improve water
supply management.

One type of technology that may contribute to the improvement of water supply management and
the associated food crisis is drip irrigation. Drip irrigation systems (DIS) have discharge points or
sufficiently small holes in sections of hose such that filtration is a primary concern (Burt and Styles,
1994). These systems commonly use low flow rates and low pressures at the emitters and are
typically designed to only wet the root zone and maintain this zone at or near an optimum moisture
level (James, 1988).

Hence, there is a potential to conserve water losses by not irrigating the whole field. Obvious
advantages of drip irrigation include a smaller wetted surface area, minimal evaporation and
weed growth, and potentially improved water application uniformity within the crop root zone
by better control over the location and volume of water application (Hoffman and Martin,
1993). Drip systems are also commonly designed to include fertigation and automation
capabilities.

Drip systems are commonly categorized according to either their physical structure or their
placement in the field (e.g. surface, subsurface or suspended). The physical structures may be
either:

 Flexible thin-walled drip (or trickle) tape made of polyethylene where the emitter is
formed in the join, or the emitter is joined to the inside of the tape or
 Drip (or trickle) tube where the structure is a thicker walled polyethylene pipe into
which the separately formed emitter is inserted, welded, glued within, or attached
externally to the hose.

A major benefit of drip is the ability to apply small amounts of water at high frequency intervals.
This provides the opportunity to maintain the soil moisture at a specified moisture content and
changes the focus of irrigation scheduling away from "irrigating at a frequency which does not
affect output quantity/quality" to "irrigating on a schedule which maximizes output
quality/quantity". This change in emphasis may produce benefits depending on the specific crop
response to moisture stress.

The potential water application efficiency of drip irrigation systems is often quoted as greater than

90% (Golberg et al., 1976; Hoffman et al., 1990; Keller and Karmeli, 1975; Jensen, 1983).

However, as with all irrigation systems, the ability to achieve high levels of efficiency is a function

of the design, installation and management practices. Losses of water in drip irrigation systems

principally occur through evaporation from the soil surface, surface run-off and deep drainage.
Evaporation losses are generally small in subsurface irrigated systems due to a limited wetted

surface area. Run-off losses are also normally small due to the low application rates. However,

excessive watering periods and the use of shallow subsurface drip on low infiltration soils (e.g.

sodic soils) can result in appreciable tunneling of flows to the surface creating surface ponding and

the potential for localized run-off.

Performance Evaluation

The performance of drip irrigation systems is heavily influenced by the uniformity of flow

through each emitter along a drip line. However, unlike other systems, the uniformity of drip

irrigation systems is not only a function of the design characteristics but is also significantly

affected by installation, maintenance and management practices. Therefore, measuring

application uniformity in drip irrigation systems is an important component of performance

evaluation and the assessment of the likely system longevity (Sadler et al., 1995).

Advantages and Benefits of Drip Irrigation System

1. Drip irrigation system uses water efficiently: sprinklers waste a lot of water as a result

of wind-scattered spray, sun-powered evaporation, runoff, the evaporation of

accumulated puddles, or deep leaching.

2. Increase yield: drip irrigation can be used for slow, gradual application of tiny amounts

of water on a frequent or daily basis. This maintains an ideal soil moisture level,

promoting more abundant foliage, greater bloom, and higher yields (by actual

comparison) of produce, fruits, and nuts than those produced by any other irrigation

approach.

3. Provides better control of saline water: Sprinklers apply water to the foliage; if your

water is saline, this can cause leaf burn. Drip irrigation applies water only to the soil,

and frequent applications with drip irrigation help to keep the salts in solution so they

don‟t affect the roots adversely. (Any salt crust buildup at the margins of the moist area

can be leached away with an occasional deep irrigation).

4. Improves fertilization: with a device called a fertilizer injector (or proportional), are

easily apply dissolved or liquid fertilizers with accuracy and without leaching the

fertilizer beyond desired root zones. The liquid fertilizers can be applied with each

irrigation or only when required.

5. Encourages fewer weeds growth: the small moist spot around each emitter, where the

water slowly dribbles out, covers only a fraction of the soil’s surface. The larger dry

areas between emitters remain too dry for weed seeds to sprout.

6. Saves time and labor: drip irrigation systems eliminate tedious and inefficient hand

watering. Automatic drip systems add the convenience of not even having to remember

to turn valves on and off by hand. (The initial installation of such a system, however,

will take more time and effort than all other forms of irrigation except permanent

sprinkler systems).

7. Reduces disease problems: without the mist produced by a sprinkler, drip-irrigated

plants are less likely to develop water-stimulated diseases such as powdery mildew, leaf

spot, anthracnose, shot-hole fungus, fire-blight, and scab. Furthermore, careful

placement of emitters away from the trunks of trees, shrubs, perennials, vegetables and

stalks of cereals will keep the crown of the root system dry and minimize such root

problems as crown rot, root rot, collar rot, and armillary root rot.

8. Provides better water distribution on slopes: sprinklers often create wasteful run-off

when set to water the upper slopes of hills or berms. Drip emitters can apply the water

slowly enough to allow all the moisture to soak into the soil. Some emitters, known as

pressure-compensating emitters, are designed to regulate the water flow so that all

emitters in the system put out the same gentle flow, regardless of slope.

9. Promotes better soil structure: heavy sprinkler irrigation can produce puddles, causing

clay particles to stick together, and increase soil compaction. Drip-applied water

gradually soaks into the ground and maintains a healthy aerobic soil which retains its

loamy structure.
 10. Conserves energy: because of the low-pressure requirements of a drip irrigation

system, the pumping costs are lower.

Limitations of Drip Irrigation

Some drawbacks of drip irrigation include the following:

1. Initial costs are high; a garden hose with a simple oscillating sprinkler will always be

cheaper than drip irrigation, but it doesn‟t offer the same measure of control and water

conservation. A well-designed drip system will repay the cost of installation in reduced

effort, fewer irrigation chores, and greater yields.

2. Weeding can be difficult; especially with surface drip irrigation and unmulched drip

irrigation systems will stimulate some weeds around each emitter, and care must be

taken not to damage the drip system while weeding. A protective and attractive layer of

mulch will greatly reduce, if not eliminate.