Chemistry2VCEUnits3&42E (NEW)

JACARANDA
CHEMISTRY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4 | SECOND EDITION 2
JACARANDA
CHEMISTRY
VCE UNITS 3 AND 4 | SECOND EDITION 2
NEALE TAYLOR
ANGELA STUBBS
ROBERT STOKES
JASON BOURKE
JASON WALLACE
KATE BURROWS
LAKSHMI SHARMA
WAN NG
MAIDA DERBOGOSIAN
Second edition published 2020 by
John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd
42 McDougall Street, Milton, Qld 4064
First edition published 2017
Typeset in 11/14 pt Times LT Std
© Neale Taylor, Angela Stubbs, Robert Stokes, Wan Ng, Maida Derbogosian 2020
© Neale Taylor, Robert Stokes, Angela Stubbs, Wan Ng, Maida Derbogosian 2017
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
ISBN: 978-0-7303-7390-2
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
CONTENTS
About this resource .................................................................................................................................................................................................. viii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................................................................. x
UNIT 3
HOW CAN CHEMICAL PROCESSES BE DESIGNED TO
OPTIMISE EFFICIENCY? 1
AREA OF STUDY 1 WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION?
1 Obtaining energy from fuels 3

1.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Fossil fuels and biofuels ................................................................................................................................................................. 4
1.3 Combustion of fuels ......................................................................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 Thermochemical equations ........................................................................................................................................................... 21
1.5 Gaseous fuels and the universal gas equation ........................................................................................................................ 29
1.6 Calculations related to the combustion of fuels ...................................................................................................................... 38
1.7 Calculating heat energy using the specific heat capacity of water ................................................................................... 44
1.8 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 47
2 Fuel choices 59
2.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 59
2.2 Comparing energy sources ........................................................................................................................................................... 60
2.3 Suitability of fuels for transport .................................................................................................................................................... 65
2.4 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 69
3 Galvanic cells as a source of energy 73

3.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 73
3.2 Redox reactions and half-equations ........................................................................................................................................... 74
3.3 Galvanic cells ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 83
3.4 The electrochemical series ............................................................................................................................................................ 89
3.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 103
4 Fuel cells as a source of energy 113

4.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 113
4.2 Fuel cells ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 114
4.3 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 124
AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW

Practice examination ................................................................................................................................... 129
Practice school-assessed coursework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
AREA OF STUDY 2 HOW CAN YIELD OF PROCESSES BE OPTIMISED?
5 Rate of chemical reactions 136

5.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 136
5.2 How does a chemical reaction occur? ....................................................................................................................................... 137
5.3 Exothermic and endothermic reactions ..................................................................................................................................... 141
5.4 Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction .................................................................................................................... 145
5.5 Catalysts and reaction rates .......................................................................................................................................................... 148
5.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 151
CONTENTS v
6 Extent of chemical reactions 159
6.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 159
6.2 Reversible and irreversible reactions .......................................................................................................................................... 160
6.3 Homogenous equilibria ................................................................................................................................................................... 162
6.4 Calculations involving equilibrium systems .............................................................................................................................. 168
6.5 Measuring the efficiency of a reaction or process .................................................................................................................. 178
6.6 Le Châtelier’s principle .................................................................................................................................................................... 181
6.7 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 196
7 Production of chemicals by electrolysis and rechargeable batteries 206

7.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 206
7.2 What is electrolysis? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 207
7.3 Predicting reactions that occur during electrolysis ................................................................................................................ 212
7.4 Commercial applications of electrolysis .................................................................................................................................... 220
7.5 Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells ................................................................................................................................. 225
7.6 Calculations in electrolysis using Faraday’s Laws .................................................................................................................. 227
7.7 Rechargeable batteries (secondary cells).................................................................................................................................. 235
7.8 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 240

UNIT 4
HOW ARE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CATEGORISED, ANALYSED
AND USED? 257
AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW CAN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BE CATEGORISED?
8 Structure and nomenclature of organic compounds 259

8.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 259
8.2 The carbon atom............................................................................................................................................................................... 260
8.3 Structure and naming of organic compounds ......................................................................................................................... 264
8.4 Functional groups and naming priority ...................................................................................................................................... 281
8.5 Isomers ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 285
8.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 291
9 Categories, properties and reactions of organic compounds 300

9.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 300
9.2 Explaining trends in physical properties .................................................................................................................................... 301
9.3 Organic reactions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 309
9.4 Reaction pathways ........................................................................................................................................................................... 318
9.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 323
10 Analysis of organic compounds 331

10.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 331
10.2 Mass spectrometry .......................................................................................................................................................................... 332
10.3 Infrared spectroscopy ..................................................................................................................................................................... 338
10.4 NMR spectroscopy .......................................................................................................................................................................... 345
10.5 Combining spectroscopic techniques ........................................................................................................................................ 354
10.6 Chromatography ............................................................................................................................................................................... 358
10.7 Volumetric analysis by titration ..................................................................................................................................................... 365
10.8 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 375
vi CONTENTS
AREA OF STUDY 2 WHAT IS THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD?
11 Key food molecules 396

11.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 396
11.2 Proteins ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 397
11.3 Carbohydrates ................................................................................................................................................................................... 410
11.4 Fats and oils ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 419
11.5 Vitamins ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 425
11.6 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 429
12 Metabolism of food in the human body 438

12.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 438
12.2 Metabolism of food .......................................................................................................................................................................... 439
12.3 Enzymes as protein catalysts ....................................................................................................................................................... 442
12.4 Denaturation and hydrolysis of proteins .................................................................................................................................... 451
12.5 Carbohydrates ................................................................................................................................................................................... 454
12.6 Fats and oils ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 460
12.7 Coenzymes ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 463
12.8 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 466
13 Energy content of food 474

13.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 474
13.2 Energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils ................................................................................................ 475
13.3 Glucose—the primary energy source ......................................................................................................................................... 478
13.4 Principles of calorimetry ................................................................................................................................................................. 480
13.5 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 491

14 Practical investigation 506

14.1 Overview.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 506
14.2 Key science skills in chemistry ..................................................................................................................................................... 507
14.3 Concepts specific to investigations ............................................................................................................................................ 517
14.4 Scientific research methodologies and techniques................................................................................................................ 521
14.5 Ethics, and health and safety guidelines ................................................................................................................................... 533
14.6 Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data ......................................................................................... 537
14.7 Models and theories to understand observed phenomena ................................................................................................. 549
14.8 Nature of evidence and key findings of investigations .......................................................................................................... 552
14.9 Conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation .................................................................... 553
14.10 Review ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 564
Answers ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 574

Glossary ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 625
Index .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 635
Periodic table of the elements .............................................................................................................................................................................. 642
CONTENTS vii
ABOUT THIS RESOURCE
Jacaranda Chemistry has been reimagined to provide students and teachers with the most comprehensive
resource on the market. This engaging and purposeful suite of resources is fully aligned to the VCE
Chemistry Study Design (2017–2021).
Formats
Jacaranda Chemistry is now available in print and a range of digital formats, including:
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Fully aligned to the VCE Chemistry Study Design

Have confidence that you are covering the entire VCE Chemistry
2.2 Comparing energy sources
Study Design (2017–2021), with: KEY CONCEPT
• The comparison of fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, petroleum gas, coal seam gas) and biofuels (biogas,
• tailored exercise sets at the end of each sub-topic

bioethanol, biodiesel) with reference to energy content, renewability and environmental impacts related to
sourcing and combustion
2.2.1 Generating energy in Australia
• additional background information easily

Australia has a diverse range of energy resources,
FIGURE 2.2 Projected depletion of world reserves of
but the availability, abundance and relatively fossil fuels based on current usage
2 low cost of fossil fuels mean that they are in

high demand — about 95% of Australia’s energy 1000
900
coal
(billion tones oil equivalent)

requirements are provided by coal, oil and gas. gas
Most of Australia’s electricity (75%) is generated 800 oil
Energy reserves
700
by black and brown coal, and 16% is supplied by
600
distinguished from curriculum content

natural gas. Access to these low-priced fuels is
500
important for our manufacturing industry. 400
and Although energy can be obtained from the 300
direct combustion of fossil fuels, electricity is a 200
• practice SACs clearly linked to each outcome

more convenient form of energy. Electricity can 100
2.1.1 be carried from one place to another, switched on 0
2011 2021 2031 2041 2051 2061 2071 2081
and off, and used as an energy source for many
Year
provided by coal, oil and gas, which are all fossil fuels. different devices.
reliance on fossil fuels.
• practice exams for each area of study.

FIGURE 2.3 Sources of energy for society
hydro-electricity
from falling
total greenhouse gas emissions and became signatories radiant
water
heat and
light from
the Sun
is to strengthen the global response to the threat of
climate change by keeping the global temperature wind energy timber
rise of the 21st century to less than two degrees above photosynthesis
nuclear energy
solar energy
combating climate change as scientists worldwide work
2.1.2
m
uraniu
Key concepts approach • the comparision of fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, petroleum gas, coal seam gas) and biofuels (biogas,
• the comparision of the suitability of petrodiesel and biodiesel as transport fuels with reference to sources,
wave energy
tidal energy
coal
oil
natura
l gas
ore thermal
geo
ene
rgy
Students can easily understand which aspect of the Study and production.
Source:
Design they are studying with Key Knowledge Resources 60 Jacaranda Chemistry 2 VCE Units 3 & 4 Second Edition
dot points highlighted at the start of each topic and broken .
down into Key Concepts in each sub-topic.
Engaging resources and rich media

A variety of online and offline resources to encourage students of all
learning styles, including:
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Teacher-led Video TLVD-0246
students to apply their knowledge of the content.
Teacher-led videos
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investigations led by experienced teachers allow
students to better consolidate their learning.
viii ABOUT THIS RESOURCE

Inspiring students to become
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• topic summary, key terms and practice questions at
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set out in the THINK–WRITE format.
Prepare for exams with every past exam

question since 2006! studyON is now
included in learnON and as a printable exam
revision booklet
A wealth of teacher resources

Jacaranda Chemistry empowers teachers to teach their
class their way with the extensive range of teacher
resources including:
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easily customisable
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support with demonstrative Test Maker

videos, laboratory Create custom tests
for your class from the
information, expected results
entire question pool —
and risk assessments including all subtopic,
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ABOUT THIS RESOURCE ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xi
UNIT 3
HOW CAN CHEMICAL
PROCESSES BE DESIGNED TO
OPTIMISE EFFICIENCY?
When the Industrial Revolution FIGURE 1 Carbon emissions, pre-Industrial revolution to 2010.
began in the 1760s, the world’s total
population was approximately 750 million 9000
people. Today, the world’s population Solids
stands at more than 7 billion people. New Liquids
Gases
Million metric tons

technologies and the growing population
6000 Flaring
have created a demand for energy that has
of carbon
Cement
experienced near exponential growth. This Total
growth is reflected in carbon emissions as
shown in figure 1. While the quality of human
3000
life has undoubtedly increased since the
Industrial Revolution, the size of the earth and
its resources required to sustain life, has not.
With our growing population and demand 0
for resources, it is imperative we understand 1750 1815 1880 1945 2010
and evaluate different chemical energy Year
resources and manufacturing processes. We
must ensure the efficient use of resources to create the products we need.
This unit examines chemical energy sources including fossil fuels, biofuels, galvanic cells and fuel cells. By
investigating the combustion of fuels, including the energy transformations involved, stoichiometry can be applied to
calculate the amount of resources required to produce the energy released. Galvanic cells, fuel cells and electrolytic
cells are examined as a portable source of energy. The nature of their energy production is explained utilising the
electrochemical series to predict and write half- and overall redox equations, and Faraday’s laws are applied to
calculate quantities in electrolytic reactions.
Finally, the efficiency of manufacturing processes are compared by understanding reaction rates and extent,
equilibrium law and Le Châtelier’s principle. This allows predictions of conditions that will improve the efficiency and
percentage yield of chemical processes.
AREA OF STUDY OUTCOME CHAPTERS

1. What are the options Compare fuels quantitatively with refer- 1. Obtaining energy from fuels
for energy production? ence to combustion products and energy 2. Fuel choices
outputs, apply knowledge of the electro- 3. Galvanic cells as a source of
chemical series to design, construct and energy
test galvanic cells, and evaluate energy 4. Fuel cells as a source of energy
resources based on energy efficiency,
renewability and environmental impact.
2. How can the yield of a Apply rate and equilibrium principles to 5. Rate of chemical reactions
chemical product be predict how the rate and extent of reac- 6. Extent of chemical reactions
optimised? tions can be optimised, and explain how 7. Production of chemicals by
electrolysis is involved in the production electrolysis, and rechargeable
of chemicals and in the recharging of batteries
batteries.
Source: VCE Chemistry Study Design (2017–2021) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.
AREA OF STUDY 1
WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION?
1 Obtaining energy from fuels

1.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are available just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your digital formats, learnON and eBookPLUS at www.jacplus.com.au.
1.1.1 Introduction FIGURE 1.1 Fossil fuels will not last indefinitely — can
Fuels are burned to produce heat energy. biofuels provide the energy for all future transportation modes?
This energy is used to heat our homes, and
for transport and industrial processes. It
can also be converted into electrical energy,
which can be conveniently transported over
long distances and used to power many
machines and appliances. The challenge for
our society is to meet its increasing energy
demands with a reliable supply of energy
from clean, efficient and sustainable sources.
1.1.2 What you will learn
KEY KNOWLEDGE
In this topic, you will investigate:
• the definition of a fuel, including the distinction between fossil fuels and biofuels with reference to origin
and renewability (the ability of a resource to be replaced by natural processes within a relatively short
period of time)
• combustion of fuels as exothermic reactions with reference to the use of the joule as the SI unit of energy,
energy transformations and their efficiencies and measurement of enthalpy change including symbol (∆H)
and common units (kJ mol–1 , kJ g–1 , MJ/tonne)
• the writing of balanced thermochemical equations, including states, for the complete and incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbons, methanol and ethanol, using experimental data and data tables
• the definition of gas pressure including units, the universal gas equation and standard laboratory conditions
(SLC) at 25 °C and 100 kPa
• calculations related to the combustion of fuels including use of mass-mass, mass-volume and
volume-volume stoichiometry in calculations of enthalpy change (excluding solution stoichiometry) to
determine heat energy released, reactant and product amounts and net volume of greenhouse gases at a
given temperature and pressure (or net mass) released per MJ of energy obtained
• the use of specific heat capacity of water to determine the approximate amount of heat energy released in
the combustion of a fuel.
TOPIC 1 Obtaining energy from fuels 3

PRACTICAL WORK AND INVESTIGATIONS
Practical work is a central component of learning and assessment. Experiments and investigations, supported by
a Practical investigation logbook and Teacher-led videos, are included in this topic to provide opportunities to
undertake investigations and communicate findings.
Resources
Digital documents Key science skills (doc-30903)
Key terms glossary — Topic 1 (doc-31392)
Practical investigation logbook (doc-31393)
To access key concept summaries and past VCAA exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice
exam question booklet (doc-31394).
1.2 Fossil fuels and biofuels

KEY CONCEPT
• The definition of a fuel, including the distinction between fossil fuels and biofuels with reference to origin
and renewability (ability of a resource to be replaced by natural processes within a relatively short period
of time)
1.2.1 What is a fuel?

A fuel is a substance that is exothermic, which means FIGURE 1.2 Explosives are an example of an
that it releases energy in the form of heat. Some fuels, exothermic fuel.
such as uranium, release energy from nuclear reactions,
but most fuels release heat energy when they react with
oxygen. This is called combustion.
1.2.2 Distinction between a fossil

fuel and a biofuel
Fossil fuels are carbon-based energy sources that were
formed extremely slowly from the decaying remains of
plants and animals that accumulated millions of
years ago.
Biofuels are carbon-based energy sources that are
primarily formed from plant matter. This biomass was
created in a much shorter period of time (for example,
12 months for sugarcane) and can be used in its natural
state or converted into a more easily usable form. In particular, biogas, bioethanol and biodiesel are used
in Australia as energy sources, although research into improving the sustainability of biofuel production is
ongoing. See topic 2 for more about Australia’s energy sources.
1.2.3 Renewable and non-renewable resources

A fuel’s renewability is based on the ability of a resource to be replaced by natural processes within a
relatively short period of time. This means the amount of time it takes to produce the fuel by natural
processes when compared to the rate at which the fuel is consumed. If the fuel can be replaced by natural
4 Jacaranda Chemistry 2 VCE Units 3 & 4 Second Edition

processes at a rate that is greater than its consumption, then it is considered renewable. Biofuels, and solar,
hydro-electric, tidal, geothermal and wave energy are all examples of renewable resources. Fossil and
nuclear fuels cannot be replaced by natural processes at a rate that is greater than their consumption and
so are non-renewable.
FIGURE 1.3 Renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
energy sources
renewable non-renewable
solar energy wind waves tides fossil fuels nuclear fuels

biofuels
(radiant heat e.g. uranium
and light (nuclear energy)
energy) falling water coal oil gas
(kinetic energy) (chemical energy)
FIGURE 1.4 Uranium is a non-renewable, very high energy source. When refined
from ore, 1 kg of Uranium-235 contains 2–3 million times the energy equivalent of
1 kg of coal.
1.2.4 Origin of fossil fuels

Fossil fuels are the most widely used fuel sources in the world. The most common fossil fuels are coal,
petroleum and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and natural gas.
Coal
Coal is the world’s most plentiful fossil fuel. It was formed from the combined effects of pressure,
temperature, moisture and bacterial decay on vegetable matter over several hundred million years. Decaying
vegetation progressively became peat (like soil and very soft), lignite (crumbly brown coal), bituminous
coal (hard black coal) and anthracite (very hard black coal). As this progression occurred over time,
the moisture content dropped and the carbon content increased as shown in figure 1.5. These changes in
composition made it a more efficient fuel, so anthracite is the highest quality coal.

The main elements in coal are carbon FIGURE 1.5 Many different types of coal exist and their
(50–98%), hydrogen (3–13%), oxygen and energy content varies. Anthracite (black) coal has more than
very small amounts of nitrogen and sulfur. It twice the energy content of brown coal.
also contains moisture and inorganic material
that remains as ash when coal is burned.
Traditionally, coal was burned in lumps, but
ground coal powder is now used to improve peat
decaying
vegetation
the rate and efficiency of combustion.
increasing temperature and pressure

Victoria generates most of its electricity time passes
from brown coal, which has about a
increasing quality
brown coal brown
quarter of the heat content of black coal. coal
Brown coal can have up to 30% oxygen sub-bituminous
coal
content, a relatively low carbon content of
60 to 75% when dried, and a high moisture bituminous
coal
content of 30 to 70%. anthracite
Through a process called destructive anthracite
distillation, coal can be converted into

many useful products, such as briquettes for
key: moisture % carbon % other %
heating, coal gas, sulfur, ammonia, benzene,
coal tar and coke. Coal may be converted into electricity, gas or liquid fuels, all of which can be transported
and used more cheaply and conveniently than solid coal.
Petroleum and LPG FIGURE 1.6 Schematic of fractional distillation of crude
Petroleum (also called crude oil) is typically a oil showing levels of the fractionating column
viscous mixture composed of many different
hydrocarbon compounds. It was formed from gas
the remains of marine organisms, such as 20 °C
bacteria, algae and plankton. These marine 150 °C

organisms were altered, in a process similar
gasoline
to coal formation, from the combined effects of
200 °C (petrol)
pressure, temperature, moisture and decay.
Petroleum is refined by fractional kerosene
300 °C
distillation, which separates out the component
fuels based on their different boiling points. crude oil diesel oil
This process is performed in tall towers that are 370 °C
cooler at the top than at the bottom. The crude
fuel oil
oil is heated and then introduced to the base of
the tower. At this point, many of its components 400 °C
vaporise and these vapours rise up the tower,
being cooled as they do so. When the vapours lubricating oil,
reach a point at which the tower’s temperature paraffin wax,
equals their boiling temperature, condensation asphalt
occurs. Specially designed trays containing furnace
bubble caps are placed inside the tower at
strategic intervals. These are designed to allow
the vapours to continue rising but stop condensed fractions from dripping back down to lower levels in
the tower. The condensed fractions may then be removed from these trays to undergo further processing.
Figure 1.6 shows a simplified outline of this process.
Fuels obtained from petroleum include petrol, liquefied petroleum gas, diesel fuel, heating oil and
kerosene. Petroleum is also the raw material for a number of useful materials, including plastics, paints,
synthetic fibres, medicines and pesticides.

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a hydrocarbon fuel that consists mainly of propane and butane. It is
non-toxic, non-corrosive, lead-free and denser than air. LPG is liquefied under pressure but, when allowed
to vaporise, it expands to nearly 300 times its liquefied volume. This means that LPG can be stored as a
compact liquid but burns as a dry, gaseous vapour. LPG is popular with motorists, such as fleet-vehicle
owners or taxi drivers, because it is considered to be a more economical energy source. Although LPG
conversion costs for cars running on petrol are quite high, more people is considered to make the conversion
(or buy new cars designed to run on LPG) because LPG prices are less variable, and potentially lower over
the long term, than petrol prices.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 1.1 Fractional distillation of an ethanol/water mixture (doc-31250)
Teacher-led video Experiment 1.1 Fractional distillation of an ethanol/water mixture (tlvd-0735)
Natural gas and coal seam gas

Natural gas is formed with oil in muds that are
FIGURE 1.7 Methane gas is used in homes
low in oxygen and rich in organic matter (typically because it readily undergoes complete combustion.
ancient marine organisms). Natural gas is the lightest
of the hydrocarbons produced, and is primarily
composed of methane (CH4 ). It is an important
source of alkanes of low molecular mass. Victoria
has large reserves of natural gas in the Gippsland
basin. Typically, natural gas is composed of about
80% methane, 10% ethane, 4% propane and 2%
butane. The remaining 4% consists of nitrogen and
hydrocarbons of higher molecular mass. Natural gas
also contains a small amount of helium and is one of
its major sources.
Natural gas is less dense than air, which means
that it disperses in air. However, it is explosive in certain concentrations, so a safety measure incorporated
by gas companies is to add an odour to natural gas so that leaks may be readily detected. Natural gas itself
is odourless.
Methane is the major constituent of natural gas and it burns with a hot, clean flame.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
Coal miners have long been aware of the dangers of methane gas. Released from coal seams during
underground mining operations, methane gas has been responsible for many explosions and subsequent
tragedies. Methane gas, besides being found in association with petroleum deposits, is also a by-product of
coal formation. It is often absorbed onto the surface of coal deposits deep underground.
Coal seam gas (CSG), also called coal bed methane, is extracted by drilling deep wells into underground
coal deposits. Such wells are typically 100 to 1500 m deep and are below the level of aquifers used for bore
water supplies in inland Australia. The coal seams, which are nearly always filled with water, are further
injected with water or chemicals to increase the pressure and crack the rocks. The accompanying decrease
in pressure in the coal seam below allows the methane to desorb from the coal. It is then brought to the
surface through the drilled well, along with more of the underground water. This process is called fracking.
Australia has large deposits of coal seam gas, which are now being extracted from the Bowen and Surat
Basins in eastern Queensland and northern New South Wales. The methane produced is relatively free from
impurities, often containing only small amounts of ethane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide, and so requires
minimal processing. It is used in the same way as natural gas and also contributes to a growing export
industry for liquefied natural gas.

FIGURE 1.8 Coal seam gas is produced from coal deposits that lie deep underground.
wellhead
gas
water
normal underground
water aquifers
gas
coal layer containing

water and methane
gas
water
Although the coal seam gas industry has FIGURE 1.9 Public opinion is divided over the environmental
shown enormous expansion since 1996, impact of fracking, and France, Germany, Scotland and some
there are concerns from various groups US states have banned its use.
about its environmental impact. These
include farmers who worry that it might
pollute aquifers that supply some of
Australia’s most economic farming land.
Concerns have also been raised about the
use of fracking to increase gas flow in
wells. Fracking has been used around
Australia, but current regulations are
inconsistent in each state and territory.
Victoria became the first state to
permanently ban fracking on land. As
fracking involves injecting very large
amounts of water and other chemicals
deep underground, environmental groups
say drinking water and aquifers can
become contaminated during this process.
1.2.5 Origin of biofuels

Biofuels are fuels made from waste plant and animal matter. They have been growing more popular in
recent years due to the rise in oil prices and because of the impact fossil fuel combustion has on global
warming. The three most common biofuels are biogas, bioethanol and biodiesel.

Biogas
Biogas is a combustible fuel used to generate electricity, light, heat, motion and fuels such as ethanol,
and may contain up to 65% methane. It is produced when animal waste or other organic material rots in
the absence of oxygen, such as when rubbish has been buried underground, or in digestive processes of
mammals that involve the breakdown of food by bacteria in the gut. The most common material used for
biogas production is livestock manure. The manure is fed into an airtight digester where it is allowed to
ferment. The biogas produced is then collected and stored in a tank (see figure 1.10).
Biogas is commonly used to power furnaces, heaters and engines, and to generate electricity. Compressed
biogas can also be used to fuel vehicles, and the residue from a biogas digester can be used as a fertiliser.
FIGURE 1.10 Biogas is a useful energy source.
animal and
human wastes gas pipe to surface
gas storage pit

container containing
digested
sewage for
fertiliser
fermentation
chamber where
the sewage is
digested
Bioethanol
Bioethanol is primarily used as a substitute for FIGURE 1.11 Raw materials used in the production of
bioethanol.
petrol in vehicles. Bioethanol is obtained by
fermenting sugar from sources such as waste
wheat starch and molasses, which is a by-product
of sugar production. Up to about 10% anhydrous
ethanol (E10) can be used as an additive to petrol
without engine modification.
There are advantages and disadvantages to
using ethanol-blended fuel. One advantage is
that it reduces some pollutant emissions and
contributes fewer greenhouse gases because
production involves the use of a waste product.
Environmentally, the presence of oxygen in the
ethanol assists the complete combustion of the
petrol, and emissions of carbon monoxide and
aromatic hydrocarbons are reduced. However,
the cost of processing ethanol compared with
petrol will need to be improved, and ethanol
produces less energy per gram. Ethanol can also contribute to the breakdown of some plastic and rubber
parts in vehicles. In some countries there may be a dilemma concerning using land for food or fuel crops.
Although burning ethanol puts back into the atmosphere carbon dioxide that was originally absorbed by
photosynthesis, some carbon dioxide is released in the production of the ethanol.

Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a diesel alternative that can be made FIGURE 1.12 Using sugarcane instead of soy bean
from plant oils and animal fats. Typical sources to make the oil which is processed into biodiesel
improves the yield by around 12% per acre.
include canola, palm oil and animal tallow. It
can also be made from used cooking oil, such
as that used in restaurant fryers. The CSIRO
has estimated that Australia could reduce its
petrodiesel demand by 4 to 8% if all current
sources of plant oil, tallow and waste cooking
oil were used.
Oils and fats are naturally occurring esters
formed between long-chain carboxylic acids
(known as fatty acids) and glycerol. Common fatty
acids are summarised in table 1.1. Figure 1.13
shows the structure of glycerol and a typical
fatty acid.
FIGURE 1.13 Structures of (a) glycerol and (b) a typical fatty acid
(a) (b)
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O
H C C C H H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
O O O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H
H H H
Biodiesel is produced by reacting oils or fats (also called triglycerides)

TABLE 1.1 Formulas of
with an alcohol. Although a number of small alcohols can be used, the some fatty acids
most common is methanol. Heat and either concentrated sodium or
potassium hydroxide, which acts as a catalyst, are used in this process. Name Formula
It can be made on a small scale, using homemade equipment or with
specially purchased kits, or on a much larger scale for commercial Palmitic C15 H31 COOH
distribution. The chemical reaction involved converts one type of ester
Palmitoleic C15 H29 COOH
into another and is called transesterification. A typical transesterification
is shown in figure 1.14. The glycerol formed can be sold as a by-product Stearic C17 H35 COOH
for use in cosmetics and foods, and as a precursor for certain explosives.
While biodiesel is regarded as a more environmentally friendly choice Oleic C17 H33 COOH
than diesel, the most economical method of biodiesel production requires
the use of non-renewable fossil fuels to make the methanol required for Linoleic C17 H31 COOH
the transesterifcation process. In this process, steam reforming is used to
Linolenic C17 H29 COOH
produce ‘synthesis gas’, which then undergoes further reactions to make
methanol. When natural gas (methane) is used as the feedstock, the overall
equation for this process is:
CH4 (g) + H2 O(g) → CH3 OH(g) + H2 (g)
To overcome this problem, a number of methods of producing methanol economically from renewable
resources are being investigated. The most exciting of these involves using the glycerol produced in the
transesterification reaction as the initial feedstock for producing synthesis gas to feed into the methanol
production process. Another method involves using a catalyst to facilitate the direct conversion of glycerol
to methanol. A number of new methods are also being developed to convert the cellulose in waste or
low-quality plant material into biodiesel.

FIGURE 1.14 A typical transesterification reaction
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C O C H H O C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C O C H + H O C H
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C O C H H O C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
OH− catalyst
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C O C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H O C H
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C O C H + H O C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H
Biodiesel Glycerol
1.2 EXERCISE
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
1. Why do you think brown coal is used on such an extensive scale to generate electricity in Victoria, even
though it has a relatively low energy content?
2. (a) What is a fuel?
(b) Give four examples of fuels that you have used in the last week.
(c) What is the difference between a fossil fuel and a biofuel?
3. Fuels, and energy sources in general, may be classified as either renewable or non-renewable.
(a) Define the terms ‘renewable’ and ‘non-renewable’ as they apply to this context.
(b) Are all biofuels renewable? Explain.
(c) Are renewable energy sources always biofuels? Explain.
4. Write the formula for biodiesel if it is produced from palmitic acid and methanol.
To answer past VCAA exam questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every
question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
studyON: Past VCAA exam questions

Fully worked solutions and sample responses are available in your digital formats.

1.3 Combustion of fuels
KEY CONCEPT
• Combustion of fuels as exothermic reactions with reference to the use of the joule as the SI unit of energy,
energy transformations and their efficiencies and measurement of enthalpy change including symbol (∆H)
and common units (kJ mol–1 , kJ g–1 , MJ/tonne)
1.3.1 What is energy?

In scientific terms, ‘energy’ is defined as the capacity to do
FIGURE 1.15 Crude oil fires produce
‘work’. Energy can be neither created nor destroyed but only around 38 000 kJ L–1 of energy upon
changed from one form to another. It exists in various forms combustion.
and, in chemistry, is focused on the potential energy stored
and released from bonds. The SI unit for energy is the joule;
it has the symbol J. One J is a relatively small amount of
energy. It takes about 70 000 J to boil water for a cup of tea.
Given that when a fuel combusts it produces large amounts of
energy, chemists often convert joules into kilojoules (kJ) or
megajoules (MJ).
1.3.2 Different forms of energy

Energy may take a number of different forms. These include:
• mechanical energy
• thermal (heat) energy
• chemical energy
• light energy
• sound energy
• electrical energy
• gravitational energy
• nuclear energy.
All of these forms of energy may be classified as either potential energy (energy that is stored,
ready to do work) or kinetic energy (energy associated with movement, in doing work).
FIGURE 1.16 Types of potential energy FIGURE 1.17 Types of kinetic energy
Gravitational Heat
Chemical Electrical
Mechanical Sound
Types of Types of
potential energy kinetic energy
Magnetic Nuclear
Chemical Light
Elastic

The total energy of an object is the sum of its potential and kinetic energy. All objects, from
the smallest atom to the largest space rocket, have potential and kinetic energy.
1.3.3 Energy conversions

Whatever form energy takes, it is governed by two general laws of thermodynamics.
The first law states that energy is neither created nor destroyed, but simply changes from one form into
another. Whenever energy is converted from one form to another, the total quantity of energy remains the
same. This is sometimes called the Law of Conservation of Energy.
FIGURE 1.18 An illustration of the Law of Conservation of Energy.
A B C
D E
A Water stored in a dam has potential energy.

B Water flows downhill and is converted to kinetic energy.
C The falling water turns the blades of a waterwheel so that kinetic energy is converted to
mechanical energy.
D The waterwheel turns a generator to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
E Electrical energy may be converted into light energy, sound energy and heat energy in the
home.
The second law states that, although the quantity of energy in the universe may stay the same, the
quality or usability gets worse. This is because whenever energy is converted from one form to another,
heat is also produced. This is low-temperature heat, which is difficult to use. It simply warms up the Earth’s
atmosphere by a small amount. So, after each energy change, less usable energy remains.
Photosynthesis
Plants take carbon dioxide from the air and water from the roots to effect the energy change in a process
called photosynthesis. In addition to providing food for animals as a result of this process, they provide
oxygen as a by-product of the reaction.
The following reaction outlines how plants produce simple sugars (in this case glucose) through
photosynthesis and remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere:
6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) → C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)

Using sunlight, plants create compounds that store energy in their bonds. Reversing the above reaction
releases this stored bond energy and the carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere (a combustion reaction).

FIGURE 1.19 Plants act as energy converters. They change the heat and light
energy from the Sun into chemical energy that is stored in the plant.
carbon dioxide
heat and (from the air)
chemical
light oxygen
energy
energy water
(from the roots)
CONVERSION OF ENERGY IN POWER STATIONS

When coal is burned, its stored chemical potential energy is converted into heat energy. This heat energy is used
to convert water into steam, so heat energy is converted into kinetic energy. The steam flows past a turbine
so the kinetic energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy in the spinning turbine. The turbine is
connected to a generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Electrical energy may then
be used to power a wide range of appliances in the home and in industry.
9. chimney
2. air
inlet 6. electricity
steam output
5. turbo-
3. air generator
cooling
preheater
tower
steam
4. boiler
1. coal
inlet
7. condenser
8. water to
boiler from cooled-water
pond
chemical
kinetic energy kinetic energy electrical energy
potential
in steam in turbine from dynamo
energy

1. Coal inlet
2. Air intake
3. Air is preheated by exhaust gases from boiler.
4. Water is converted to steam.
5. Heat energy is converted to mechanical energy.
6. Mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy.
7. Hot water from condenser
8. Steam from turbo-generator is cooled in condenser, then recycled to boiler.
9. Waste products of combustion
Resources
Video eLesson Coal-fired power station (med-0433)
1.3.4 Energy efficiency

The efficiency of energy conversion is a concept that follows from the second law of thermodynamics. It
takes the amount of usable energy obtained into account and is defined as a percentage.
Energy efficiency (%):
energy obtained in desired form 100

%efficiency = ×
energy available before conversion 1
Energy transformations are not 100% efficient. This is because heat is also produced when energy
conversions take place. The second law of thermodynamics states that a high quality of energy is
transformed to a lower quality of energy and some heat.
FIGURE 1.20 The efficiency of changing one energy form into another varies.
rocket engine
50%
car engine 25%
chemical energy gas heater

photosynthesis 85%
<1%
heat energy
dry cell hot water
light energy 60–90% steam
heater 99%
turbine
tungsten 45%
lamp 4%
generator mechanical
solar cell
95% energy
5–15%
electrical motor
energy 60–90%
When electricity generation is considered, the calculations must take into account the efficiency of the
generation process. For example, to produce 1 MJ of electrical energy, assuming the generation process is

30% efficient, enough fuel would need to be burned to produce 3.33 MJ of heat energy. The mass of carbon
dioxide produced in supplying 3.33 MJ would then need to be calculated.
Both transport and the generation of electricity consume large amounts of fossil fuels and, in the process,
add large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. As nations work to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions, alternative fuels need to be considered. When considering fuels, the amount of carbon dioxide
emitted per unit of energy produced is a useful comparison.
FIGURE 1.21 The consumption of fossil fuels to produce energy releases large
amounts of carbon dioxide and water vapour into the environment.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A compact fluorescent light bulb converts electrical energy into light energy. As part of a quality
control test, it was found to convert 9.0 kJ of electrical energy into 1.8 kJ of light energy.
Calculate its efficiency.
Teacher-led video: SP1 (tlvd-0658)
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the energy efficiency formula, Energy obtained in desired form = 1.8 kJ
%efficiency = Energy available before conversion = 9.0 kJ
×
and identify the variables.
2. Substitute in the appropriate values. If your %efficiency =
answer is greater than 100 you have the energy energy obtained in desired form 100
×
values the wrong way around. energy available before conversion 1
Give your answer to 2 significant figures. 1.8 100
TIP: A similar formula can be found in = ×
9.0 1
Table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book: %yield = 20%
and %atom economy.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
The electricity from a coal-fired power station is used to power an electric motor. If the overall
efficiency of the power station is 28%, and the efficiency of the motor in producing mechanical
energy is 75%, calculate the overall efficiency for the conversion of chemical energy in coal to
mechanical energy.
1.3.5 Energy changes in reactions

The energy changes that accompany chemical reactions are vital to us. To survive, we depend on the energy
content of the food we eat. Our bodies can convert the energy of the chemical bonds in food into other kinds
of energy. The quality of lifestyle we lead depends on harnessing energy from different chemical sources,
including coal, oil, natural gas and renewable fuels.
The study of the energy changes that accompany chemical reactions is called thermochemistry or
chemical energetics. In general, all chemical reactions involve energy changes. The chemical energy stored
in a substance has the potential to be converted to heat or electricity (for more on chemical energy converted
to electricity see topic 3).
A certain amount of chemical energy is stored within every atom, molecule or ion. This energy is the sum
of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the substance and results from:
• the attractions and repulsions present between protons and electrons within the atom
• the attractions and, to some degree, repulsions present between atoms within a molecule
• the motion of the electrons
• the movement of the atoms. FIGURE 1.22 A change in enthalpy occurs
The total energy stored in a substance is called when magnesium burns.
the enthalpy of the substance and is given the
symbol H. Unfortunately, we cannot directly measure
the heat content of a substance, but we can measure the
change in enthalpy when the substance undergoes a
chemical reaction. In virtually all chemical reactions,
the energy of the reactants and products differ, so such
reactions usually involve some change in enthalpy,
which is indicated by a temperature rise or fall. The
change in enthalpy during a reaction is denoted by ∆H
and is usually known as the heat of reaction, but there
are some reactions for which specific names have been
given.
• Heat of solution is the change in enthalpy when 1 mole of any substance dissolves in water.
• Heat of neutralisation is the change in enthalpy when an acid reacts with a base to form 1 mole of
water.
• Heat of vapourisation is the change in enthalpy when 1 mole of liquid is converted to a gas.
• Heat of combustion is the enthalpy change when a substance burns in air, and is always exothermic.
The change in enthalpy, ∆H, is determined by:
Change in enthalpy (ΔH) = (enthalpy of products) − (enthalpy of reactants)

ΔH = HP − HR

The enthalpy change, or heat change, of a reaction depends on the amount and temperature of reactants
used, compared with that of the final products. To remove these variables in enthalpy studies, the following
conditions are assumed:
• the initial temperature of the reactants and final temperature of the products is the same and is 25 °C
• 1 mole of the substance is involved
• solutions have a concentration of 1 M
• the heat absorbed or released is measured in kilojoules
• the pressure is kept at 100.0 kPa.
These conditions are referred to as standard laboratory conditions (SLC).
1.3.6 Exothermic and endothermic reactions

Chemical reactions accompanied by heat energy changes can be divided into two groups: exothermic
reactions and endothermic reactions.
FIGURE 1.23 In endothermic reactions, the surroundings lose energy and get cooler. In exothermic reactions the
surroundings gain energy and get warmer.
Enthalpy change, ∆H, is equal to heat energy produced or absorbed. When bonds are broken in reactants,
energy is consumed and is therefore endothermic. When bonds are formed in the products, energy is given
out and is therefore exothermic. If the energy given out when product bonds are formed is greater than the
energy taken in when reactant bonds are broken, the reaction is exothermic. This would result in a negative
value.
Exothermic reactions
Chemical reactions that release heat to the environment are called exothermic reactions. Consider the
reaction between magnesium and hydrochloric acid shown in figure 1.24.
The following data was taken from an enthalpy databook for the reaction between magnesium and
hydrochloric acid.
change in enthalpy = (enthalpy of products) − (enthalpy of reactants)

change in enthalpy = (−797 kJ) − (+334 kJ)
∆H = −463 kJ mol−1
The energy change in a reaction can be drawn as an energy diagram or energy profile. Chemicals with
more energy are drawn higher up and those with less energy, lower down. The reactants are drawn on the
left and the products are drawn on the right. Figure 1.25 is an energy diagram for an exothermic reaction.
In exothermic reactions, the ∆H is always negative because the heat content of the reactants is greater
than that of the products. The bonds in the products are more stable than the bonds in the reactants.

FIGURE 1.24 An exothermic reaction — magnesium ribbon dissolving in hydrochloric acid.
magnesium
hydrochloric acid
heat energy magnesium
given out; chloride
feels warm solution
Mg(s) + 2 HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
FIGURE 1.25 Exothermic reaction energy diagram demonstrating the negative ∆H
reactants
energy
ΔH = energy change = heat of reaction
products
Endothermic reactions
Chemical reactions that absorb heat from the environment are called endothermic reactions.
When ammonium nitrate is dissolved in water, heat is absorbed from the environment. If you were
holding the test tube in figure 1.26 it would feel cold because the reaction takes in energy from the water
and your hand. This means that the enthalpy of the products is greater than the enthalpy of the reactants.
Therefore, the enthalpy change is positive. The difference in energy between the reactants and the products
is absorbed from the environment.
FIGURE 1.26 An endothermic reaction — ammonium nitrate dissolving FIGURE 1.27 Instant
in water. cold packs contain
solid ammonium nitrate
and water.
ammonium
nitrate
ammonium
water nitrate
solution
heat energy
taken in; feels
cold

The following data was taken from an enthalpy databook for the reaction between ammonium nitrate and
water.
change in enthalpy = (enthalpy of products) − (enthalpy of reactants)

change in enthalpy = (−231 kJ mol−1 ) − (+256 kJ mol−1 )
∆H = +25 kJ mol−1
Figure 1.28 is an energy diagram for an endothermic reaction. In endothermic reactions, ∆H is always
positive because the heat content of the reactants is less than that of the products. The bonds in the products
are less stable than the bonds in the reactants.
FIGURE 1.28 Endothermic reaction energy diagram demonstrating the positive ∆H
products
energy
ΔH = energy change = heat of reaction
reactants
1.3.7 Units of energy

FIGURE 1.29 How to convert
The SI unit of energy is the joule. Depending upon the energy of between different units of
the system, the kilojoule, kJ, and megajoule, MJ, can also be used. energy
How to convert between these units is shown in figure 1.29. ÷ 106
To convert between different units of energy: ÷ 103 ÷ 103

÷ 1000 ÷ 1000
1 000 000 J = 1000 kJ = 1 MJ
1 × 106 J = 1 × 103 kJ = 1 MJ
J kJ MJ
OR
1 J = 0.001 kJ = 0.000001 MJ
× 1000 × 1000
1 J = 1 × 10−3 kJ = 1 × 10−6 MJ × 103 × 103
× 106
1.3 EXERCISE
1. State whether the following are exothermic or endothermic processes.
(a) Water changing from liquid to gaseous state
(b) A reaction in which the total enthalpy of the products is greater than that of the reactants
(c) Burning kerosene in a blow torch
(d) Burning fuel in a jet aircraft engine
(e) A chemical reaction that has a negative ∆H value
(f) A reaction in which the reactants are at a lower level on an energy profile diagram than the products

For questions 2 to 4, use efficiency figures from figure 1.20.
2. A device converts 350 J of mechanical energy into 120 J of output energy. Calculate the efficiency of this
device.
3. Calculate the energy input required for a gas heater to produce 72 MJ if the gas heater runs at 85%
efficiency. Give your answer in MJ, kJ and J.
4. Heat energy in steam is used to drive a steam turbine that, in turn, drives an electrical generator. Calculate
the electrical energy produced from steam containing 400 000 kJ. Give your answer in MJ.
5. Calculate the carbon dioxide emissions, in kg MJ−1 , from a power station that has an overall efficiency of
33.0% and burns black coal with a carbon content of 81.5%. (Heat evolved from black coal is 34.0 kJ g−1 .)

1.4 Thermochemical equations

KEY CONCEPT
• The writing of balanced thermochemical equations, including states, for the complete and incomplete
combustion of hydrocarbons, methanol and ethanol, using experimental data and data tables
1.4.1 Writing balanced thermochemical equations

A thermochemical equation is an equation that includes the amount of heat produced or absorbed by a
reaction. As with other chemical equations, charge and mass must balance, but thermochemical equations
must also include the enthalpy change.
In writing a thermochemical equation, the following points should be remembered:
• A positive or negative sign must be included with the ∆H value to indicate whether the reaction is
either endothermic or exothermic. If an enthalpy change is given as ∆H = 345 kJ mol–1 , the lack of
sign does not mean that it is an endothermic reaction.
• Enthalpy is measured in kJ mol–1 . This means the coefficients in the equation represent the amount of
moles of each reacting substance that the ∆H value refers to.
The following equation can be read as: when 2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of oxygen,
2 moles of water form and 572 kJ of energy is produced.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l) ∆H = −572 kJ mol−1
∆H refers to the equation as it is written, even though the unit is expressed as kJ mol–1 .
• The physical state of matter must be shown because changes of state require energy changes.
• Thermochemical equations can be written from direct experimental data (primary data) or utilising
published tabulated data (secondary data).
Study the following equations. In the first case, the product is a liquid; in the second case, the
product is a gas. So, the condensation of 2 moles of water vapour to 2 moles of liquid water at 25 °C
produces 88 kJ of energy, which is the difference between the two enthalpies.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l) ∆H = −572 kJ mol−1
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(g) ∆H = −484 kJ mol−1

• If the coefficients are doubled, the ∆H value must be doubled. The amount of energy produced by a
chemical reaction is directly proportional to the amount of substance initially present. If twice as much
reactant is used, then twice as much energy can be produced.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l) ∆H = −572 kJ mol−1
4H2 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 4H2 O(l) ∆H = −1144 kJ mol−1
• If a reaction is reversed, ∆H is equal to, but opposite in sign, to that of the forward reaction.
2H2 O(l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) ∆H = +572 kJ mol−1
You will notice that the key point is that the enthalpy change in a reaction is proportional to the amount
of substance that reacts. If these two quantities are measured in an experiment, it is possible to write the
accompanying thermochemical equation.
To correctly write thermochemical equations, Table 11 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book
(Heats of combustion of common fuels) should be used. When assigning ∆H values it is
important to take note of the number of moles of fuel that are combusted. If the number of
moles in the equation is changed, the ∆H value will also change.
For example:
1
H2 (g) + O2 (g) → H2 O(g) ΔH = −282 kJ mol−1 (from 2 g of H2 )
2
If twice as much hydrogen was to react, then twice the energy would be released.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(g) ΔH = −564 kJ mol−1 (from 4 g of H2 )
Regardless of the number of moles reacting the units for ∆H is kJ mol–1 .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
The molar heat of combustion of ethanol is tabulated as –1360 kJ mol–1 .

a. Write the thermochemical equation for the combustion of ethanol.
b. If the density of ethanol is 0.790 g mL–1 , calculate the energy evolved in MJ when 1.00 L of
ethanol is burned.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. The formula and state symbol for ethanol CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(g)
can be found in Table 11 of the VCE
Chemistry Data Book. Both ethanol and
methanol complete combustion equations
should be learned or correctly generated.

TIP: The state symbol of water would
expect to be a gas (as combustion reactions
produce enough heat to vaporise water) but
liquid is also acceptable.
2. The given heat value refers to 1 mole. CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(g)
Therefore the value of –1360 kJ is ∆H = −1360 kJ mol−1
equivalent to the 1 mole of ethanol shown
in the balanced equation.
b. 1. Identify the given and unknown quantities. density of ethanol = 0.790 g mL–1
volume = 1.00 L
mass of ethanol = ?
2. Recall the equation for density: 1.00 L ethanol = 1.00 × 1000
mass = 1000 mL ethanol
density =
volume mass
Compare the units given to those required. density =
volume
TIP: The actual formula for density is not
m(ethanol) = d(ethanol) × V(ethanol)
in the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
= 0.790 × 1000
However, in Table 4, the density of water is
= 790 g
given with units of mass per volume, hence
the formula can be determined.
m
3. Calculate the number of moles using the (n)ethanol =
mass determined in b.2. and M of M
m 790
ethanol by applying the formula n = . =
M 46.0
= 17.17 mol
1360
4. From the equation, 1 mole of ethanol x = 17.17 ×
evolves 1360 kJ. By direct proportion, 1
17.17 mol produces x kJ = 23 356 kJ
23 356
5. Convert kJ to MJ and give the answer to 3 = 23.4 MJ
significant figures. 1000
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
In an experiment, it was found that the combustion of 0.240 g of methanol in excess oxygen yielded
5.42 kJ.
a. Write the thermochemical equation for this reaction.
b. If the density of methanol is 0.792 g mL–1 , calculate the energy evolved in MJ when 10.00 L
of methanol is burned.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The combustion of ethene can be represented by the following thermochemical equation.
C2 H4 (g) + 3O2 (g)→2CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) ΔH = −1409 kJ mol−1
Calculate the mass of ethene required to produce 500 kJ of heat energy.
THINK WRITE
1
1. From the equation, 1 mole of C2 H4 evolves 1409 kJ. x = 500 ×
By ratio, x moles are required to evolve 500 kJ. 1409
= 0.3548
2. Use the formula m = n × M, where the molar mass of m(C2 H4 ) = n × M
ethene = 28.0 g mol–1 . = 0.3548 × 28.0
3. Give the answer to 3 significant figures. m(C2 H4 ) = 9.94 g
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
The air pollutant sulfur trioxide reacts with water in the atmosphere to produce sulfuric acid
according to the equation: SO3 (g) + H2 O(l) → H2 SO4 (aq) ΔH = −129.6 kJ mol−1
Calculate the energy released, in kJ, when 0.500 kg SO3 (g) reacts with water.
TIP: Don’t forget to indicate whether the enthalpy of the reaction is exothermic (−) or
endothermic (+).
1.4.2 Combustion of hydrocarbons, methanol and ethanol

Water is always formed in any type of combustion reaction. When oxygen is in excess, complete
combustion can occur where all the fuel is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide and water. When the supply of
oxygen is limited, incomplete combustion will occur where not all the fuel is fully oxidised. The products
of incomplete combustion vary and may contain a combination of carbon, carbon monoxide and even
amounts of carbon dioxide with very large hydrocarbons.
TABLE 1.2 Complete combustion of hydrocarbons methane and butane
Equation type Reactants → Products
Word equation methane + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

gas gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l)
Thermochemical CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l)

equation ∆H = –890 kJ mol–1
Word equation butane gas + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation C4 H10 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation 2C4 H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(l)
Thermochemical 2C4 H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(l)
equation ∆H = −5760 kJ mol–1

TABLE 1.3 Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons methane and butane
Word equation methane + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

gas gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation 2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)
Thermochemical 2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)

Word equation butane gas + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation *C4 H10 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation 2C4 H10 (g) + 9O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(l)
Thermochemical 2C4 H10 (g) + 9O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 20H2 O(g)
Word equation butane gas + oxygen → carbon + water vapour + carbon solid
gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation *C4 H10 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l) + C(s)
Balanced equation C4 H10 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 5H2 O(l) + C(s)
Thermochemical C4 H10 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 5H2 O(l) + C(s)
equation
*many different combinations of products can occur.
TABLE 1.4 Complete combustion of methanol and ethanol
Word equation methanol + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

liquid gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation CH3 OH(I) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation 2CH3 OH(I) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)
Thermochemical 2CH3 OH(I) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)

Word equation ethanol liquid + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

gas dioxide gas
Symbol equation C2 H5 OH(I) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation C2 H5 OH(I) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)
Thermochemical C2 H5 OH(I) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)


TABLE 1.5 Incomplete combustion of methanol and ethanol
Word equation methanol liquid + oxygen → carbon + water vapour

gas monoxide gas
Symbol equation CH3 OH(I) + O2 (g) → CO(g) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation CH3 OH(I) + O2 (g) → CO(g) + 2H2 O(l)
Thermochemical CH3 OH(I) + O2 (g) → CO(g) + 2H2 O(l)


gas monoxide gas
Symbol equation C2 H5 OH(I) + O2 (g) → CO + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation C2 H5 OH(I) + 2O2 (g) → 2CO + 3H2 O(l)
Thermochemical C2 H5 OH(I) + 2O2 (g) → 2CO + 3H2 O(l)


gas monoxide gas
Symbol equation C2 H5 OH(I) + O2 (g) → C(S) + H2 O(l)
Balanced equation C2 H5 OH(I) + O2 (g) → 2C(S) + 3H2 O(l)
Thermochemical C2 H5 OH(I) + O2 (g) → 2C(S) + 3H2 O(l)

TIPS:
• Remember to use the correct state symbol when referring to alcohols, they are often
incorrectly assumed to be aqueous (aq) instead of pure liquid (l).
• When balancing equations with alcohols do not forget to count the oxygen in the alcohol.
This is a common mistake that leads to an unbalanced equation.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Write the thermochemical equation showing the complete combustion of ethane gas.
THINK WRITE
1. Find the formula and molar heat of combustion of C2 H6
ethane using the VCE Chemistry Data Book (Table 11). 1560 kJ mol–1
2. Write out the formula and balance the equation. 2C2 H6 (g) + 7O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(g)
3. Add the value, taking care with multiples of molar ∆H = 2 × –1560
heat of combustion and the corresponding units. = –3120 kJ mol–1
7
Alternatively: the equation can be written for the C2 H6 (g) + CO2 → 2C2 + 3H2 O
2
combustion of one mole of ethane gas.
ΔH = −1560 kJ mol−1

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Write the balanced equation showing the incomplete combustion of ethane gas.
Resources
Interactivity Combustion equations (int-1370)
1.4.3 Calculating ∆H values from two or more related reactions

If the enthalpy change of a desired reaction is not known, it is possible to calculate it from a series of related
reactions. The calculated value may then be used to make thermochemical predictions.
The following sample problem demonstrates how to find the enthalpy change.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Calculate the enthalpy change for the incomplete combustion of methane in a limited oxygen
supply, given the following two equations.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)→CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g) ΔH = −890 kJ mol−1 [1]
2CO(g) + O2 (g)→2CO2 (g) ΔH = −556 kJ mol−1 [2]
THINK WRITE
1. The required equation for the 2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2 O(g) [3]
incomplete combustion of methane
needs to be written and labelled.
2. Equations [1] and [2] need to be 2CH4 (g) + 4O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g) [4]
manipulated so that, when added ΔH = −1780 kJ mol −1
together, equation [3] is produced. This
can be achieved by multiplying equation 2CO2 (g) → 2CO(g) + O2 (g) [5]
−1
[1] by 2 and reversing equation [2]. ΔH = +556 kJ mol
3. Adding the new equations [4] and [5] [4] + [5]

results in cancelling to produce the 2CH4 (g) + 34 O2 (g) +
2CO 2 (g) →
required equation [3].
2CO
O2
2 (g) + 2CO(g) + 4H2 O(g) + (g)
The CO2 cancel out and the O2
2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2 O(g) [3]
changes to 3 moles.
Similarly, the ΔH values of [4] and [5] ΔH = –1780 + 556 = –1224 kJ mol–1
are also added.
Alternatively: The enthalpy for 1 mole If the following equation was used:
can be calculated by using the equation 3
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
given. 2
ΔH = −612kJ mol−1

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum contain sulfur as an impurity. This produces sulfur oxides
when they are burned. These are atmospheric pollutants.
Develop the thermochemical equation for the reaction
S(s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)
given the following equations.

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g) ΔH = −196 kJ mol−1 [1]
−1
2S(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g) ΔH = −760 kJ mol [2]
1.4 EXERCISE
1. The combustion of 3.15 g of methanol was found to yield 71.5 kJ of heat. Calculate the ∆H value for this
reaction and write the thermochemical equation.
2. Calculate the energy released, in kJ, when 3.56 g of carbon undergoes combustion according to the
thermochemical equation:
2C(s) + O2 (g) → 2CO(g) ∆H = −788 kJ mol−1

3. The use of hydrogen as a renewable and environmentally friendly fuel is currently the subject of much
research. The main product of hydrogen combustion is water. The production of liquid water from the
reaction between gaseous hydrogen and gaseous oxygen can be represented by the following
thermochemical equation.
O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) → 2H2 O(l) ∆H = −564 kJ mol−1
Calculate how much energy, in kJ, would be released or absorbed by the following reactions.
(a) 2O2 (g) + 4H2 (g) → 4H2 O(l)
(b) H2 O(l) → 12 O2 (g) + H2 (g)
4. During the production of sulfuric acid by the Contact process, sulfur dioxide is converted to sulfur trioxide
according to the equation:
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g) ∆H = −197 kJ mol−1
Calculate the heat energy released in the production of 1.00 tonne (106 g) of sulfur trioxide gas.
5. Calculate the energy released when 18.5 g of carbon undergoes combustion in a plentiful supply of air
C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ∆H = −394 kJ mol−1

6. Methanol burns according to the equation:
2CH3 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l) ∆H = −1452 kJ mol−1
Calculate the mass of methanol required to produce 1.000 MJ of energy.

7. Butane and octane are two hydrocarbons commonly used as fuels. The thermochemical equations for these
two fuels are:
2C4 H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(l) ∆H = −5760 kJ mol−1
2C8 H18 (g) + 25O2 (g) → 16CO2 (g) + 18H2 O(l) ∆H = −10 920 kJ mol−1
(a) Calculate the heat evolved by the combustion of 100 g of butane.
(b) Use your answer to (a) to calculate the mass of octane required to produce the same amount of energy.
Explain why it is critical to show symbols of state in thermochemical equations.

8. Calculate the ∆H value for the incomplete combustion of pentane, according to the equation:
2C5 H12 (l) + 11O2 (g) → 10CO(g) + 12H2 O(l)

2CO(g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) ∆H = −556 kJ mol−1
C5 H12 (l) + 8O2 (g) → 5CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) ∆H = −3509 kJ mol−1
9. Calculate ∆H for the reaction:
CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(g)
CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l) ∆H = −1360 kJ mol−1
H2 O(l) → H2 O(g) ∆H = +44.0 kJ mol−1

1.5 Gaseous fuels and the universal gas equation

KEY CONCEPT
• The definition of gas pressure including units, the universal gas equation and standard laboratory
conditions (SLC) at 25 °C and 100 kPa
1.5.1 Working with gases

When considering fuels as energy sources, it is often necessary to deal with gases. The products of
combustion are nearly always gases, and some of the fuels themselves are gases. While it is possible to
measure their masses, it is often more convenient and meaningful to measure their volumes.
Gases have properties and exhibit behaviours that
FIGURE 1.30 The air in a hot air balloon
are different from liquids and solids. Scientists use the is heated using a propane burner. The
kinetic molecular theory of gases to explain observed gas molecules move more rapidly, hitting each
properties. The theory consists of five postulates (or points) other in a random chaotic motion. As they
that form a mental picture of how the particles in a gas move further apart, the density of the air
would look and behave if we could observe them directly. decreases and the balloon rises.
These are applicable to gas samples under ‘moderate
conditions’, which is usually taken to mean pressures
that are not much greater than atmospheric pressure and
temperatures considerably greater than those at which the
gases liquefy.

Kinetic molecular theory of gases
The five postulates that make up the kinetic molecular theory of gases can be summarised as follows.
1. Gases are made up of particles moving constantly and at random.
2. Gas particles are very far apart, and the volume of the particles is very small compared with the
volume that the gas occupies.
3. The forces of attraction and repulsion between gas particles are practically zero.
4. Gas particles collide with each other and the walls of their container, exerting pressure. The collisions
are perfectly elastic. This means that no kinetic energy is lost when they collide.
5. The higher the temperature, the faster the gas particles move, because they have increased kinetic
energy.
1.5.2 Gas behaviour

In any consideration of gas behaviour, the pressure each gas exerts, the volume that it occupies, its
temperature and the number of gas molecules present in the sample must be determined.
Gas pressure
Gas pressure is the force exerted by particles colliding with the walls of a container. Each tiny collision adds
to all the others to make up the continuous force that we call pressure.
The surface of an inflatable airbed, such as the one in figure 1.31, exerts a force and tries to collapse.
For the airbed to stay inflated, the particles inside the airbed must be able to exert a large enough force to
balance the forces exerted by the surface of the airbed and the external air pressure.
FIGURE 1.31 The particles inside the airbed create pressure.
Pressure (p) is defined as the force exerted per unit area.
force
p=
area
The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), where 1 pascal is equivalent to a force of 1 newton
exerted over an area of 1 square metre (Nm−2 ).

FIGURE 1.32 If a tennis racquet is struck by a tennis ball, a small force is felt. If a stream of balls is fired at the
racquet, it is felt as a continuous pressure.
Atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere. This is measured by a
barometer. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 101 325 Pa, which is usually simplified to read 101.3 kPa
(kilopascal).
Two older units of pressure are millimetres of mercury and atmospheres. One millimetre of mercury
(1 mmHg) is defined as the pressure needed to support a column of mercury 1 mm high. This unit
developed from the early use of mercury barometers. 0.987 atmospheres (0.987 atm) is the pressure
required to support 750 mm of mercury (750 mmHg) in a mercury barometer at 25 °C.
Therefore:
750 mmHg = 0.987 atm = 1.013 × 105 Pa = 101.3 kPa
Bars and hectopascals (hPa) are used to measure gas pressure in the weather.
1 bar = 100 000 Pa = 100 kPa

1
1 millibar (mb) = bar = 100 Pa = 1 hPa
1000

Temperature
Temperature is the amount of heat present in a substance. The Celsius scale takes
FIGURE 1.33 These
the freezing point of water as 0 °C and the boiling point of water as 100 °C. The thermometers show
space between these two fixed points is divided into 100 equal intervals, known a comparison of the
as degrees. Temperatures below the freezing point of water are assigned negative Celsius and Kelvin
values, such as −10 °C. temperature scales.
Another temperature scale is the kelvin, or absolute, scale. On the Kelvin
scale, the freezing point of water is 273 K and its boiling point is 373 K. Notice
100°C 373 K
that a change of 1 ° on the Celsius scale is the same as that on the Kelvin scale.
The zero point on the Kelvin scale, 0 K or absolute zero, is −273 °C. The
relationship between the temperature on the Celsius scale and that on the Kelvin
scale is given by the following equations.
100 100
Conversion between Celsius and Kelvin divisions divisions
K = ∘C + 273
∘C = K − 273
For example, to convert 25 °C to the absolute scale:

0 °C 273 K
K = 25 + 273
= 298
Note that temperatures given in K do not have a ° sign.
Volume
Volume is the amount of space a substance occupies. The volume of a gas is commonly measured in cubic
metres (m3 ), litres (L) or millilitres (mL). The conversion between these is shown below.
1 m3 = 1000 L = 1 000 000 mL

1 m3 = 103 L = 106 mL
1.5.3 Laws to describe the behaviour of gases

The behaviour of gases has been studied for centuries. As a result, a number of laws have evolved to
describe their behaviour mathematically. These laws are independent of the type of gas — it does not matter
what the gas is or if the gas is a mixture such as air, these laws apply in exactly the same way to all gases.
Two very useful such laws are Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.
Boyle’s law for pressure–volume changes

Boyle’s law is named after the English physicist and chemist who discovered the relationship between
pressure and volume for a sample of gas. It states that, for a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature,
pressure is inversely proportional to volume. Mathematically, this can be represented as:
1
p∝
V
where ∝ means ‘is proportional to’. From this relationship it can be stated that pV = a constant value.
If p1 V1 = a constant value and p2 V2 = a constant value, then:
p1 V1 = p2 V2

Charles’ law for temperature–volume changes
The relationship between temperature and volume was
TABLE 1.6 Sample results showing the
first identified by the French scientist Jacques Charles, relationship between the temperature and
after whom the law is named. While the expansion of volume of a gas.
all materials with increasing temperature is well known,
Charles subjected constant amounts of various gases (at Temperature (°C) Volume (L)
constant pressure) to changes in temperature, each time –50 0.75
making accurate measurements of the resulting volume.
0 0.92
To understand this law better, consider a typical set of
results as shown in table 1.6. 40 1.05
If these results are graphed a pattern emerges, as shown 70 1.15
in figure 1.34.
If the Celsius scale is used to measure temperature, 120 1.32
a linear relationship is observed. However, this is not a 180 1.52
directly proportional relationship as the graph does not
pass through the origin. If the kelvin scale is used, it does.
We can therefore state Charles’ law as follows.
For a given amount of gas at constant pressure, volume
FIGURE 1.34 Representation of Charles’ law
is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. showing the two temperature scales, kelvin
Mathematically, this can be represented as, V ∝ T, and degrees Celsius.
(where T is the absolute temperature), from which it can
V Volume (L)
be stated that = a constant value. 2
T
V1 V
If = a constant value and 2 = a constant value,
T1 T2
then: 1
V1 V
= 2
T1 T2 0
100 200 300 400 500 K
−273 −173 −73 27 127 227 °C

You will notice that figure 1.34 implies a ‘lowest Temperature (°C and K)
possible temperature’ — the temperature at which it
intersects the x-axis. This temperature is −273.15 °C or 0
K and is known as absolute zero.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 1.1 The relationship between pressure and volume (doc-31252)
1.5.4 Standard laboratory conditions (SLC)

Boyle’s law and Charles’ law tell us that the volume of a gas sample is sensitive to both temperature and
pressure. This makes the comparison of gas volumes tricky. In order to make these comparisons easier,
scientists have established sets of standard conditions. These are accepted worldwide and enable gas
volumes to be compared meaningfully without temperature or pressure having unwanted effects.
Most experiments are carried out in the laboratory, so the standard laboratory conditions are a
temperature of 25 °C (298 K) and a pressure of 100 kPa.

1.5.5 Molar gas volume and Avogadro’s hypothesis
Amedeo Avogadro was an Italian scientist who put forward the hypothesis that ‘equal volumes of all gases
measured at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of particles’. This means that, if
two gases have the same temperature, pressure and volume, they must contain the same number of moles.
It has been found that 1 mole of any gas at SLC occupies a volume of 24.8 L. This volume is called the
molar gas volume and means that 1 mole of any gas occupies 24.8 L at 25 °C and 100.0 kPa.
FIGURE 1.35 Under the same conditions of temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas depends only on the
number of molecules it contains, and not on what the particles are.
nitrogen oxygen
V = 24.8 L V = 24.8 L
T = 298 K T = 298 K
p = 100.0 kPa p = 100.0 kPa
6.02 × 1023 molecules = 1 mol N2 6.02 × 1023 molecules = 1 mol O2
The molar volume of a gas varies with temperature and pressure but,
FIGURE 1.36 A mole of
at any given temperature and pressure, it is the same for all gases. There hydrogen gas would occupy
is a direct relationship between the number of moles of a gas (n), its the same volume as a mole
molar volume (Vm ) and in the actual volume (V); where V is measured of oxygen molecules, but
in litres. because hydrogen weighs less
than oxygen, it floats upwards
in the air.
At a given temperature and pressure, the
relationship between the number of moles of a
gas (n) and its molar volume (Vm ):
V
n=
Vm
At SLC, Vm = 24.8 L mol−1 .

The number of moles of gas at SLC:
V
nSLC =
24.8

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Find the mass of 1556.5 mL of H2 gas that was collected at SLC.
THINK WRITE
1556.5 mL
1. Identify the given and unknown quantities and compare V= = 1.5565 L
the units given to those required. Convert the volume to 1000
litres. m=?
V
2. Determine the number of moles of H2 gas using the n=
V 24.8
formula, n = .
Vm 1.5565
=
24.8
= 0.06276 mol
m
3. Determine the mass (m) of 0.06276 moles of H2 gas using n (H2 ) =
m M
the formula, n = . m
M 0.0627 =
V m 2.0
TIP: The formulas n = and n = can be found in
Vm M m = 2.0 × 0.0627
table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book. m = 0.126 g
4. Give your answer to 2 significant figures. The mass of H2 gas collected was 0.13 g.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
a. 5345 mL of a gas was collected at SLC and weighed. Its mass was 9.50 g. Find the molar
mass of the gas.
b. Given that the gas is one of the main constituents of air, identify the gas.
1.5.6 The universal gas equation

The universal gas equation is used to describe the behaviour of a hypothetical, ideal gas, to help predict
the behaviour of a real gas. It is obtained by combining Boyle’s law and Charles’ law with Avogadro’s
hypothesis.
Universal gas equation

pV = nRT
where R is the molar gas constant.
The molar gas constant, R, has a value of 8.31 J K–1 mol–1 when:
• pressure (p) is measured in kilopascals (kPa)
• volume (V) is measured in litres (L)
• temperature (T) is measured in degrees kelvin (K)
• the quantity of gas is measured in moles (n).

SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Find the volume of 6.30 mol of carbon dioxide gas at 23.0 °C and 550 kPa pressure.
THINK WRITE
1. Use the molar gas constant (R) taken from Table 4 R = 8.31 J K–1 mol–1
in the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
2. Identify the given and unknown quantities and p = 550 kPa
compare the units given to those required. No unit n = 6.30 mol
conversion is required. T = 23.0 + 273 = 296 K
TIP: The majority of incorrect calculations when R = 8.31 J K−1 mol−1
using the universal gas equation arise from not V = ?L
converting other units (e.g. Pa, mL, mass or °C) in
the question into the correct units of kPa, L, n
and K.
3. Rearrange the universal gas equation to find pV = nRT
volume, V.
nRT
The universal gas equation can be found in Table 3 V=
p
of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
6.30 × 8.31 × 296
=
550
4. Give your answer to 3 significant figures. V = 28.2 L
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
Calculate the volume of gas, in litres, occupied by 12.8 mol of CH4 at 9.87 atm and 60 °C.
1.5 EXERCISE
1. Make the following conversions.
(a) 780 mmHg to atm (b) 4.0 atm to Pa (c) 1000 mmHg to Pa (d) 1250 mmHg to kPa
(e) 200 °C to K (f) 500 K to °C (g) 3.0 m3 to L (h) 250 L to mL
(i) 1600 mL to L (j) 3 × 106 mL to L (k) 5 × 103 mL to m3 (l) 600 mL to m3
2. Consider table 1.7. ( )
1
(a) Convert each pressure measurement (p) into its reciprocal .
p
(b) Plot a graph of pressure versus volume. Put pressure on the horizontal (x) axis and volume on the
vertical (y) axis.
1
(c) Plot a second graph with the volume on the vertical axis and on the horizontal axis, and extrapolate
p
the graph to the origin.
(d) Compare and account for the two graphs.

TABLE 1.7 Sample results showing
the relationship between the
pressure and volume of a gas
Pressure (kPa) Volume (L)
120 0.261
145 0.218
162 0.193
180 0.171
200 0.159
216 0.145
240 0.130
258 0.120
3. Calculate the numbers of moles of the following gases at SLC.

(a) 15 L of oxygen, O2
(b) 25 L of chlorine, Cl2
4. Calculate the volumes of the following gases at SLC.
(a) 1.3 mol hydrogen, H2
(b) 3.6 g of methane, CH4
(c) 0.35 g of argon, Ar
5. Calculate the masses of the following gas samples at SLC.
(a) 16.5 L of neon, Ne
(b) 1050 mL of sulfur dioxide, SO2
6. What is the mass (in kg) of 850 L of carbon monoxide gas measured at SLC?
7. A 0.953 L quantity of a gas measured at SLC has a mass of 3.20 g. What is the molar mass of the gas?
What is the gas?
8. Calculate the volume of gas, in litres, occupied by the following.
(a) 3.5 mol of O2 at 100 kPa and 50 °C
(b) 6.5 g of Ar at 50 kPa and 100 °C
(c) 0.56 g of CO2 at 50 atm and 20 °C
(d) 1.3 10−3 g He at 60 kPa and −50 °C
(e) 1.5 × 1021 molecules of Ne at 40 kPa and 200 °C
9. (a) Calculate the volume occupied by 42.0 g of nitrogen gas at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of
77 °C.
(b) A 5.00 L balloon contains 0.200 mol of air at 120 kPa pressure. What is the temperature of air in the
balloon?
10. (a) If 55 mol of H2 gas is placed in a 10 L flask at 7 °C, what would be the pressure in the flask?
(b) Calculate the energy released when 200 mL of diborane, B2 H6 , is burned at 150 °C and 1.50 atm
according to the following equation.
B2 H6 (g) + 3O2 (g) → B2 O3 (s) + 3H2 O(g) ∆H = −2035 kJ mol−1


1.6 Calculations related to the combustion of fuels
KEY CONCEPT
• Calculations related to the combustion of fuels including use of mass–mass, mass–volume and
volume–volume stoichiometry in calculations of enthalpy change (excluding solution stoichiometry) to
determine heat energy released, reactant and product amounts and net volume of greenhouse gases at a
given temperature and pressure (or net mass) released per MJ of energy obtained
1.6.1 Mass–volume calculations

Many chemical reactions involve gases. For example, 48ptbarbecues, furnaces and engines burn fuel and
produce carbon dioxide and water vapour. In order to ensure that the reactions are efficient and as complete
as possible, it is essential to calculate the volumes or masses of the gases or fuels required.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
In a gas barbecue, propane is burned in oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water vapour. If
22.0 g of CO2 is collected and weighed, find the volume of propane at 200 °C and 1.00 × 105 Pa.
The balanced equation for this reaction is C3 H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g).
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the given and unknown quantities p = 1.00 × 105 Pa
and compare the units given to those m(CO2 ) = 22.0 g
required. Convert the temperature units to T = 200 °C + 273 = 473 K
Kelvin. V = ?L
m
2. Calculate the number of moles of the n=
known quantity of substance using the M
following formula, found in Table 3 of the M of CO2 = 12.0 + (2 × 16.0)
VCE Chemistry Data Book. = 44.0 g mol–1 .
m
n= 22.0
M n(CO2 ) =
44.0
= 0.500 mol
n(CO2 )
3. Use the combustion equation given n(C3 H8 ) =
to find the molar ratio of unknown to 3
known quantities, and calculate the 0.500
=
number of moles of the required 3
substance.
From the given reaction, we know that = 0.1666
3 moles of CO2 are produced from 1 mole
of C3 H8 .
nRT
4. Rearrange the universal gas equation, V(C3 H8 ) =
pV = nRT, to determine the volume of the p
propane. 0.1666 × 8.31 × 473
= × 100
100
5. Give your answer to 3 significant figures. V = 6.55 L

PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
Using the following equation, calculate the mass of hexane that is required to produce 100 L of
carbon dioxide gas at SLC.
2C6 H14 (l) + 19O2 (g)→12CO2 (g) + 14H2 O(g)
1.6.2 Volume–volume calculations

Consider the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen gas.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
This equation says that when 1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2 it will produce 2 moles of ammonia.
According to Avogadro’s hypothesis, if the gases are at the same pressure and temperature, their molar
ratios are equal to their volume ratios. Therefore, we use volumes instead of moles and can say that 10 mL
of N2 reacts with 30 mL of H2 to form 20 mL of ammonia.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
1 mol 3 mol → 2 mol
1 vol 3 vol → 2 vol
10 mL 30 mL → 20 mL
V(unknown) coefficient of unknown

=
V(known) coefficient of known
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
If 100 m3 of ethene is burned according to

C2 H4 (g) + 3O2 (g)→2CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
calculate the volume of:
a. carbon dioxide produced
b. oxygen consumed.
(Assume all gas volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure.)
THINK WRITE
1. Because all gas volumes are measured at the a. V(CO2 ) = 2 V(C2 H4 )
same temperature and pressure, the equation Therefore, V(CO2 ) = 2 × 100 = 200 m3 .
may be interpreted in terms of volume ratios.
b. V(O2 ) = 3V(C2 H4 )
Therefore, V(O2 ) = 3 × 100 = 300 m3 .

PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
Methane gas burns in air at room temperature and pressure, according to the equation:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g)→CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
If 25 mL of methane is burned at room temperature and pressure, find the volumes of the following
reactants and products:
a. oxygen
b. carbon dioxide
c. water
1.6.3 Applying volume stoichiometry to thermochemistry

Just as the principles of mass–mass stoichiometry can be extended to include gas volumes, the
thermochemical calculations introduced earlier in this topic can also be extended to include gas volumes.
This is very useful because it is often more convenient to measure a gas’s volume than its mass. If pressure
and temperature are also measured, the universal gas equation provides a formula to change between
volumes and moles.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the heat energy released when 375 mL of methane at 21.0 °C and 767 mmHg pressure
is burned according to:
CH4 (g + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) ΔH = −890 kJ mol−1

THINK WRITE
1. Use the universal gas equation to calculate T = 21.0 °C + 273
the number of moles of methane used. = 294 K
Identify the given and unknown quantities V = 375 mL
and compare the units given to those = 0.375 L
required. p = 767 mmHg
Convert the temperature units to Kelvin, 767
= × 100
volume to litres and pressure to kPa. 750
Convert pressure to kPa by dividing the = 102.2 kPa
given mmHg in the question by 750 and
then multiplying by 100.
Remember 750 mmHg = 100 kPa.
2. To determine the number of mole of pV = nRT
methane, rearrange the universal gas pV
equation and apply the value of R from n(CH4 ) =
RT
Table 4 in the VCE Chemistry Data Book. 102.2 × 0.375
= × 100
8.31 × 294
= 1.569 × 10−2 mol
3. Calculate the heat evolved from 1.569 × Heat evolved = 889 × 1.569 × 10–2
10–2 moles of CH4 . = 13.9484 kJ
4. Give the answer to 3 significant figures. 14.0 kJ

PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
Calculate the energy required to convert 2.50 L of carbon dioxide, at SLC, to glucose according to
the equation:
6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l)→C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) ΔH = +2816 kJ
1.6.4 Mass–mass calculations

Mass–mass calculations were introduced in unit 2. The unknown mass of a substance can be calculated
using a known mass of another substance and their balanced chemical equation.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
If it is assumed that petrol is entirely octane, and that it burns according to:
2C8 H18 (g) + 25O2 (g)→16CO2 (g) + 18H2 O(l) ΔH = −10 928 kJ mol−1
calculate the:
a. mass of carbon dioxide produced per MJ of energy evolved
b. volume of carbon dioxide produced at 100 kPa and 20.0 °C per MJ of energy evolved.
THINK WRITE
10928 kJ
a. 1. From the equation given, 10 928 kJ = 10.928 MJ
accompanies the formation of 16 moles 1000
of CO2 . 16
n(CO2 ) =
Calculate the number of moles of CO2 for 10.928
1 MJ generated. = 1.4641 mol
m
2. To determine the mass of CO2 generated n=
m M
apply the formula n = .
M m(CO2 ) = n × m
= 1.4641 × 44.0
= 64.4 g
nRT
b. 1. Rearrange the universal gas equation to find V=
equal volume. Identify the given and p
unknown quantities and compare the units n = 1.4641
given to those required. T = 273 + 20.0 = 293 K
p = 100 kPa
1.4641 × 8.31 × 293
2. Calculate the volume. V(CO2 ) =
100
= 35.6483 L
3. Give your answer to 3 significant figures. 35.6 L of CO2 is produced per megajoule of
energy released, (35.6 L MJ–1 ), at the stated
conditions of temperature and pressure.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
According to the following reaction, what mass of ethyne is required to produce 50.0 g of water
vapour?
2C2 H2 (g) + 5O2 (g)→4CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
Resources
Interactivity Mole relationships (int-1214)
1.6.5 Fuels and greenhouse gases

The principles of stoichiometry and thermochemistry can be
FIGURE 1.37 Carbon dioxide is the
combined to quantify the effect that energy production, especially most significant greenhouse gas due
through the combustion of fossil fuels, has on the environment. to the massive amounts produced by
Gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone human activity. However, it is not the
contribute to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Of these, carbon strongest greenhouse gas.
dioxide is produced in the greatest amounts due to the use of
fossil fuels as energy sources. The increasing level of these gases
has led to international treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol of
1997 and the Paris Agreement of 2016. These treaties obligate
signatory countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions
in an attempt to combat climate change and move towards a
sustainable, low-carbon future.
In order to meet targets for reduction, countries need to
estimate their energy requirements, both current and future, and
compare the energy sources available for the required energy
production. A useful unit in such comparisons is the amount of
greenhouse gas produced (usually carbon dioxide) per megajoule
of energy released. Typical units are g MJ−1 and L MJ−1 .
Greenhouse effects of methane gas and water vapour

Methane is produced by a number of natural processes and, in many of these situations, it can easily
enter the atmosphere. Methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide because it is better at
absorbing heat. However, it can also be used as a fuel. The equation for burning methane is:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
Assuming that all volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure, if methane is captured
and used as a fuel, the calculated net change in greenhouse gas volume that would occur is:
V(CH4 ) consumed = V(CO2 ) produced.
Therefore, there is no net change because 1 mole of methane produces 1 mole of carbon dioxide.
It would be incorrect to assume that capturing and burning methane would produce no net environmental
benefit. Because methane is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, there is an environmental
benefit gained from burning it, rather than just letting it escape into the atmosphere. However, if carbon
dioxide could also be captured and prevented from entering the atmosphere, the environmental benefit
would be even greater.

Carbon dioxide is the most significant greenhouse gas due to the large volumes in which it is produced.
For this reason, other greenhouse gas emissions are often measured in ‘carbon dioxide equivalent’. That is,
all these other gases are converted to the volume of carbon dioxide that would produce the same effect.
1.6 EXERCISE
1. Oxygen gas can be prepared in the laboratory by the decomposition of potassium nitrate according to the
equation:
2KNO3 (s) → 2KNO2 (s) + O2 (g)
When 14.5 L of O2 is formed at 1.00 atm and 25.0 °C, what mass of KNO2 is also formed?
2. Magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
What mass of magnesium, when reacted with excess hydrochloric acid, would produce 5.0 L of hydrogen
gas, measured at 26.0 °C and 1.2 kPa?
3. At high temperatures, such as those in a car engine during operation, atmospheric nitrogen burns to
produce the pollutant nitrogen dioxide, according to the equation:
N2 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
(a) If 20 mL of nitrogen is oxidised, calculate the volume of oxygen needed to produce the pollutant.
Assume that temperature and pressure remain constant.
(b) What is the initial volume of reactants in this combustion reaction?
(c) What is the final volume of products in the reaction?
(d) Is there an overall increase or decrease in the volume of gases on completion of the reaction?
4. (a) Calculate the net change in mass of greenhouse gas produced by the combustion of 128 g of methane.
(b) Express your answer as a percentage increase or decrease.
(c) Comment on how the units used (mass or volume) may influence the conclusions drawn from
calculations such as in this question and in sample problem 11.
5. The molar heat of combustion for ethanol is –1364 kJ mol−1 . Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide emitted
when ethanol is used to produce 1.00 MJ of heat.
6. (a) Methanol is also a fuel. Its molar heat of combustion is –725 kJ mol−1 . What mass of carbon dioxide
would be produced using methanol to generate 1.00 MJ of heat?
(b) What volume of carbon dioxide would be produced at SLC?
(c) Comment on your answers to questions 5 and 6(a) in relation to the masses of CO2 produced.
7. A coal-fired power station using brown coal as its fuel operates at 37.0% overall energy efficiency. The
brown coal has a heat value of 16.0 kJ g−1 and a carbon content of 29.0%. Assuming that all the carbon
present forms carbon dioxide, calculate the carbon dioxide produced per MJ of electrical energy produced
in units of:
(a) g MJ−1
(b) L MJ−1 (at SLC).


1.7 Calculating heat energy using the specific heat
capacity of water
KEY CONCEPT
• The use of specific heat capacity of water to determine the approximate amount of heat energy released in
the combustion of a fuel
1.7.1 Specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one gram by 1 °C or 1 K.
Theory and formula

So far, we have made predictions relating to fuel quantities and heat outputs using thermochemical equations.
However, there are two issues that have not yet been addressed.
• How are ∆H values obtained in the first place?
• Thermochemical equations can be used for fuels that are pure substances, but how are heat outputs and
predictions made for fuels that are mixtures, such as petrol, diesel, wood and coal?
FIGURE 1.38 Making pyrex test tubes requires a very hot flame
because glass has a low specific heat capacity of around 0.7 J g–1 K–1 .
The answer to both these questions is to burn a small amount of fuel and capture the heat evolved in
some way so that it can be measured. The results obtained are then scaled up to a reference amount so that
comparisons can be made. The values obtained are quoted in units that take into account the units used to
measure the energy output and the particular reference amount being used. Common units are kJ mol−1 ,
kJ g−1 and MJ tonne−1 .
For this process to be done accurately, a device called a calorimeter must be used. There are two main
types of calorimeters: solution calorimeters and bomb calorimeters. The features of these and their uses are
discussed in topic 12.
An alternative method is to use the fuel to heat a known mass of water and measure the resultant
temperature increase. This method produces only approximate results, with the degree of accuracy
depending on the steps taken to minimise heat loss to the surroundings.

Specific heat capacity:
q = mcΔT
where:
q is the amount of energy required
m is mass of the substance
c is the specific heat capacity
T is temperature.
The specific heat capacity formula can be used to calculate the heat required to raise a given mass (m)
of a substance of known specific heat (c) by a certain temperature (∆T). The specific heat capacity, c, of a
substance is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of the substance by 1 °C or 1 K.
This formula is used to calculate the heat added to the water.
1.7.2 Using specific heat capacity in calculations

SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
The heat content of kerosene was determined by using a kerosene burner to heat 250 mL
of water. It was found that burning 0.323 g of kerosene raised the temperature of the water by
11.2 °C.
Given that the specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g–1 K–1 , calculate the heat energy
released from kerosene in kJ g–1 and MJ tonne–1 .
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the given and unknown quantities and q=?
compare the units given to those required. m = 250 mL of water
= 250 × 0.997 g
= 249.25 g
c = 4.18J g–1 K–1
ΔT = 11.2 °C
2. Calculate the heat energy (q) transferred to the q = mcΔT
water using the formula, q = mc∆T, which can = 249.25 g × 4.18 J g K−1 × 11.2 °C
be found in Table 3 in the VCE Chemistry = 11 669 J
Data Book. = 11.67 kJ
Convert J to kJ for easier manipulation.
The specific heat capacity is given in J g–1 K–1 .
TIP: 1 mL of water has a mass 0.997 g (see
Table 4 in the VCE Chemistry Data Book).
1
3. Scale this value up to the chosen reference Heat evolved = 11.67 × = 36.13 kJ g−1
amount (in this case, from 0.323 g to 1 g). 0.323 g
36.13 kJ
4. Convert this to MJ tonne–1 . 36.13 kJ g–1 =
× 1 000
000
Recall: 1 tonne = 106 g = 1 000 000 g 1000
1000 kJ = 1 MJ = 36 130 MJ tonne−1
5. Give your answer to 3 significant figures. 36 130 MJ tonne–1 = 36.1 × 103 MJ tonne−1
Note: This represents a minimum value. Not all of the heat from the kerosene would have gone into the water.
Some of it would have been wasted in heating the surrounding air and the equipment used to hold the water.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
It takes 78.2 J of energy to raise the temperature of 45.6 g of lead from 19.2 °C to 32.5 °C. Calculate
the specific heat capacity of lead.
Resources
Interactivity Simulating a heat of combustion experiment (int-1254)
1.7 EXERCISE
An experiment to compare the energy output of candle wax, ethanol and butane was performed by setting up the
apparatus shown in figure 1.39. The ethanol was poured into a crucible. A small wax candle stuck onto a watch
glass and a gas cigarette lighter were each used as a ‘burner’ after being lit. Each burner was weighed before
and after it was used to heat 200 g of water. The results are shown in table 1.8. (Assume the formula for candle
wax is C20 H42 .)
FIGURE 1.39 Apparatus for testing the energy output of

candle wax
thermometer
retort stand
clamp
copper can
heatproof mats
water used to keep
out draughts
fuel
(candle wax)
fuel container
(watch glass)
safety mat
TABLE 1.8 Results of combustion of different fuels
Property Ethanol Candle wax Butane
Mass of ‘burner’ before heating (g) 23.77 32.72 43.94
Mass of ‘burner’ after heating (g) 22.54 32.50 43.71
Mass of fuel used (g)
Mass of water (g) 200 200 200
Initial temperature of water (°C) 20.0 20.0 20.0

Highest temperature of water (°C) 35.0 30.0 29.0
Temperature rise (°C)
Molar mass (g mol−1 )
1. (a) Complete table 1.8.

(b) Taking the specific heat capacity of water as 4.18 J g−1 °C−1 , calculate the energy produced from 1.00 g
of each substance. How do the results compare?
(c) Calculate the heat of combustion (enthalpy per mole of substance used) for each substance. How do the
results compare?
(d) The molar heat of combustion of ethanol has been found to be –1364 kJ mol−1 .
i. Is the combustion exothermic or endothermic?
ii. What was the percentage accuracy of the experiment in figure 1.39?
iii. List the sources of error in the experiment and describe how some of these errors can be minimised.

1.8 Review
1.8.1 Summary
Fossil fuels and biofuels
• Fossil fuels include coal, petroleum and natural gas, and are formed from the decaying remains of
plants and small marine creatures.
• Biofuels are carbon-based energy sources primarily formed from plant matter.
• Renewable fuels can be replaced by natural processes at a faster rate than they are consumed. For
example, biofuels, solar, hydro-electric, tidal, geothermal and wave energy.
• Non-renewable fuels cannot be replaced by natural processes at a faster rate than they are consumed.
For example, fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.
• Petroleum (crude oil) is a fossil fuel that is refined by fractional distillation to produce different fuels
based on their different boiling points.
• Biogas is largely methane and is produced when organic matters rots in the absence of oxygen.
• Bioethanol is produced from fermenting sugar from waste materials such as wheat starch or molasses.
It is used as an additive to petrol.
• Biodiesel is made from the reaction of plant oils and animal fats with alcohol through
transesterification.
Combustion of fuels
• Energy is the ability to do work.
• The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
• 1000 J = 1 kJ; 1 000 000 J = 1000 kJ = 1 MJ
• The study of energy changes that accompany chemical reactions is called thermochemistry or chemical
thermodynamics.
• The total energy stored in a substance is called the enthalpy, or heat content, of the substance and is
represented by the symbol H.

• The change in enthalpy as a reaction is known as the heat of a reaction and can be determined
according to the relationship: ∆H = Hproducts - Hreactants .
• The environmental effect of a fuel can be measured in terms of its greenhouse gas emissions per
megajoule of energy produced.
• Energy exists in a number of different forms that are interconvertible, including mechanical, thermal,
chemical, sound, light, electrical, gravitational and nuclear.
• According to the Law of Conservation of Energy, whenever energy is converted from one form to
another, the total quantity of energy remains the same.
• The efficiency of changing one form of energy into another form of energy varies.
• Efficiency is defined as a percentage according to the formula:

% efficiency = ×
• Exothermic reactions release energy to their surroundings and have a negative ∆H value.
• Endothermic reactions absorb energy from their surroundings and have a positive ∆H value.
• Energy diagrams or profiles may be used to visually represent changes in enthalpy.
Thermochemical equations
• Thermochemical equations are chemical equations that, besides being balanced with respect to charge
and mass, also include a ∆H value.
• Thermochemical equations are chemical equations that, in addition to balancing charge and mass,
include the enthalpy change and may be used in stoichiometric calculations to determine the energy
changes associated with chemical reactions.
• ∆H values in thermochemical equations can be evaluated from experimental data and from the ∆H
values of related equations.
• Water is formed in any combustion reaction.
• Complete combustion occurs in excess oxygen when the fuel is completely oxidised to carbon dioxide
and water
• Incomplete combustion occurs when oxygen is not in excess and products will be variable and contain
a combination of carbon, carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide.
Gaseous fuels and the universal gas equation
• The kinetic molecular theory of gases helps explain gas properties and begins with five assumptions
about gas particles. These particles:
• are moving constantly and at random
• experience an increase in kinetic energy and move more quickly when temperature is increased
• have insignificant attractive or repulsive forces between them
• are very far apart and their volume is small compared to the volume they occupy
• collide with one another and the walls of their container, exerting pressure.
• When considering gas behaviour, we are concerned with the pressure a gas exerts, the volume it
occupies, its temperature and the number of molecules it has. We express these in SI units.
• Pressure is measured in pascal (Pa). 1000 Pa = 1 kPa.
750 mmHg = 0.987 atm = 100 kPa
• Temperature is converted from degrees Celsius (°C) to the absolute or Kelvin scale, where absolute
zero is –273 °C.
K = °C + 273

• Volume is measured in cubic metres (m3 ), litres (L) or millilitres (mL).
1 m3 = 103 L = 106 mL
• Quantity is measured in moles (mol).

• Boyle’s law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is inversely
proportional to the pressure exerted on it.
p1 V1 = p2 V2
• Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional
to its absolute (Kelvin) temperature.
V1 V
= 2
T1 T2
• Gas volumes are measured using a standard set of fixed conditions, called standard laboratory
conditions (SLC), where temperature is 25 °C (298 K) and pressure is 100.0 kPa.
• The molar gas volume is the volume that 1 mole of gas occupies. At SLC, this equals 24.8 L. To
calculate amounts of gases at SLC, we use the equation:
V
nSLC = where V is measured in litres.
24.8
• The universal gas equation combines several of the gas laws and contains the universal gas constant (R).
pV = nRT
The constant R is equal to 8.31 J K−1 mol−1 and V is measured in litres, T in Kelvin and p in kPa.
• The universal gas equation enables stoichiometric calculations that link masses and volumes together
(mass–volume calculations).
Calculations related to the combustion of fuels

• Volume–volume stoichiometry can be performed using volumes rather than moles because, for gases at
the same pressure and temperature, mole ratios are equal to volume ratios.
V(unknown) coefficient of unknown

=
V(known) coefficient of known
Calculating heat energy using the specific heat capacity of water

• The specific heat capacity (c) of a substance is defined as the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of the substance by 1 °C or 1 K.
• The heat energy in a fuel can be estimated by using a known amount of the fuel to heat a known
amount of water. The formula q = mc∆T is used to calculate the heat energy added to the water;
where q is the amount of energy required, m is the mass of the substance, c is the specific heat capacity
and T is temperature.

Resources
1.8.2 Key terms
absolute zero the lowest temperature that is theoretically possible; 0 K

absorbed taken into another substance
aquifer underground rock layers that contain water; this groundwater can be extracted using a well
biodiesel a fuel produced from vegetable oil or animal fats and combined with an alcohol, usually methanol
bioethanol ethanol produced from plants, such as sugarcane, and used as an alternative to petrol
biofuel renewable, carbon-based energy source formed in short period of time from from living matter
biogas fuel produced from the fermentation of organic matter
Boyle’s law describes the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas, such that for a fixed amount of
gas at constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume. p1 V1 = p2 V2
change in enthalpy the amount of energy released or absorbed in a chemical reaction
Charles’ law describes the relationship between temperature and volume of a gas, such that for a given amount
V1 V2
of gas at constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. =
T1 T2
chemical energetics a branch of science that deals with the properties of energy and the way it is transformed in
chemical reactions
coal the world’s most plentiful fossil fuel; formed from the combined effects of pressure, temperature, moisture
and bacterial decay on vegetable matter over several hundred million years
efficiency (of energy conversion) the ratio between useful energy output and the energy input
endothermic describes a chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed from the surroundings
enhanced greenhouse effect the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases
enthalpy a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system
exothermic describes a chemical reaction in which energy is released to the surroundings
fossil fuels fuels formed from once-living organisms
fracking the process of pumping a large amount of mainly water under high pressure into a drilled hole, in order
to break rock so that it will release gas or oil
fractional distillation the process of separating component fuels based on their different boiling points
fuel a substance that burns in air or oxygen to release useful energy
global warming a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere
greenhouse gases gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect by absorbing infrared radiation
heat of reaction the heat evolved or absorbed during a chemical reaction taking place under conditions of
constant temperature and of either constant volume or, more often, constant pressure
Kelvin the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature, equal in magnitude to the degree Celsius
kinetic energy energy associated with movement, in doing work
kinetic molecular theory of gases Gas particles are in continuous, random motion. Collisions between gas
particles are completely elastic.
Law of Conservation of Energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only changed from one form into
another or transferred from one object to another.
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) a hydrocarbon fuel that consists mainly of air propane and butane; non-toxic,
non-corrosive, lead-free and denser than air
molar gas constant R, the constant of the universal gas equation; R = 8.31 J mol−1 K−1 when pressure is
measured in kPa, volume is measured in L, temperature is measured in K and the quantity of the gas is
measured in moles (n).
molar gas volume the volume occupied by a mole of a substance at a given temperature and pressure. At SLC,
1 mole of gas occupies 24.8 litres.
natural gas a source of alkanes (mainly methane) of low molecular mass
non-renewable (with reference to energy sources) energy sources are consumed faster than they are being
formed
pascal (Pa) unit of pressure

petroleum viscous, oily liquid composed of crude oil and natural gas that was formed by geological processes
acting on marine organisms over millions of years; a mixture of hydrocarbons used to manufacture other fuels
and many other chemicals
potential energy energy that is stored, ready to do work
pressure the force per unit area that one region of a gas, liquid or solid exerts on another
renewable (with reference to energy sources) energy sources that can be produced faster than they are used
standard laboratory conditions (SLC) 100 kPa and 25°C
stoichiometry calculating amounts of reactants and products using a balanced chemical equation
thermochemical equations balanced stoichiometric chemical equations that include the enthalpy change
thermochemistry the branch of chemistry concerned with the quantities of heat evolved or absorbed during
chemical reactions
transesterification the reaction between an ester of one alcohol and a second alcohol to form an ester of the
second alcohol and an alcohol from the original ester
universal gas equation PV = nRT, where pressure is in kilopascals, volume is in litres and temperature is
in Kelvin
Resources
Digital document Key terms glossary – Topic 1 (doc-31392)
1.8.3 Practical work and investigations
Experiment 1.1
Fractional distillation of an ethanol/water mixture
Aim: To separate a mixture of ethanol and water by fractional distillation
Digital document: doc-31250
Teacher-led video: eles-3225
Resources
Digital documents Practical investigation logbook (doc-31393)
Experiment 1.2 The relationship between pressure and volume (doc-31252)
1.8 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receiveimmediate feedback and sample responses for every question,
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
1.8 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions

1. Which of the energy profiles below represents the most exothermic reaction?
A. B.
Energy
Energy

C. D.
Energy
Energy
2. Consider the following equation for the formation of hydrogen chloride gas.
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl(g) ∆H = −184 kJ mol−1
When 2 moles of hydrogen gas react completely with 2 moles of chlorine gas:
A. 184 kJ of energy is released
B. 184 kJ of energy is absorbed
C. 368 kJ of energy is released
D. 368 kJ of energy is absorbed.
3. Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. It is stable at very low temperatures but sublimes at room temperature
according to the reaction:
CO2 (s) + heat → CO2 (g)
Handling dry ice with bare hands can cause severe skin damage because solid carbon dioxide:
A. is a strong oxidising agent
B. releases considerable heat to the skin while subliming
C. absorbs considerable heat from the skin while subliming
D. forms a strong acid when dissolved in the moisture of the skin.
4. The diagram shows a container filled with gas and sealed by a movable movable
piston. There is sufficient gas to support the piston at point X when the piston
temperature is 20 °C.
Assume that the piston is locked at X. If the gas is heated, the pressure it
exerts will: X
A. increase gas at
Y
B. decrease 20°C
C. remain the same
container
D. change in an unpredictable manner.
5. The apparatus in question 4 remains at a constant temperature of 20 °C, but the piston is pushed down
to point Y and locked, so that the volume of the container is halved. The average number of molecules
striking a unit area of the wall of the container per unit time will:
A. double
B. halve
C. remain the same
D. change in an unpredictable manner.
6. A rigid container holds a fixed volume of gas at a certain temperature and pressure. In order to double
the pressure of the gas inside the container, a person could:
A. halve the amount of gas in the container
B. halve the amount of gas, but double the absolute temperature
C. double the amount of gas and double the absolute temperature
D. double the absolute temperature.

7. 10 L of hydrogen gas is collected at 110 kPa and 20 °C. It is then compressed into a 2 L container at a
pressure of 1100 kPa. The new temperature will be:
A. 40 °C
B. 200 °C
C. 273 °C
D. 313 °C.
8. Tired of working in laboratories that are either freezing or too hot, Jenny has proposed a third set of
standard conditions. She has defined these as a temperature of 15 °C and a pressure of 100 kPa. Under
these conditions, the molar volume of a gas would be:
A. less than 22.7 L
B. 22.7 L
C. between 22.7 L and 24.8 L
D. greater than 24.8 L.
Questions 9 and 10 refer to the following thermochemical equation for the combustion of ethyne,
commonly known as acetylene.
2C2 H2 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) ∆H = −2600 kJ mol−1
9. The combustion of 0.26 g of ethyne will:

A. absorb 13 J of energy
B. evolve 13 J of energy
C. absorb 13 kJ of energy
D. evolve 13 kJ of energy.
10. The carbon dioxide contribution from the use of ethyne is:
A. 17 kg MJ−1
B. 34 kg MJ−1
C. 68 kg MJ−1
D. 134 kg MJ−1 .
11. If burning 4.5 g of a fuel raises the temperature of 75 g of water by 30 °C, the heat of combustion of
this fuel is:
A. 0.0075 kJ g−1
B. 0.057 kJ g−1
C. 2.1 kJ g−1
D. 2.4 kJ g−1 .
12. Which of the following best describes a renewable energy source?
A. A renewable energy source can be produced at a slower rate than the rate at which it is used by
society.
B. A renewable energy source can be produced at a faster rate than the rate at which it is used by
society.
C. A renewable energy source can be produced at the same rate as the rate at which it is used by
society.
D. The rate at which a renewable energy source can be produced is unrelated to the rate at which it is
used by society.
13. Which of the following is a renewable source of energy?
A. Coal
B. Bioethanol
C. Natural gas
D. Oil

14. Methanol can be burned as a fuel and its heat output can be described by the following thermochemical
equation.
2CH3 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g) ∆H = −1.45 × 103 kJ mol−1
The predicted heat output from the combustion of 3.20 g of methanol would be:
A. 72.5 J
B. 7.25 kJ
C. 72.5 kJ
D. 7250 kJ.
15. A device converts 85 MJ of input energy into 50 MJ of usable output energy. The efficiency of this
device is closest to:
A. 50%
B. 60%
C. 64%
D. 85%.
1.8 Exercise 2: Short answer questions

1. State whether each of the following reactions is exothermic or endothermic.
−1
a. H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) → 2HCl(g) ∆H = −185 kJ mol
−1
b. H2 (g) + CO2 (g) → CO(g) + H2 O(g) ∆H = +41 kJ mol
−1
c. SnO2 (s) + 2C(s) → Sn(s) + 2CO(g) ∆H = +360 kJ mol
−1
d. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g) ∆H = −92.2 kJ mol
2. Draw an energy profile diagram for each of the reactions in question 1. In each diagram, label the
reactants and the products as given by the equation, and show the ∆H value and its magnitude.
3. Ethanol burns in oxygen to produce water and either carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide. The
particular oxide produced depends on whether the oxygen supply is plentiful or limited. The molar
heats of combustion for these two reactions are –1364 kJ mol−1 and –1192 kJ mol−1 respectively.
a. Write the thermochemical equation for the combustion of ethanol to produce carbon dioxide.
b. Write the thermochemical equation for the combustion of ethanol to produce carbon monoxide.
c. Use the equations from (a) and (b) to explain how the amount of oxygen consumed influences the
oxide produced.
d. Calculate ∆H for the following reaction.
2CO(g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)
4. Data tables give the heat output from the complete combustion of ethane and ethene as 51.9 kJ g−1 and
50.3 kJ g−1 respectively. Write thermochemical equations for the complete combustion of these fuels,
showing ∆H values in units of kJ mol−1 .
5. Use the kinetic molecular theory to explain:
a. why gases exert pressure
b. why, for a fixed amount of gas at constant volume, pressure increases with temperature.
6. a. Convert 1.34 atm to mmHg and kPa.
b. Convert 365 mmHg to Pa and atm.
c. Convert 102 576 Pa to atm and mmHg.
7. Convert the following Kelvin temperatures to Celsius.
a. 300 K
b. 427 K
c. 173 K
d. 392 K
e. 73 K

8. Calculate the number of moles of the following gases at SLC.
a. 1.5 L oxygen, O2
b. 2.56 L of hydrogen, H2
c. 250 mL of nitrogen, N2
9. Calculate the volume of the following gases at SLC.
a. 1.53 mol hydrogen, H2
b. 13.6 g of methane, CH4
c. 2.5 × 1030 molecules of nitrogen, N2
10. Calculate the mass of the following gas samples at SLC.
a. 150 mL of oxygen, O2
b. 4.5 L of carbon dioxide, CO2
11. The pressure on a gas remains constant. Its volume is 700 mL. The temperature is 27 °C. Calculate the
temperature needed to change the volume to:
a. 14.0 mL
b. 420.0 mL.
12. Calculate the number of moles of gas present in each of the following gas samples.
a. 32.3 L of argon at 102.0 kPa and 15 °C
b. 24.3 L of nitrogen at 13.2 atm and 35 °C
13. Calculate the volumes occupied by the following gas samples.
a. 0.560 mol of carbon dioxide gas at 101.5 kPa and 17 °C
b. 15.5 mol of ethyne gas at 10.35 atm and 20 °C
14. An aerosol can of deodorant has a volume of 120 mL. The contents exert a pressure of 9.0 × 105 Pa at
27 °C.
a. Calculate the number of moles of gas present in the can.
b. How many particles are present in the can of deodorant?
c. If the contents of the can are transferred to a 200 mL container, what would be the temperature if the
pressure drops to 6.0 × 105 Pa?
15. An empty 200 mL flask has a mass of 84.845 g. It is filled with a gas at 17.0 °C and 770 mmHg
pressure and then weighs 85.084 g. Calculate the molar mass of the gas. What is the gas?
16. Each time Nick breathes, he inhales about 400 mL of air. Oxygen makes up about 20% by volume of
air. How many oxygen molecules does he inhale in one breath at 25 °C and 1.0 × 104 Pa?
17. Butan-1-ol (density = 0.81 g mL−1 ) burns according to the following equation.
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH(l) + 6O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 5H2 O(l)
When 10.0 mL of butan-1-ol is burned, calculate:

a. the mass of water produced
b. the volume of carbon dioxide produced at SLC
c. the volume of carbon dioxide produced at 200 °C and 1.2 atm pressure.
d. If the butan-1-ol is used to produce 100 mL of carbon dioxide at SLC, calculate the volume of
butan-1-ol needed.
18. A number of technologies either exist or are being developed to remove carbon dioxide from flue gases.
Some of these are also being investigated for the removal of carbon dioxide directly from the air. One
such process uses calcium oxide and steam (at 400 °C). The overall equation for this reaction is:
400°C
CaO(s) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s)
Steam
a. Calculate the maximum volume of carbon dioxide at SLC that can be removed per 1.00 tonne of
calcium oxide.
b. Calculate the maximum mass of calcium carbonate that would be formed per tonne of calcium oxide.

19. In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen are combined under specific conditions of temperature and
pressure to industrially manufacture ammonia.
a. Write the balanced equation.
b. What volume of nitrogen combines with 45 m3 of hydrogen?
c. What volume of ammonia would be produced if the reaction went to completion?
20. Iron can react with carbon dioxide according to the following equation.
2Fe(s) + 3CO2 (g) → Fe2 O3 (s) + 3CO(g) ∆H = +26.3 kJ mol−1
Explain why this equation may be described as a thermochemical equation.

a.
Calculate the heat change, in kJ, when 2 g of iron reacts completely with excess carbon dioxide.
b.
Calculate the heat change, in kJ, when 200 mL of carbon dioxide is used at SLC.
c.
d. What mass of iron would be needed to absorb 1000 kJ of heat energy?
e. What volume of carbon dioxide would be needed at SLC to absorb 1000 kJ of energy?
21. Hydrazine, N2 H4 , is a liquid fuel that has been used for many years in the engines of space probes. It
was famously used in the terminal-descent engines that successfully landed the Curiosity rover on the
surface of Mars in 2012. When passed over a suitable catalyst, it decomposes quickly in a multi-step
exothermic chemical reaction. The overall equation for this process is:
N2 H4 (l) → N2 (g) + 2H2 (g) ∆H = −50.3 kJ mol−1
Calculate the energy released per kilogram of hydrazine in the equation.

a.
Given that the average temperature and pressure of the Martian atmosphere are –60 °C and 600 Pa
b.
respectively, calculate the total volume of gas added to the Martian atmosphere if 50 kg of hydrazine
is used.
22. Petrol and LPG are two fuels commonly used in Australia. It is claimed that LPG is better for the
environment because it releases less carbon dioxide. It is also attractive to motorists because, even
though more litres are used, it is cheaper than petrol. As an approximation, petrol may be assumed to be
octane, whereas LPG is a mixture of propane and butane. Some relevant data is shown in the following
table.
Fuel Molar enthalpy of combustion (kJ mol−1 ) Density (g mL−1 )
Propane –2217 0.51 (as LPG)
Butane –2874 0.51 (as LPG)
Octane –5464 0.70 (as petrol)
a. Calculate the mass of LPG (assuming it to be propane) required to produce 1.00 MJ of heat energy.
b. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced from a and express your answer as g MJ−1 .
c. Calculate the mass of petrol (assuming it to be octane) required to produce 1.00 MJ of heat energy.
d. Calculate the mass of carbon dioxide produced from c and express your answer as g MJ−1 .
e. State the net reduction (in g MJ−1 ) of carbon dioxide emission when LPG is used in preference to
petrol.
f. Repeat a, b and e for LPG if it is assumed to be butane.
g. Calculate the volume of LPG (assuming it to be propane) required to produce the same energy as
1.00 L of petrol (assuming it to be octane).
h. Is it true that LPG is better than petrol? Use your answers to a–g to explain your response.

23. It is useful to know how much energy can be obtained from measured
different fuels in order to determine which would be the best fuel volume of small metal
for a particular purpose. The apparatus in the following figure water can
can be constructed in the laboratory to measure the heat given out
when a fuel such as ethanol is burned.
The heat produced when the fuel burns is absorbed by the water
in the metal can. The temperature can be measured so, given
that the specific heat of water is 4.18 J and the density of
water is 1.00 g mL−1 , the heat of combustion may be determined.
The results of one experiment are shown in the following table.
Volume of water in metal can = 200 mL

Thus, mass of water in can = 200 g
Rise in temperature of water = 11.0 °C
Mass of ethanol burned = 0.500 g liquid
burner
From these results, calculate the heat produced when 1 g
a.
of ethanol is burned.
b. Calculate the heat of combustion for ethanol using the
above results.
c. An accurate value for the heat produced when 1 mole of ethanol
burns is 1364 kJ mol−1 . Calculate the percentage
accuracy of this experiment. methylated
d. Outline the sources of error in the experiment and then suggest spirits
how the design of the experiment could be improved so that
more accurate heats of combustion for different fuels may be
determined.
24. Explain why the overall energy efficiency of a coal-fired power station that generates electricity is said
to be only 30% efficient.
25. A waste management/energy project near Ballarat uses organic waste from local piggeries to produce
biogas (methane and carbon dioxide). The biogas is then converted to heat and electricity.
a. Outline the energy changes in the conversion of organic waste to heat and electricity.
b. Initial proposals for construction of the project were rejected by the local council. On what grounds
could the council object to such a scheme?
c. How could the success of such a scheme be gauged?
1.8 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions

Question 1 (3 marks)
Nitroglycerine, C3 N3 H5 O9 , is a dangerous explosive that releases all gaseous products according to the
equation:
4C3 N3 H5 O9 (l) → 6N2 (g) + 12CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(g) + O2 (g)
Calculate the total volume of gaseous products that results when 1.00 kg of liquid nitroglycerine explodes
at a temperature of 250 °C and a pressure of 300 kPa.

Kerosene is a hydrocarbon fuel that may be used in lamps, jet engines and camp stoves. It has a heat of
combustion of 44 100 kJ kg−1 .
a. Explain why the heat evolved from the combustion of kerosene is measured in kJ kg−1 rather than
kJ mol−1 . 1 mark
b. A cup of billy tea contains 250 g of water. How many cups of tea can be made if 12.5 mL of kerosene is
used to heat the water? Assume that the temperature of the water increases from 20.0 °C to 100.0 °C, the
specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g−1 °C−1 and the heat of combustion of kerosene is
37 000 kJ L−1 . 2 marks
Consider the following two equations.
2CH3 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l) ∆H = −1450 kJ mol−1
2CH3 CH2 CH2 OH(l) + 9O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 8H2 O(l) ∆H = −4032 kJ mol−1
a. Calculate the mass of methanol required to produce 1.00 MJ of heat energy. 2 marks
b. Calculate the mass of 1-propanol required to produce 1.00 MJ of heat energy. 2 marks
c. Assuming that methanol and 1-propanol are made from non-renewable resources, calculate the net mass
reduction (in g MJ−1 ) of carbon dioxide when methanol is used as a fuel in preference to
1-propanol. 3 marks
d. Calculate the net volume reduction (in L MJ−1 ) from (c), assuming the carbon dioxide is at 101.3 kPa
and 15 °C. 3 marks
Methane gas is used as a fuel in many industrial and domestic situations. Sources of methane include
biogas, natural gas and coal seam gas.
a. Write an equation for the combustion of methane in excess oxygen. 1 mark
b. Methane may be classified as both a renewable and a non-renewable resource. Explain this using the
information provided above. 2 marks
c. In certain situations, the burning of methane may produce carbon monoxide gas. Under what conditions
might this occur? 1 mark
d. Write an equation for the combustion of methane to produce carbon monoxide. 1 mark
e. Why is the production of carbon monoxide undesirable? 1 mark
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AREA OF STUDY 1
2 Fuel choices
2.1 Overview
2.1.1 Introduction
About 80% of the world’s energy requirements is
FIGURE 2.1 Time is running out on humans’
provided by coal, oil and gas, which are all fossil fuels. reliance on fossil fuels.
Scientists overwhelmingly agree that the burning of
fossil fuels continues to be a major cause of climate
change. The Paris Agreement was ratified in 2016 by
fifty-five Parties, who account for 55% of the world’s
total greenhouse gas emissions and became signatories
to the agreement. The Paris Agreement’s central aim
is to strengthen the global response to the threat of
climate change by keeping the global temperature
rise of the 21st century to less than two degrees above
pre-industrial levels. Chemistry plays a major role in
combating climate change as scientists worldwide work
towards more efficient, sustainable fuel sources.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the comparision of fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, petroleum gas, coal seam gas) and biofuels (biogas,
• the comparision of the suitability of petrodiesel and biodiesel as transport fuels with reference to sources,
chemical structures, combustion products, flow along fuel lines (implications of hygroscopic properties and
impact of outside temperature on viscosity) and the environmental impacts associated with their extraction
and production.
Resources
Digital documents: Key science skills (doc-30903)
Key terms glossary – Topic 2 (doc-31395)
TOPIC 2 Fuel choices 59

2.2 Comparing energy sources
KEY CONCEPT
• The comparison of fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, petroleum gas, coal seam gas) and biofuels (biogas,
2.2.1 Generating energy in Australia

Australia has a diverse range of energy resources,
FIGURE 2.2 Projected depletion of world reserves of
but the availability, abundance and relatively fossil fuels based on current usage
low cost of fossil fuels mean that they are in
high demand — about 95% of Australia’s energy 1000
coal
900
(billion tones oil equivalent)

requirements are provided by coal, oil and gas. gas
Most of Australia’s electricity (75%) is generated 800 oil
Energy reserves
700
by black and brown coal, and 16% is supplied by
600
natural gas. Access to these low-priced fuels is
500
important for our manufacturing industry. 400
Although energy can be obtained from the 300
direct combustion of fossil fuels, electricity is a 200
more convenient form of energy. Electricity can 100
be carried from one place to another, switched on 0
2011 2021 2031 2041 2051 2061 2071 2081
and off, and used as an energy source for many
Year
different devices.
FIGURE 2.3 Sources of energy for society
hydro-electricity
radiant from falling
heat and water
light from
the Sun
wind energy timber

photosynthesis
nuclear energy
solar energy
ium
uran
o r e mal
oil ral gas ther
tidal energy geo gy
natu ene
r
wave energy
coal

Electricity is sometimes described as a secondary fuel, because it is not a natural source of power — it is
produced from other fuels or energy sources.
At present, most of Australia’s electricity is generated by burning fuel at power stations. Fossil fuels
could be made to last longer, and the environmental impacts of fossil fuel combustion could be reduced,
if electricity was generated using other means. Replacement options include nuclear energy — although
this poses significant risks should an incident occur — or renewable energy options such as wind, moving
water, wave motion, falling water, tides and biomass reactions. Electricity can also be generated directly
from chemical reactions, as in fuel cells, which are thought to be a possible energy source for the future.
Photovoltaic (PV) cells, which convert solar energy into electrical energy, are another method, and are
already becoming more popular as people install them on the roofs of their houses. PV cells have the added
benefit of feeding any excess electricity produced back into the grid.
Table 2.1 details the energy production in Australia for 2016–17 and the ten-year average annual growth
rate. While fossil fuels still comprise approximately 85% of all energy produced in Australia, over the last
ten years there have been significant annual increases in the growth of renewable energy.
TABLE 2.1 Electricity production in Australia by energy source, 2016–17
2016–17 Average annual growth
GWh Share (%) 2016–17 (%) 10 years (%)
Fossil fuels 217 562 84.3 –0.8 –0.3
Black coal 118 272 45.8 3.5 –1.0
Brown coal 43 558 16.9 –10.7 –2.5
Gas 50 460 19.6 –0.2 4.2
Oil 5273 2.0 –6.8 3.0
Renewables 40 455 15.7 6.1 8.2
Hydro 16 285 6.3 6.3 3.4
Wind 12 597 4.9 3.3 16.9
Bioenergy 3501 1.4 –7.6 –3.0
Solar PV 8072 3.1 18.0 59.2
- Small scale 7399 2.9 16.0 57.7
- Large scale 672 0.3 47.1 N/A
Geothermal 1 0.0 133.3 N/A
Total 258 017 100 0.2 0.7

Source: www.energy.gov.au/sites/default/files/australian_energy_update_2018.pdf
2.2.2 The effect of fossil fuels on the environment

Fossil fuels make up the vast majority of the energy resources consumed in Australia today. There is
great concern that their use has led to a number of environmental problems, particularly the enhanced
greenhouse effect and acid rain.

The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect helps to keep the Earth at the appropriate temperature
FIGURE 2.4 Cattle and
to support life. It begins when radiation from the Sun strikes the Earth and other livestock release
warms its surface, which then radiates heat energy back into space. Gases significant amounts
in the atmosphere known as greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide of methane into the
(CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O), and ozone (O3 ), absorb some atmosphere as a result of
of this heat radiation, so the air warms up. The air may also radiate this their digestive processes.
energy back into space or down to Earth (see figure 2.5). Unfortunately,
human activities have led to an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases,
so that more heat is absorbed, which continues to adversely affect weather
and climate. This results in an enhanced greenhouse effect, causing global
warming and climate change (see figure 2.6). Global warming specifically
refers to the Earth’s rising temperature, due mainly to the increasing
concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (see figure 2.7).
Climate change is a broader and more accurate term that encompasses the
side effects of global warming and refers to changes in various measures of
climate over a long period of time.
FIGURE 2.5 The greenhouse effect allows some heat FIGURE 2.6 Excess production of greenhouse gases
to be trapped in the atmosphere, maintaining a means the atmosphere retains more heat energy,
constant temperature. increasing the average temperature of the Earth.
Greenhouse effect Enhanced greenhouse effect
SunSun SunSun
Earth Earth
Greenhouse gases absorb more FIGURE 2.7 Global temperature variation and atmospheric CO2
energy than others and contribute to concentration against time
global warming in the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide is the major greenhouse 0.6 400
Global temperature anomaly
CO2 concentration (ppm or 0.0001%)
gas emitted by human activities and is CO2 concentration

Global temperature anomaly (°C)
generated during transportation, 0.4 380
industrial processes, land use change

and energy production. 0.2 360
Carbon dioxide is essential to life

because plants absorb it, enabling 000 340
them to manufacture their own

–0.2 320
sugars and produce oxygen through
photosynthesis. The quantity of carbon
–0.4 300
dioxide on Earth remained almost
constant for thousands of years, but
–0.6 280
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year

now we are producing more carbon dioxide than can be converted into oxygen. As the quantity of carbon
dioxide increases, the amount of heat that is retained by the atmosphere increases, thereby contributing to
the greenhouse effect, creating the enhanced greenhouse effect.
Biofuels are renewable energy sources made from plant and animal matter. When comparing the burning
of fossil fuels with biofuels, at first glance it might appear that both contribute to the greenhouse effect
because both produce carbon dioxide upon combustion. However, burning fossil fuels puts carbon into the
atmosphere that has been locked underground for millions of years, while the carbon in biofuels has been
obtained from the atmosphere much more recently via photosynthesis. Theoretically, this carbon dioxide
will once again be removed when the next source crops for the biofuel are grown. This is described as being
carbon neutral.
FIGURE 2.8 Major energy-
Acid rain related environmental issues
Many industrial processes burn fossil fuels and many of these fuels
contain sulfur in varying amounts. When sulfur is burned in the air, it
forms sulfur dioxide, SO2 . This gas is often released into the air in
vast quantities. Acid rain results from the reaction between rainwater
and SO2 that is released into the atmosphere.
Electricity production
Sulfur dioxide is also released during many natural processes. In dependent upon
particular, active volcanoes release a large amount of sulfur dioxide into non-renewable resources
the air. The atmosphere can cope with large quantities of sulfur dioxide
if the gas is given time to disperse. When a large number of industries
are all producing the gas over a small area, it cannot disperse in the air
fast enough and becomes too concentrated to be safe.
When sulfur dioxide reacts with water it becomes sulfuric acid. So,
Radioactivity
when rain comes into contact with SO2 , it becomes dangerous to plant threats from
and animal life. nuclear fuel use
SO2 (g) + H2 O(g) → H2 SO3 (g) Threats to

SO3 (g) + H2 O(g) → H2 SO4 (g) marine life
from oil spills
In heavily industrialised countries, entire forests have been denuded

by the effects of acid rain. Our energy use is responsible for more than
half of the greenhouse emissions and widespread pollution of land, sea
and air. These environmental impacts threaten our quality of life and,
perhaps, existence.
Water pollution from energy
conversion processes, leakage from
FIGURE 2.9 Acid rain is damaging forests worldwide.
waste storage and accidental spills
Air pollution, both

outdoor and indoor,
from burning fuels
Land degradation and other impacts,

such as damage to plant and animal
habitats from mining, dam building
and waste storage or disposal

2.2.3 Sustainable energy
A sustainable energy future means providing for the needs of today’s society without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Various responses have been proposed to
meet society’s increasing energy demands. These include:
• promoting energy conservation in the domestic, commercial and industrial sectors
• funding research into producing viable alternative energy sources
• decreasing our dependence on coal by using more renewable energy sources
• increasing the efficiency with which energy is produced from each resource
• developing technologies to reduce emissions when using fossil fuels.
The availability of low-cost, clean and reliable energy will improve land, air and water quality, increase
employment and promote health.
TIP: It is important to know the exact definitions of ‘renewable’, ‘non-renewable’, ‘abundance’,

‘sustainable’, ‘reuseable’ and ‘recyclable’ — these terms are often confused.
2.2.4 Properties of fossil fuels and biofuels

The origin of fossil fuels and biofuels were discussed in topic 1 and a summary of their advantages and
disadvantages are shown in table 2.2.
TABLE 2.2 Properties of fossil fuels and biofuels

Carbon dioxide
Energy emissions in
content kg of CO2 per
Fuel (kJ g−1 ) gigajoule Advantages Disadvantages
Black coal 34 114 • Large Australian reserves • Non-renewability
• Source of revenue via • Contributes to air
exports pollution, acid rain and
• Easily mined global warming
• Most efficient type of coal • Open cast mining
Brown coal 16 94 • Large Australian reserves • Less efficient (high

• Source of revenue via moisture content)
exports • Lower dry carbon content
• Easily mined • Open cast mining
Diesel 48 70 • Ease of transportation • Non-renewability
Petrol 46 67 • Wide range of uses • Limited world supplies
LPG 46 60 • Some Australian sources • Pollution
E10* 44 60 • Ease of transportation • 10% renewability

• Wide range of uses • Limited world supplies
• Some Australian sources • Pollution
• Uses 10% renewable
bioethanol
Methane** 56 51 • High efficiency • Non-renewability

• Some Australian sources • Pollution
• Moderate cost (drilling)
(continued)

TABLE 2.2 Properties of fossil fuels and biofuels (continued)
Carbon dioxide
Energy emissions in
content kg of CO2 per
Fuel (kJ g−1 ) gigajoule Advantages Disadvantages
Biogas 26 0 • Renewability • Energy inefficiency
• Productive use of wastes • Low supplies
Bioethanol 30 0 • Renewability • Possible conflict in land

use
Biodiesel 42 0 • Less harmful emissions • Low temperatures can be

problematic for biodiesel
Source: Australian National Greenhouse and Energy Reporting (Measurement) Determination 2008 (Schedule 1).
*a blend of normal petrol with 10% ethanol
**methane is the main constituent of both natural gas and coal seam gas
2.2 EXERCISE
1. List the following fuels in order of increasing energy output, as measured in kJ g–1 : Brown coal, black coal,
biogas, diesel, natural gas, bioethanol, petrol, biodiesel.
2. What is the enhanced greenhouse effect? Explain how energy choices can be used to reduce its effect.
3. Fossil fuels and biofuels can undergo complete combustion to release carbon dioxide and water. Explain
why the complete combustion of fossil fuels contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect, whereas the
complete combustion of biofuels does not.
2.3 Suitability of fuels for transport

KEY CONCEPT
• The comparison of the suitability of petrodiesel and biodiesel as transport fuels with reference to sources,
chemical structures, combustion products, flow along fuel lines (implications of hygroscopic properties and
impact of outside temperature on viscosity) and the environmental impacts associated with their extraction
and production
2.3.1 Comparing petrodiesel and biodiesel

After petrol, diesel is the most widely used transport fuel in the world. Traditionally used in larger scale
engines such as those in boats, trucks, trains and buses, it is now becoming more popular as an alternative
fuel for the smaller engines found in cars. Diesel engines, although heavier and initially more expensive, are
more efficient than their petrol counterparts, have better fuel economy and tend to last longer. They produce

less power than petrol engines of the same size but more torque, which is the amount of turning power. This
makes diesel-powered vehicles slower to accelerate but ideal for hauling heavier loads. Biodiesel can easily
be substituted, either straight or blended with petrodiesel, as a fuel for diesel engines and requires little or
no modification to the engine.
Source and chemical structure

As discussed in topic 1, diesel is sourced from fractional distillation of petroleum and is a mixture of
(largely unsaturated) hydrocarbons. Often referred to as petrodiesel to distinguish it from biodiesel, it is
predominantly alkane molecules, both straight-chain and branched, of 12–24 carbon atoms per molecule.
Biodiesel is formed from the transesterification of esters from long-chain fatty acids and alcohol (typically
methanol). The long-chain is preserved with 15–20 carbon atoms per molecule. These differences in
formation and structure can be seen in figure 2.10.
FIGURE 2.10 Examples of structural formulas of (a) petrodiesel and (b) biodiesel
(a) H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
(b) H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H
Combustion
As crude oil is mostly a mixture of alkanes, so too is the petrodiesel component obtained from it. Therefore,
its combustion follows the typical pattern of an alkane and, in the presence of sufficient oxygen, carbon
dioxide and water are produced. For example, hexadecane, C16 H34 , burns according to:
2C16 H34 (l) + 49O2 (g) → 32CO2 (g) + 34H2 O(g)
Other products of combustion may include sulfur dioxide (from sulfur impurities), nitrogen oxides,
carbon monoxide and particulate carbon (soot). The latter two are produced in situations where insufficient
oxygen is present. Soot is often seen as black smoke under conditions of heavy acceleration or when
engines are poorly tuned. The following equation illustrates how less oxygen is required to make particulate
carbon.
2C16 H34 (l) + 17O2 (g) → 32C(s) + 34H2 O(g)
In the past decade, considerable advances in both

FIGURE 2.11 Black soot exhaust is less
engine technology and fuel quality have led to a common because modern engines and fuels
significant reduction in all of these emissions. Two such reduce undesired emissions.
examples are the introduction of ultra-low-sulfur diesel
(ULSD), which not only lowers emissions of SO2 but
also allows for more sophisticated pollution control
measures in the engine itself, and the introduction of
computer-controlled, self-cleansing exhaust filters
designed to remove soot.

Environmental issues
Biodiesel appears to be an excellent substitute for FIGURE 2.12 Deforestation for palm oil
petrodiesel. It can be used in diesel engines with little plantations is endangering the habitat of the
or no modification, and aids in engine lubrication and Sumatran orangutan.
can clean engines of built-up deposits that result from
the long-term use of petrodiesel. Emissions from a
biodiesel-fuelled engine are similar to those from a
petrodiesel engine but are generally lower in quantity,
the exception being nitrogen oxides, which may be
slightly higher. As manufacturers strive to meet more
stringent emission standards, it is anticipated that more
petro- and biodiesel blends will be recommended.
Two additional environmental positives of biodiesel
are that it is biodegradable and that it can be produced
from a waste product, notably used cooking oil. In
Australia, the main feedstocks are oil seeds such as canola, used cooking oil and tallow. Elsewhere in the
world, soybeans and sunflower seeds, as well as palm oil, are the main sources being used to meet this
demand. However, as demand increases, new economical sources will need to be found and there are some
environmental concerns, including the debate about land use: should crops be grown for food production or
fuel production? In south-east Asia, massive deforestation is occurring to make way for palm oil plantations
for fuel and this is endangering the habitats of many species, the best known of which is the Sumatran
orangutan.
Two possible ways of overcoming these issues are
TABLE 2.3 Approximate yields of some biodiesel
the use of algae and the seeds from jatropha trees. oil sources
Research is being undertaken into the development
of algae as an oil source. It is envisaged that such algae Oil source Yield (L/ha)
could grow in low-quality water bodies and possibly Algae* 47 000–140 000
the ocean. Seeds from the jatropha tree are being
Palm oil 5900
investigated due to their high oil content. Jatropha trees
can be grown in marginal agricultural land and require Jatropha 1900
minimal cultivation and irrigation. Additionally, they Canola 1200
do not have to be replanted from season to season. Both
of these possibilities would overcome the conflicting Sunflower 950
issues of whether to use land for food or fuel. Safflower 800
Besides the effects on the environment of exhaust
Soy 450
emissions, other environmental considerations are
associated with the use of petrodiesel. The extraction *estimate; depends on species
of crude oil can cause significant degradation to the

immediate environment, and its subsequent transportation, especially by sea, has resulted in a number
of significant, environmentally damaging spills. The refining process of petrodiesel and vehicle exhaust
emissions can release unburned hydrocarbons into the air. Under the right conditions, which are often
found in large cities, these can react to form photochemical smog. To this must also be added the emissions
involved in the transport of both the crude oil and its petrodiesel product.
Technical issues
Two major technical issues facing the introduction of biodiesel are that it is hygroscopic and it can gel at
low temperatures. If a substance is hygroscopic, it absorbs water vapour from the air, and this property
is enhanced if a biodiesel is poorly processed as the transesterification process will not be completed
and will result in partially converted mono- and diglycerides. This can affect engine life as the mono-
and diglicerides act as an emulsifier, allowing water to mix with the biodiesel. This can result in several
problems including allowing microbes to grow in the fuel. It also accelerates gelling and reduces the energy

liberated upon combustion. Gelling at low temperatures is a major problem but is somewhat dependent on
the type of oil used in the original manufacture. Gelling increases viscosity of the fuel, reducing or even
preventing its flow along fuel lines and through diesel injectors. A number of potential solutions to this
problem are being investigated, including blending it with petrodiesel, additives to lower the gel point,
special fuel tanks that are heated as the car warms up and special reserve tanks containing petrodiesel for
starting and warming up the engine.
Comparision of petrodiesel and biodiesel

TABLE 2.4 Comparison of petrodiesel and biodiesel
Property Petrodiesel Biodiesel
Sources Petroleum • Used cooking oil, tallow, oil seed crops, such
as canola and palm oil
• Oil from algae is possible
• Methanol production requires fossil fuels but
production of methanol from glycerol (a
by-product) is currently under investigation
Chemical Alkanes, both straight-chain and branched • Esters from long-chain fatty acids (typically
structure (typically containing 12–24 carbon atoms per 15–20 carbon atoms per molecule) and
molecule) methanol
• Other simple alcohols
Combustion • Carbon dioxide • Same as petrodiesel but generally lower in

products • Water quantity
• Carbon monoxide • May be increased emission of nitrogen oxides
• Particulate carbon (soot)
• Sulfur dioxide
• Nitrogen oxides
Viscosity Hygroscopic, but not generally an issue as Hygroscopic and low outside temperatures; can
seasonal blending allows for changes in lead to increased viscosity due to fuel gelling
outside temperature
Environmental • Non-renewable • Renewable

impact • Non-biodegradable • Biodegradable
• Spills in transportation of both crude oil and • Issues with growing crops for food versus fuel
refined products • Deforestation issues, especially in south-east
• Combustion emissions in transportation Asia
chain
Resources
Weblink Biofuels for transportation
2.3 EXERCISE
1. It is difficult to determine the total world reserves of fossil fuels. Estimates are constantly revised to take into
account new discoveries, new information about known deposits and new techniques for extracting them.
Conservation strategies will enable us to extend the life of fossil fuels.
Discuss how each of the following factors affect the rate at which fossil fuels are used.
(a) Population growth rate
(b) Community awareness of the need for energy conservation

(c) Alternative technologies and fuel sources
(d) Fuel pricing policies, nationally and internationally
(e) Trade relations between nations.
2. Fossil fuels took millions of years to form, yet they are likely to be used up within a few hundred years. Draw
up a table with two columns.
(a) In the first column of the table, list the activities you do during the week that require energy from fossil
fuels.
(b) Assume that our supply of fossil fuels stops tomorrow. In the second column of the table, write down
alternative ways in which your energy could be supplied for each of the activities you have listed.
(c) How important are fossil fuels to your life?
3. You have been invited to debate the statement ‘The world should stop using fossil fuels and replace their
use with biofuels’.
(a) Outline three environmental or societal issues you would argue if you were in favour of this statement.
(b) Outline three environmental or societal issues you would argue if you were against this statement.
4. (a) Define the terms ‘biodiesel’ and ‘petrodiesel’.
(b) State one disadvantage of using biodiesel in cold climates.
(c) Give one environmental advantage of increasing the usage of biodiesel.
(d) Give one environmental disadvantage that an increased usage of biodiesel may lead to.
To answer past VCAA exam questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for
every question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

2.4 Review
2.4.1 Summary
Comparing energy sources
• Fuels produce energy through combustion reactions.
• Good fuels have the properties of being easily ignited, releasing significant energy on combustion,
having minimal negative environmental impact and being relatively inexpensive, readily available
and safe.
• In future, greater reliance on renewable fuels will be necessary as non-renewable fuels (particularly
petroleum and coal) become depleted.
• Our use of energy, whether from renewable or non-renewable sources, affects the environment. Issues
such as air pollution, the enhanced greenhouse effect, spillages, land degradation, water pollution and
habitat damage need to be carefully monitored and improved.
• A significant issue with the increasing use of biofuels is land use. Should land be used for growing fuel
crops at the expense of food crops?
• The process of global warming, also known as the enhanced greenhouse effect, arises when the
amount of heat striking the Earth’s surface is greater than the amount that is radiated, causing the Earth
to warm up.
• The major greenhouse gas emitted by human activities in Australia is carbon dioxide.
• Acid rain results from the reaction between rainwater and sulfur dioxide that is released into the
atmosphere.
Suitability of fuels for transport
• Biodiesel is gradually finding more use as a replacement transport fuel for petrodiesel, both as a
straight fuel and in blends with petrodiesel.
• The fuels on which modern society relies are mainly non-renewable fossil fuels.

Resources
To access key concept summaries and practice exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and practice
2.4.2 Key terms
abundance the relative amount of a substance

acid rain rain that has a pH lower than 5
climate change changes in various measures of climate over a long period of time
carbon neutral no net release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
enhanced greenhouse effect the effect of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere as
the result of human activity
greenhouse effect a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s
atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse
gases.
hygroscopic a tendency to absorb water vapour from the atmosphere
secondary fuel a fuel that is produced from another energy source
sustainable energy energy that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs
Resources
2.4 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question,

1. One of the criteria for the choice of fuels is the amount of heat released on combustion per gram of fuel.
On this basis, which of the following would be the best fuel?
Heat of combustion
(kJ mol−1 of reactant)
A. H2 238
B. CO 284
C. CH3 CH2 OH (ethanol) 1371
D. C8 H18 (n-octane) 5447
2. Coal and ethanol are both produced from plants. Which of the following statements about the
classification of these two fuels is correct?
A. Coal and ethanol are both fossil fuels.
B. Coal is a fossil fuel but ethanol is a biofuel.
C. Coal and ethanol are both biofuels.
D. Coal is a biofuel but ethanol is a fossil fuel.

3. A hygroscopic substance is a substance that:
A. absorbs heat
B. evolves heat
C. evolves water
D. absorbs water.
4. When petrodiesel is compared with biodiesel in terms of their chemical components, it can be said that:
A. both consist of alkanes
B. petrodiesel consists of alkanes whereas biodiesel consists of esters
C. petrodiesel consists of esters whereas biodiesel consists of alkanes
D. both consist of esters.
5. When biofuels are burned, the carbon dioxide produced:
A. puts carbon atoms back into the atmosphere that were only recently removed
B. puts carbon atoms back into the atmosphere that were removed millions of years ago
C. puts oxygen atoms back into the atmosphere that were removed millions of years ago
D. puts carbon atoms back into the atmosphere at a slower rate than when an equivalent amount of fossil
fuel is burned.

1. a. What is a fossil fuel?
b. Give at least three examples of fossil fuels.
2. ‘Coal, gas and oil should be made more expensive to deter people from wasting them.’ Discuss this
statement, offering at least two arguments for and against the proposal.
3. a. What is a biofuel?
b. Give three examples of biofuels.
4. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of ethanol and petrol as transport fuels. Present your
findings as a table.
5. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel and petrodiesel as transport fuels. Present your
findings as a table.
6. Coal seam gas has become a significant energy source in Australia since the year 2000.
a. Is coal seam gas a renewable or non-renewable energy source?
b. Describe how coal seam gas is obtained.
c. Which gas is the main component of coal seam gas?
d. List two environmental concerns associated with the production of coal seam gas.
7. Fossil fuels may be used to produce electricity.
a. Explain how energy waste may occur in the conversion of fossil fuels to electricity.
b. Explain how energy waste may occur in the use of electricity in the home.
8. a. Assuming that each kilowatt hour of electricity produces about 1.44 kilograms of carbon dioxide,
examine your family’s electricity bills and determine how much carbon dioxide your family
produces annually.
b. Explain why the production of carbon dioxide might lead to environmental problems.
c. Suggest three ways in which your family could decrease electricity use to contribute to the
minimisation of carbon dioxide release into the atmosphere.
9. In a fuel efficiency test, the percentage of petrol wasted due to incorrect handling techniques and altered
car conditions was calculated for a particular car.
Altered variable Percentage use
Speeding 14
Overloaded car 15
Roof rack 10
Soft tyres 5
Poor tuning 28

The car has a fuel consumption of 15.0 km per litre of fuel.
a. If fuel costs 130 cents per litre, calculate the money wasted on a 100 km trip if the car had roof
racks on.
b. After completing the first trip, the driver realises they left their bag behind. Calculate the cost of the
trip back if they speed the whole way home.
10. A power station using brown coal as its fuel consumes 40 000 tonnes of coal per day. If it generates an
average of 27.8 GWh of electricity per day, calculate its overall efficiency. (Heat energy evolved by
1.000 tonne brown coal 6.7 GJ; 1 kWh = 3600 kJ.)

Biodiesel is a fuel that is steadily gaining popularity as an alternative to petrodiesel. It is produced by a
process called transesterification. Another chemical is also produced.
a. Define the term ‘transesterification’. 1 mark
b. A sample of biodiesel is analysed and found to consist only of methyl stearate. With the aid of suitable
structural diagrams, show how this would have been made. You should make mention of any special
reaction conditions required. 6 marks
c. Write the equation for the combustion of methyl stearate in excess oxygen. 3 marks
d. Name the other chemical produced by transesterification. 1 mark
e. To what class of organic compounds do the majority of molecules in biodiesel belong? 1 mark
f. Give one advantage and one disadvantage associated with the use of biodiesel as a fuel. 2 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 1
3 Galvanic cells as a source

of energy
3.1 Overview
3.1.1 Introduction
In today’s world of mobile phones and satellite
FIGURE 3.1 The remains of an early telegraph station at
communication, it is difficult to imagine what Eucla, near the South Australia–Western Australia border.
life would have been like before the invention
of the telegraph and a suitable battery or
cell to power it. The almost immediate
communication we now take for granted
would have taken weeks or even months just
within Australia. Overseas communications
may have taken up to a year. In the late
nineteenth century, redox reactions were
responsible for bringing the world together
via the telegraph. Today, redox reactions still
perform this vital role. They are at the heart of
the battery technology that powers our mobile
phones and other electronic devices.
Critical to the functioning of early telegraph stations was the Daniell cell — an electrochemical cell that
harnessed the redox reaction between zinc and copper ions to produce electricity.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• redox reactions with reference to electron transfer, reduction and oxidation reactions, reducing and
oxidising agents, and use of oxidation numbers to identify conjugate reducing and oxidising agents
• the writing of balanced half-equations for oxidation and reduction reactions and balanced ionic equations,
including states, for overall redox reactions
• galvanic cells as primary cells and as portable or fixed chemical energy storage devices that can produce
electricity (details of specific cells not required) including common design features (anode, cathode,
electrolytes, salt bridge and separation of half-cells) and chemical processes (electron and ion flows,
half-equations and overall equations)
• the comparision of energy transformations occurring in spontaneous exothermic redox reactions involving
direct contact between reactants (transformation of chemical energy to heat energy) compared with those
occurring when the reactants are separated in galvanic cells (transformation of chemical energy to electrical
energy)
TOPIC 3 Galvanic cells as a source of energy 73

• the use of the electrochemical series in designing and constructing galvanic cells and as a tool for
predicting the products of redox reactions, deducing overall equations from redox half-equations and
determining maximum cell voltage under standard conditions.
Resources
3.2 Redox reactions and half-equations

KEY CONCEPTS
• Redox reactions with reference to electron transfer, reduction and oxidation reactions, reducing
and oxidising agents, and use of oxidation numbers to identify conjugate reducing and oxidising agents
• The writing of balanced half-equations for oxidation and reduction reactions and balanced ionic equations,
including states, for overall redox reactions
3.2.1 What is a redox reaction?

The production of electricity from chemical reactions began in 1780 when Luigi Galvani (1739–1798), an
Italian anatomist, conducted a series of experiments investigating the responses obtained from the hind legs
of frogs when static electricity was applied to them. He found that the frogs’ legs could be made to twitch
by connecting the nerve and muscle tissues to different metals such as copper and iron. The dead frog was
literally galvanised into action. Galvani thought that the muscles of the frog must contain electricity and
advocated the idea of ‘animal electricity’.
FIGURE 3.2 During the eighteenth century, many people believed that the nerves and muscles of animals
contained a fluid that acted like an electric current. How do Galvani’s results support this idea?

Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons to and from substances. The term ‘redox’ is derived
from two separate words: reduction and oxidation. A substance is said to be reduced when it accepts (or
gains) electrons, and said to be oxidised when it donates (or loses) electrons. In a redox reaction, reduction
and oxidation always occur simultaneously. Note that oxidation and reduction are processes.
• Reduction is the process in which electrons are added to a substance.

• Oxidation is the process in which electrons are removed from a substance.
• Use the acronym OIL RIG:
Oxidation Is Loss Reduction Is Gain
Oxidising agents (oxidants) and reducing agents (reductants) are substances in a redox reaction.
Because oxidation and reduction always occur together, an oxidising agent can be thought of as a substance
that allows (or causes) another substance to undergo oxidation. It does this by accepting the electrons that
are produced. In the same way, a reducing agent is a substance that permits another substance to undergo
reduction, by supplying the electrons that are required. As a result, oxidising agents undergo the process of
reduction, while reducing agents undergo the process of oxidation.
• Oxidising agents are substances that cause or permit another substance to be oxidised.
• Reducing agents are substances that cause or permit another substance to be reduced.
All of these definitions can be clarified by remembering that oxidation and reduction are processes,
whereas oxidising agents and reducing agents are substances involved in these processes.
Redox reactions may be represented by balanced half-equations and by overall equations. For example,
the burning of magnesium may be represented by the overall equation:
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO(s)
This equation may be deconstructed into two half-equations that illustrate the transfer of electrons.
Mg(s) → Mg2+ (s) + 2e− (oxidation)

O2 (g) + 4e− → 2O2− (s) (reduction)
In this reaction, magnesium is acting as a reducing agent because it is losing electrons. Magnesium is a
group 2 metal, and losing 2 electrons allows it to attain a full outer shell configuration. Oxygen is acting as
an oxidising agent because it is gaining electrons. As a member of group 16, the gain of 2 electrons allows
it to to attain a full outer shell configuration. If the oxidation half-equation is multiplied by two and the two
half-equations are then added, the electrons cancel out and the overall balanced (in terms of both charge and
species) equation is produced.
Resources
Video eLesson Redox-electron transfer (eles-2495)
3.2.2 Oxidation numbers

The deconstruction of an equation into oxidation and reduction half-equations prove that a reaction is a redox
reaction. While this is a relatively simple process for some reactions, there are many redox reactions that are
more complex. For example, the reaction between the acidified dichromate (VI) ion and hydrogen disulfide:
+
Cr2 O2− 3+
7 (aq) + 3H2 S(aq) + 8H (aq) → 2Cr (aq) + 3S(s) + 7H2 O(l)

is also a redox reaction but it is much harder to produce the half-equations for this reaction. To assist
in situations such as this, chemists use oxidation numbers. These are a set of rules that assist in the
identification of redox reactions.
When using oxidation numbers remember that:
• oxidation is an increase in the oxidation number of an atom (e.g. the number becomes more positive:
–3 to –1 or –1 to +1)
• reduction is a decrease in the oxidation number of an atom (e.g. the number becomes more negative:
+3 to +1 or +1 to –1).
Alternatively, we can determine what is oxidised and what is reduced. Oxidisation occurs if a substance
is gaining oxygen, and reduction occurs if a substance is losing oxygen. Oxidation can also be determined if
a substance is losing hydrogen and reduction can be determined if a substance is gaining hydrogen.
FIGURE 3.3 Determining FIGURE 3.4 Determining

oxidation and reduction through oxidation and reduction through
gain and loss of oxygen loss and gain of hydrogen
Lose oxygen: Reduction Lose hydrogen: Oxidation
Fe2O3 + 3CO 2Fe + 3CO2 2NH3 + 3Br2 N2 + 6HBr
Gain oxygen: Oxidation Gain hydrogen: Reduction
The following rules can be used to determine oxidation numbers. Remember that oxidation numbers are
theoretical numbers and should not be confused with ionic charges.
TABLE 3.1 Oxidation number rules
Oxidation number rule Oxidation number example
1. The oxidation number of an atom in its elemental Oxidation number:

form is 0. Copper metal, Cu(s) = 0
Nitrogen gas, N2 (g) = 0.
2. The oxidation number of a simple ion is the charge on Al3+ =+3

the ion. S2- =−2
3. The oxidation number of hydrogen in non-metal In HCl, H2 O and NH4+ H = +1

compounds is +1. In NaH or CaH2 , H = –1
The oxidation number of hydrogen in metal
hydrides is –1.
4. The oxidation number of oxygen in a compound is Magnesium oxide, O = –2

usually –2. Except in Peroxide compounds: H2 O2 and BaO2 , O = –1
• peroxide compounds where the oxidation number Oxygen difluoride: OF2 , O = –2
is –1
• compounds with oxygen bonded to fluorine where
the oxidation number is +2.
5. Fluorine always has an oxidation number of –1 F = –1

because it is the most electronegative element.
6. In a neutral compound the sum of all the oxidation In MgCl2 , oxidation numbers are added as follows:
numbers must equal 0. +2 + (2 × –1) = 0.
−
7. In a polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation In NO3 , they are added as follows:
numbers must equal the charge on the ion. +5 + (3 × –2) = –1.
(continued)

TABLE 3.1 Oxidation number rules (continued)
Oxidation number rule Oxidation number example
8. In covalent compounds that do not involve oxygen or In ICl3 , the chlorine is the more electronegative atom.
hydrogen, the more electronegative element has the It is therefore assigned an oxidation number of –1,
negative oxidation number. This is equal to the because this is the charge on a chloride ion. (Note: This
charge that it would have if it was a negative ion. is just the way the oxidation number is worked out. This
molecule is a covalent, neutral molecule; it does not
contain chloride ions.)
Using rule 6, we can now calculate that the oxidation
number of the iodine in ICl3 is +3.
Using oxidation numbers

The rules for determining oxidation numbers can be used to assign an oxidation number to each atom in a
compound. Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2 , has been used in figure 3.5 to demonstrate this.
The oxidation numbers of oxygen and hydrogen must be multiplied by two because each formula unit
contains two of each of these atoms. Remember that the sum of the oxidation numbers must equal 0 (for a
balanced formula).
Mg + (2 × O) + (2 × H) = +2 + (2 × −2) + (2 × +1)
= 2 −4 + 2
=0
FIGURE 3.5 How to determine the oxidation numbers in magnesium hydroxide.
Mg(OH)2
+2 +1 for each H atom
−2 for each O atom
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The main compound in limestone statues or common chalk is calcium carbonate. What is the
oxidation number of carbon in the carbonate ion, CO23 − ?
THINK WRITE
1. Assign as many oxidation numbers as possible, The oxidation number of oxygen is –2.
and then find the oxidation number of the
unknown atom.
Oxygen’s oxidation number is only ever –1
if it is hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) or +2 if
bonded to fluorine.
2. Obtain the oxidation number for carbon by (oxidation number for C) + 3 × (oxidation
recognising the sum of the oxidation numbers number for O) = –2
for O and C are equal to the charge on the (oxidation number for C) + 3 × (–2) = –2
ion (–2). (oxidation number for C) – 6 = –2
oxidation number for C = +4

PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
FIGURE 3.6 Io has a thin atmosphere of
The photographs obtained by the Voyager 1 space probe sulfur dioxide, and sulfur compounds in
showed that Io, one of the moons of Jupiter, has active liquid and solid states cover its surface.
volcanoes and a surface composed of sulfur and sulfur
dioxide, SO2 . Assign oxidation numbers to each atom in
the molecule sulfur dioxide.
Resources
Interactivity Assigning oxidation numbers (int-1220)
Identifying redox reactions

Oxidation was originally defined as the process in which a substance gained oxygen. Therefore, the
burning of magnesium was described as an oxidation process. However, oxidation and reduction occur
simultaneously. In figure 3.7, magnesium is oxidised as oxygen is reduced. Oxygen gains electrons and its
oxidation number decreases from 0 to –2.
Oxidation numbers can be used to determine whether or not a reaction is a redox reaction. If the
oxidation number of an element changes between the reactant species and the product species, then that
element has undergone either oxidation or reduction. Given that oxidation cannot happen without reduction,
it is easy to determine if the reaction can be classified as redox.
FIGURE 3.7 Magnesium powder burning in a FIGURE 3.8 Different

Bunsen burner flame. Here, magnesium is oxidised oxidation states of
while oxygen is reduced. Burning magnesium chromium compounds. Left
powder gives out a great deal of light. It is commonly to right: K2 CrO4 , CrCl3 ,
used in flash bulbs and fireworks. CrCl2

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Determine whether the following reaction is a redox reaction: H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI(g)
THINK WRITE
1. Assign oxidation numbers to each element. The 0
oxidation number of an atom in its elemental
form is 0. H2(g) + I2(g) 2HI(g)
The oxidation number of H in non-metal +1 −1

compounds is +1.
2. Determine whether a change in oxidation number The oxidation number of hydrogen has
has taken place. changed from 0 to +1, so the hydrogen has
been oxidised (because its oxidation
number has increased).
The oxidation number of iodine has
changed from 0 to –1, so the iodine has
been reduced (because its oxidation number
has decreased).
Therefore, this is a redox reaction.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
FIGURE 3.9 Tungsten metal filaments used in
Although tungsten, W, is a rare element, it has
specialist light bulbs. If hot tungsten is exposed
been used extensively in the past in light globes. to air, it oxidises to form tungsten oxide. To
Tungsten is still used to make filaments for specialist prevent this, inert argon gas is used to fill the
incandescent globes because it has the highest inside of light globes.
melting point (3410 °C) and boiling point (5900 °C)
of any metal.
The metal is obtained from tungsten(VI) oxide by
heating it with hydrogen, according to the equation:
WO3 (s) + 3H2 (g)→W(s) + 3H2 O(g)
Using oxidation numbers, determine whether

this equation represents a redox reaction and, if so,
identify the oxidising agent and reducing agent.
Conjugate oxidising agents and reducing agents

Every time oxidising agents and reducing agents gain and lose electrons, they form a pair. This means that
they have conjugated. A conjugate redox pair consists of:
• an electron donor and its corresponding electron acceptor
or
• an electron acceptor and its corresponding electron donor.

For example, when the half-equation Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− occurs, the Cu(s) donates two electrons
and is oxidised, which means it is acting as a reducing agent. Now that a Cu2+ (aq) ion has been formed, it
can do the opposite of the Cu(s) and accept two electrons back. This reduces it and allows it to behave as
a conjugate oxidising agent. Therefore, species that are reduced (act as an electron acceptor, which is an
oxidising agent) form conjugate reducing agents, and species that are oxidised (act as an electron donor,
which is a reducing agent) form conjugate oxidising agents.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
In the following redox reaction, identify the oxidising agent, the reducing agent and their
conjugates.
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq)→FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
THINK WRITE
1. Recall the definitions of oxidation and reduction. Cu2+ (aq) forms Cu(s) . Cu2+ has an
Recall that all elements have an oxidation number initial oxidation number of 2+ and
of 0. has become less positive (gained
TIP: Use these acronyms: negatives) to have a final oxidation
Oxidation is Loss (OIL) of electrons. number for Cu(s) of 0. This means it
Reduction is Gain (RIG) of electrons. has been reduced.
Fe(s) has an initial oxidation number
of 0 and has become more positive
(lost negatives), forming Fe2+ (aq)
(because the charge on the sulfate
group is –2). This means it has been
oxidised.
2. Oxidising agents are reduced and reducing agents Cu2+ (aq) acts as an oxidising agent.
are oxidised. Fe(s) acts as a reducing agent.
TIP: When a question asks for the reducing agent,
you must always specify whether the agent is in the
ion or elemental form. In this example the answer
should be the copper ions or Cu2+ (aq). Note that
Cu(s) is actually the conjugate oxidising agent.
3. Species that are reduced (oxidising agents) form Cu(s) is the conjugate reducing agent.
conjugate reducing agents and species that are FeSO4 (aq) is the conjugate oxidising
oxidised (reducing agents) form conjugate agent.
oxidising agents.
In Sample problem 3, Fe(s) is reduced and CuSO4 (aq) is oxidised. The relationship between oxidising
and reducing agents and their conjugates are shown in table 3.2.
TABLE 3.2 The relationship between oxidising and reducing agents and their conjugates
Fe(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)

2+ 2+
Fe(s) gets oxidised Cu (aq) gets reduced Fe can act as a Cu(s) can act as a
Acts as a reducing Acts as an oxidising conjugate oxidising conjugate reducing
agent agent agent agent
Forms a conjugate Forms a conjugate
oxidising agent reducing agent

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
In the following redox reaction, identify the oxidising agent, the reducing agent and their conjugates.
2Na(s) + 2H2 O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
Rules for balancing half-equations and redox reactions

There is a set of rules for balancing half-equations (KOHES method) and full redox equations, which are
useful for the more complicated types of redox reactions mentioned earlier.
We can illustrate these steps by considering the following equation.
+
Cr2 O2− 3+
7 (aq) + 3H2 S(aq) + 8H (aq) → 2Cr (aq) + 3S(s) + 7H2 O(l)
TABLE 3.3 Balancing half-equations and redox reactions
Rule Example:
1. Identify the conjugate pairs that are Reduction: Cr2 O72– → Cr3+
involved in the reaction. Oxidation Oxidation: H2 S → S
numbers may be useful in doing
this. Write these pairs down with the
reactant on the left and the product
on the right.
2−
2. Balance Key elements (undergoing Reduction: Cr2 O7 → 2Cr3+
reduction or oxidation). Oxidation: H2 S → S
2−
3. Balance Oxygen atoms, where Reduction: Cr2 O7 → 2Cr3+ + 7H2 O
needed, by adding water molecules. Oxidation: H2 S → S
4. Balance Hydrogen atoms, where Reduction: Cr2 O−

2
+ 14H+ → 2Cr3+ + 7H2 O
needed, by adding H+ ions. Oxidation: H2 S → S + 2H+
5. Equalise the overall charge by Reduction: Cr2 O2−

7
+ 14H+ + 6e− → 2Cr3+ + 7H2 O
adding electrons. Oxidation: H2 S → S + 2H+ + 2e–
Once this process is done for each At this stage, the two half-equations have been produced, and
conjugate pair, the following steps then reduction and oxidation can be confirmed from the position of the
produce the overall equation. symbols of state would now be added. However, if the overall equation
is required, the following two steps are used.
2−
6. Multiply each half-equation from step Reduction: Cr2 O7 + 14H+ + 6e− → 2Cr3+ + 7H2 O
5 by factors that produce the same (not necessary to adjust)
number of electrons in each Oxidation: 3H2 S → 3S + 6H+ + 6e–
half-equation. (multiplied by 3 so that there are 6e− on both sides)
Cr2 O27– +
8H + + 6e– + 3H S → 2Cr3+ + 7H O + 3S + 6H 6e
–
7. Add the two half-equations together, 14 2 2 + +
cancelling the electrons. There may After cancelling the electrons and hydrogen ions, this becomes:
2−
be other substances that also Cr2 O7 + 3H2 S + 8H+ → 2Cr3+ + 3S + 7H2 O
partially cancel out at this stage.
8. Identify the States for all species. Adding (symbols

) of state
( )now gives
( the
) original(equation.
)
Cr2 O2−
7
aq + 3H2 S aq + 8H+ aq → 2Cr3+ aq + 3S (s) + 7H2 O (I)
TIP: Ensure that you balance the charge on both sides of the overall equation. The charge on each
side of the equation should be the same. They do not cancel each other out or have to equal zero.

Resources
Video eLesson Balancing redox reactions (eles-2489)
3.2 EXERCISE
1. Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in the following substances.
(a) HBr
(b) Na2 O
(c) CH4
(d) NaClO3
(e) Al2 O3
(f) H3 PO4
2. Determine the oxidation number of S in each of the following compounds.
(a) H2 SO4
(b) SO2
(c) SO3
(d) H2 S
3. Determine the oxidation number of chromium in each of the following solutions.
(a) K2 CrO4
(b) CrCl3
(c) CrCl2
4. Assign oxidation numbers to the atoms in the following ions.
(a) NH− 2
(b) MnO− 4
(c) HS–
(d) VO2+
(e) IO− 3
(f) PO3− 4
5. Identify if the following equations are redox equations. If the reaction is a redox reaction, identify the
substances that have been oxidised and reduced.
(a) 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2FeCl3 (s)
(b) NH3 (g) + HCl(g) → NH4 Cl(s)
(c) 2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
(d) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l)
(e) K2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → 2KOH(aq)
(f) P4 O10 (s) + 6H2 O(l) → 4H3 PO4 (aq)
(g) 2CO(g) + O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g)
(h) C2 H4 (g) + H2 (g) → C2 H6 (g)
6. (a) Permanganate ions, MnO4 – (aq), are strong oxidising agents. They can be used to oxidise ethanol,
CH3 CH2 OH(l), to ethanal, CH3 CHO(l). In the process, they are converted to Mn2+ (aq) ions.
i. Write the equation for the above oxidation.
ii. Write the equation for the reduction reaction that also occurs.
iii. From your answers to (i) and (ii), write the overall redox equation for this reaction.
iv. Identify the oxidising agent and the reducing agent in this reaction.
(b) The oxidising strength of permanganate ions permits the ethanal produced in part (a) to be further
oxidised to ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH. (Mn2+ (aq) is produced in this stage as well.)
i. Write the equation for the oxidation that takes place in this situation.
ii. Write the equation for the reduction reaction.
iii. Write the overall redox equation for this reaction.
7. Nitric acid may act as an oxidising agent, especially when hot and concentrated. Many otherwise unreactive
metals may be oxidised in this way. Write the overall redox equation for the oxidation of copper metal by
NO3 – (aq) ions to produce Cu2+ (aq) ions and NO2 (g) gas using this method.


3.3 Galvanic cells

KEY CONCEPTS
• Galvanic cells as primary cells and as portable or fixed chemical energy storage devices that can produce
electricity (details of specific cells not required) including common design features (anode, cathode,
electrolytes, salt bridge and separation of half-cells) and chemical processes (electron and ion flows,
half-equations and overall equations)
• The comparison of the energy transformations occurring in spontaneous exothermic redox reactions
involving direct contact between reactants (transformation of chemical energy to heat energy) compared
with those occurring when the reactants are separated in galvanic cells (transformation of chemical energy
to electrical energy)
3.3.1 Common laboratory galvanic cells

A galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that takes electrical energy
FIGURE 3.10 A simple galvanic cell
from spontaneous redox reactions occurring within the cell.
Galvanic cells constructed in a laboratory have the following
features in common. An example is shown in figure 3.10.
1. Two separate half-cells that contain electrolytes: Oxidation (2) Mg metal (2) Fe (iron nail)
occurs in one half-cell and reduction in the other. Each (electrode) (electrode)
half-cell contains a different conjugate redox pair, and
(3) wire
has spectator ions that balance the reacting ions, making
the cell electrically neutral. So, in the Daniell cell, Cu2+ KNO3
(present as CuSO4 (aq)) is reacting and Zn2+ (present (4) salt
as Zn(NO3 )2 (aq)) is produced; the SO4 2– (aq) and the bridge
–
NO3 (aq) are spectator ions.
2. One electrode in each half-cell: Each electrode may be one of
the reactant pairs or may be inert, such as graphite or platinum. (1) MgSO4 (1) FeSO4
Redox half-cell reactions occur at the electrode surface. solution solution
The polarity refers to the charge on the electrode; the anode is negative (due to the electrons being
attracted to the surface) and the cathode is positive.
3. A connecting wire between the electrodes that forms an external circuit: This allows electrons to flow
from the reducing agent to the oxidising agent — that is, from the site of oxidation (anode) to the site
of reduction (cathode).
4. A salt bridge connecting the two solutions allows charge (ions) to flow without allowing the solutions
to mix. This contains a strong electrolyte (often potassium nitrate or potassium chloride) that allows a
slow migration of ions (such as K+ and NO3 – ) to maintain the cell’s electrical neutrality. The negative
ions (anions) flow into the cell containing the anode; they are needed to balance the positive ions
(cations) that are produced at the anode surface. The positive ions flow into the cell containing the
cathode. Because electrons are accepted by the ions in this cell, positive ions are consumed. The
original negative ions remaining must be balanced by additional positive charges from the salt bridge.

The ions from the salt bridge must not react with the electrolytes in the cells. This would interfere with
the cell’s operation.
TIP: For all cells (galvanic, fuel, and electrolytic)

• RedCat: Reduction always occurs at the Cathode
• AnOx: Oxidation always occurs at the Anode
Types of half-cell
Each half-cell in a laboratory galvanic cell contains a conjugate oxidising
FIGURE 3.11a Metal
agent–reducing agent pair. Oxidation occurs in one of the half-cells and ion–metal half-cells
reduction occurs in the other. Half-cells are constructed by dipping an electrode
into an electrolyte. The electrode may or may not take part in the reaction. electrical wire
It is convenient to group half-cells into three types based on design. salt
The three types are: metallic zinc bridge
electrode
• the metal ion–metal half-cell
• the solution half-cell
• the gas–non-metal half-cell.
2+
Metal ion–metal half-cells (figure 3.11a) consist of a metal rod Zn (aq)
from
in a solution of its ions, usually from the sulfate salt. ZnSO4(aq)
The sulfate ion is unreactive. Ions that are more reactive, such as bromide ions or
nitrate ions, may set up a competing reaction.
Solution half-cells (figure 3.11b) use an inert electrode in the reacting solution. The reacting solution may
contain an oxidising agent, for example MnO4 – (aq) in solution (with Mn2+ (aq)), or a reducing agent, for
example Fe2+ (aq) in solution (with Fe3+ (aq)).
FIGURE 3.11b Solution half-cell FIGURE 3.11c Gas–non-metal ion half-cell
electrical wire electrical wire

CI2(g)
inert (graphite salt salt
bubbled
or platinum) bridge bridge
into solution
electrode
inert (graphite
or platinum)
electrode
Fe3+(aq) from
Fe2(SO4)3(aq) and
Fe2+(aq) from FeSO4(aq) CI−(aq) from
NaCI(aq)
Although gases are reactive, they are usually more difficult to manage in the laboratory. As a result,
gaseous half-cells are not very common (figure 3.11c). In a gaseous half-cell, the gas bubbles over an inert
electrode that is connected to the external wire. Its conjugate redox non-metal ion is in solution.
Resources
Video eLesson Galvanic cells 1 (eles-2594)
3.3.2 Comparison of energy transformations in redox reactions

Energy may be released in a number of forms such as heat, light, electricity or sound. The set-up of the
reaction determines the form of energy that is released.

Converting chemical energy to thermal energy
When a zinc strip is placed in copper(II) sulfate solution 2e–
(Cu ions), the zinc is oxidised and electrons flow from
the zinc metal to the copper ions. This is a spontaneous Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
reaction and requires no energy; in fact, it releases energy
(figure 3.12a). As the zinc dissolves, copper ions are reduced to copper metal and the original blue colour of
the solution begins to fade (figure 3.12b). If the zinc strip remains in the solution for an extended period of
time, the solution in the beaker becomes colourless. All the copper ions in the solution are reduced to form
copper metal, and the zinc goes into the solution as zinc ions (figure 3.12c).
FIGURE 3.12 A zinc strip in copper(II) sulfate solution creates a spontaneous redox reaction.
Zn Zn Zn
Zn2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) Cu2+(aq)
Cu Cu
Zn2+(aq)
(a) (b) (c)
All the chemical energy of the reaction is released as thermal energy (heat) and the transfer of electrons
from zinc to copper ions occurs on the surface of the zinc metal. This can be seen in figures 3.13 and 3.14.
FIGURE 3.13 Chemical energy is released FIGURE 3.14 As Zn reacts with Cu2+ ions,
as thermal energy. it goes into solution as Zn2+ ions. Cu(s) is
deposited on the surface of the zinc.

Converting chemical energy to electrical energy
If the site of oxidation is physically separated from the site of reduction (for example, if each of the
solutions is in a separate beaker), and a connecting wire is placed between them, the electrons are forced to
travel through this wire to complete the redox reaction. Such movement of electrons constitutes an electric
current. This arrangement converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy.
To do this for the Zn(s)/Cu2+ (aq) reaction that we have been discussing, a strip of zinc metal is placed in
a beaker containing zinc sulfate solution (see figure 3.15a). This is connected by a wire to a strip of copper
placed in a beaker containing a copper sulfate solution. The wire provides a pathway for the electrons
to pass from the zinc atoms to the copper cations, but no reaction is observed because the circuit is not
complete.
As the zinc atoms donate electrons and become zinc cations in the first beaker, the electrical neutrality
must be maintained, so anions are required. These anions are supplied by the salt bridge, which can be
a simple filter paper or a U-tube with cotton wool in it. It is soaked in a salt solution, such as potassium
nitrate solution, KNO3 (aq), and used to connect the two beakers (figure 3.15b). Potassium nitrate solution
provides NO− 3 anions for the first beaker to balance the positive charges created by zinc cations. In the
second beaker, copper cations accept electrons and become copper atoms, leaving behind negative sulfate
ions in solution that must be balanced. So the salt bridge supplies cations (in this case, K+ (aq)). Electrons
carry the current in the wire from zinc to copper, and ions carry the current in solution. The flow of ions
completes the circuit. It is important that the ions in the salt bridge do not react with chemicals in the
beakers. The movement of ions in the solutions is called the internal circuit.
FIGURE 3.15 (a) Two strips of different metals and solutions of each of their ions. (b) With the addition
of a wire and a salt bridge, a simple electrochemical cell — a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy — is constructed.
(b)
e−
wire
(a)
Zn
Cu
− NO3− K+ +
KNO3
Zn salt bridge Cu
anode cathode
Zn2+ Cu2+
− +
2− 2−
SO4 SO4 Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e− Cu2+(aq) + 2e− Cu(s)
Each beaker in figure 3.15 is a half-cell. The metal conducting strips are called electrodes and, combined
with the wire, they are referred to as the external circuit. Electrons in the external circuit can be made to do
useful work such as lighting a light bulb.
Solutions that can conduct a current are known as electrolytes. The electrode at which oxidation occurs
is called the anode, and it has a negative charge; the electrode at which reduction occurs is called the
cathode, and it has a positive charge. All of these components together are known as a galvanic cell or an
electrochemical cell.
The example above of an electrochemical cell containing the half-cells Zn(s)/Zn2+ (aq) and
Cu(s)/Cu2+ (aq) is known as the Daniell cell.
TIP: When constructing answers remember:

• Internal circuit always involves Ions
• External circuit always involves Electrons.

A simple galvanic cell consists of:
• two half-cells, containing two electrodes FIGURE 3.16 A simple galvanic cell (Daniell cell)
(anode and cathode) and two electrolytes
• a conducting wire
• a salt bridge, containing another electrolyte.
An electrolyte is a solution containing ions that
can conduct electricity.
An electrode is a conductor through which
electrons enter or leave a galvanic cell.
The anode is the electrode where oxidation
occurs.
The cathode is the electrode where reduction
occurs.
TIP: When describing your observations of a functioning galvanic cell ensure you include colour
or state changes.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A galvanic cell was set up in the following way. A strip of clean magnesium was dipped into a
beaker containing a solution of MgSO4 and, in a separate beaker, an iron nail was dipped into a
solution of FeSO4 . The iron nail and magnesium strip were connected with a wire, and the circuit
was completed with a salt bridge consisting of filter paper dipped into a solution of KNO3 . The
magnesium electrode was known to have a negative charge. Predict the following.
a. The substance that is oxidised and the one that is reduced
b. The anode and cathode
c. The direction of electron flow
d. The half-cell reactions
e. The overall redox reaction.
THINK WRITE
a. Electrons always flow from the site of Electrons are produced at the magnesium
oxidation to the site of reduction. electrode and consumed at the zinc electrode.
Therefore, magnesium is being oxidised and
iron(II) ions are being reduced.
b. Oxidation always occurs at the anode. Magnesium is the anode and iron is the cathode.
c. Electrons flow from the anode to the cathode. Electrons flow from the magnesium electrode
through the wire to the iron electrode.
d. Write out the two half equations that represent Mg(s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2e– (oxidation)
oxidation and reduction. Fe2+ (aq) + 2e– → Fe(s) (reduction)
e. Adding these half-equations and cancelling the Mg(s) + Fe2+ (aq) → Mg2+ (aq) + Fe(s)
electrons results in the following overall redox
reaction.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
When zinc metal is dipped into a solution of silver nitrate, it forms a
coating of silver, as shown in the diagram.
Use this reaction to draw a diagram of a galvanic cell, using KNO3 in
the salt bridge and zinc sulfate as one of the electrolytes. Complete the zinc
following steps to construct your diagram. strip
a. Draw the two half-cells.

b. Write half-equations for the oxidation and reduction reactions.
c. Write the overall cell reaction. silver
d. Label the flow of: crystals
• electrons in the wire
• anions in the salt bridge
silver
• cations in the salt bridge. nitrate
e. Label the anode and the cathode. solution
TIP: In the internal circuit anions always travel towards the anode and cations travel towards the
cathode.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 3.1 Investigating the Daniell cell (doc-31253)
Video eLesson Galvanic cells 2 (eles-2595)
3.3 EXERCISE
1. Why is a salt bridge or porous barrier used to connect two half-cells in a galvanic cell?
2. A student was doing an experiment in the school laboratory. She placed a fresh piece of zinc metal into a
beaker of silver nitrate solution and left it to stand for a short period of time. She then noted the following
observations:
• The temperature of the solution increased.
• The zinc metal became coated with silver.
(a) Write the ionic equation for the reaction occurring in the beaker.
(b) Draw a galvanic cell that allows the energy released during the reaction to be readily used.
On your diagram, identify the anode, the cathode and the polarity of these electrodes.
Indicate the direction of electron flow.
(c) Write half-equations for the reactions occurring at each electrode.
(d) Explain the significance of the increase in temperature of the solution.
3. A galvanic cell was set up by combining half-cells containing zinc and magnesium electrodes dipped into
the appropriate sulfate solutions. A conducting wire and a salt bridge completed the circuit. After three
hours, the two electrodes were removed and weighed. The mass of the Zn electrode had increased, while
the mass of the Mg electrode had decreased. Draw this galvanic cell, clearly indicating the following.
(a) The anode and the cathode
(b) The ions present in the half-cells
(c) The electrolyte in the salt bridge
(d) Anion and cation flow within the salt bridge

(e) The direction of the flow of electrons
(f) The anode reaction and the cathode reaction
(g) The oxidation reaction and the reduction reaction
(h) The overall cell reaction
(i) The oxidising agent and the reducing agent
3+
4. A half-cell containing Cr2 O2−
7
(aq)/Cr is connected to a half-cell containing Fe2+ (aq)/Fe(s). A voltmeter
indicates that electrons flow from the beaker containing Fe2+ (aq)/Fe(s) to the half-cell containing
3+
Cr2 O2−
7
(aq)/Cr .
(a) Draw a labelled diagram of this set-up, indicating the contents of each beaker, the salt bridge and the
materials that each electrode is made from. Also mark the direction of electron flow.
(b) Write the equation for each half-reaction under the appropriate half-cell.
(c) On your diagram, label the anode, cathode and the polarity of each electrode.
2− 3+
(d) Why is it necessary to acidify the Cr2 O7 (aq)/Cr half-cell?
3.4 The electrochemical series

KEY CONCEPT
• The use of the electrochemical series in designing and constructing galvanic cells and as a tool for
predicting the products of redox reactions, deducing overall equations from redox half-equations and
determining maximum cell voltage under standard conditions.
3.4.1 Standard electrode potentials

The electrical potential of a galvanic cell is the ability of the cell to produce an electric current. Electrical
potential is usually measured in volts (V). Although we cannot measure the electrode potential for an
isolated half-cell, we can measure the difference in potential between two connected half-cells.
The electrical potential of a cell results from competition between the two half-cells for electrons. The
half-cell with the greater tendency to attract electrons undergoes reduction, while the other half-cell loses
electrons and is oxidised. The half-cell in which reduction occurs has a greater reduction potential than the
half-cell in which oxidation occurs.
The reduction potential of a half-cell is a measure of the tendency of the oxidising agent to accept
electrons and undergo reduction. The difference between the reduction potentials of the two half-cells is
called the cell potential difference. The standard cell potential difference (E cell) is the measured cell
potential difference, under standard conditions, when the concentration of each species in solution is 1 M,
the pressure of a gas, where applicable, is 100 kPa and the temperature is 25 °C (298 K).
𝟎 𝟎 𝟎
Ecell = Eoxidising agent − Ereducing agent
Half-cell E𝟎 values are measured against the standard hydrogen half-cell, which is
arbitrarily assigned 0.00 volts.

To obtain a comparative measure of the reduction potentials of different half-cells, the standard
hydrogen half-cell is used as a standard reference electrode. This allows the determination of a redox
half-cell’s ability to accept electrons. It consists of hydrogen gas bubbling around an inert platinum
electrode in a solution of hydrogen ions (see figure 3.17). The standard hydrogen half-cell is arbitrarily
assigned a standard reduction potential of 0.00 V at 25 °C. The reaction that occurs at the electrode
surface is:
2H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) E0 = 0.00 V
FIGURE 3.17 A diagram of a hydrogen half-cell FIGURE 3.18 A hydrogen half-cell

glass sleeve platinum
salt bridge to wire
other half-cell
H2 gas
(1 atm)
+
1.00 M
acid solution
platinum foil coated with

platinum black
The standard hydrogen electrode is used with other half-cells so that the reduction potentials of those
cells can be measured. If a species accepts electrons more easily than hydrogen, its electrode potential is
positive. If it accepts electrons less easily than hydrogen, its electrode potential is negative.
TIP: If a half-equation has electrons on the reactant (left-hand) side, it is a reduction half-
equation.
When a standard hydrogen half-cell is connected to a standard Cu2+ (aq)/Cu(s) half-cell, the voltmeter
measures a potential difference of 0.34 volts (see figure 3.19). Because electrons flow towards the
Cu2+ (aq)/Cu(s) half-cell, Cu2+ (aq) has a greater tendency to accept electrons, which means it is a stronger
oxidising agent, than H+ (aq). Therefore, the measured E0 value for the half-cell reaction:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s)
is positive in sign and equal to +0.34 volts.

When a standard hydrogen half-cell is connected to a standard Zn2+ (aq)/Zn(s) half-cell, the voltmeter
measures a potential difference of 0.76 volts (see figure 3.20). Because electrons flow to the H+ (aq)/H2 (g)
half-cell, H+ (aq) has a greater tendency to accept electrons than Zn2+ (aq). Therefore, the measured E0
value for the half-cell reaction:
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Zn(s)
is negative in sign and equal to –0.76 volts.

FIGURE 3.19 Measuring the standard half-cell potential of a Cu2+ /Cu half-cell
E 0cell = +0.34 V
cathode + − anode
H2 gas (1 atm)
salt bridge
Cu
1.00 M Cu2+ 1.00 M H+
FIGURE 3.20 Measuring the standard half-cell potential of a Zn2+ /Zn half-cell
E 0cell = −0.76 V
anode − + cathode
H2 gas (1 atm)
salt bridge
Zn
1.00 M Zn2+ 1.00 M H+
Half-cell potentials are often listed in a table such as table 3.4. These tables may be referred to as tables
of standard electrode potentials or standard reduction potentials, and may also be called an electrochemical
series. The half-cell potentials are usually arranged from the largest E0 value to the smallest.
TIP: An electrochemical series table can be found in Table 2 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
Resources
Video eLessons Galvanic cells 3 (eles-2596)
Galvanic cells and measuring cell potential (eles-0436)
Interactivity Electrochemical series (int-1256)

TABLE 3.4 The electrochemical series
Half-reaction E0 (volts)
F2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2F− (aq) + 2.87

strongest weakest
+ −
oxidising H2 O2 (aq) + 2H (aq) + 2e ⇌ 2H2 O(l) reducing + 1.77
agent agent
MnO4 − (aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e− ⇌ Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2 O(l) + 1.52
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Pb2+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l) + 1.46
− −
Cl2 (g) + 2e ⇌ 2Cl (aq) + 1.36
2−
Cr2 O7 (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 6e− ⇌ 2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2 O(l) + 1.33
+ −
O2 (g) + 4H (aq) + 4e ⇌ 2H2 O(l) + 1.23
Br2 (l) + 2e− ⇌ 2Br− (aq) + 1.09

−
NO3 (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 3e− ⇌ NO(g) + 2H2 O(l) + 0.95
− + −
NO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) + e ⇌ NO2 (g) + H2 O(l) + 0.81
Ag+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Ag(s) + 0.80
Fe3+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Fe2+ (aq) + 0.77

+ −
O2 (g) + 2H (aq) + 2e ⇌ H2 O2 (l) + 0.68
I2 (s) + 2e− ⇌ 2I− (aq) + 0.54
O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− ⇌ 4OH− (aq) + 0.40

2+ −
Cu (aq) + 2e ⇌ Cu(s) + 0.34
increasing
oxidising SO4 2− (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ SO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) increasing + 0.20
strength reducing
4+ − 2+
Sn (aq) + 2e ⇌ Sn (aq) strength + 0.15
S(s) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ H2 S(g) + 0.14
2H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) (defined) 0.00

2+ −
Pb (aq) + 2e ⇌ Pb(s) − 0.13
Sn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Sn(s) − 0.14
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Ni(s) − 0.25

−
PbSO4 (s) + 2e ⇌ Pb(s) + SO4 2- (aq) − 0.36
Fe2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Fe(s) − 0.44
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Zn(s) − 0.76

− −
2H2 O(l) + 2e ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH (aq) − 0.83
Al3+ (aq) + 3e− ⇌ Al(s) − 1.66
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Mg(s) − 2.37

+ −
Na (aq) + e ⇌ Na(s) − 2.71
Ca2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Ca(s) − 2.87

weakest strongest
oxidising +
K (aq) + e ⇌ K(s) − reducing − 2.93
agent agent
Li+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Li(s) − 3.04
Note: Standard electrode reduction potentials at a temperature of 25 °C, a pressure of 1 atm and a concentration of 1 M
for all aqueous species.

3.4.2 Use of standard half-cell reduction potentials
A table such as the electrochemical series in table 3.4 provides a great deal of information about a redox
reaction. This includes:
• determination of the relative strengths of oxidising agents and reducing agents
• prediction of whether a redox reaction will occur whether by direct contact or in a suitably designed
galvanic cell
• prediction of the overall reaction occurring in a cell and the potential difference of that cell.
However, the table does not tell us the rate of a reaction or if intermediates form. E0 values and their
order are temperature dependent, and the E0 table predicts reactions only at standard conditions of 25 °C,
1 atm and 1 M concentration for solutions.
In the electrochemical series, the best oxidising agents are at the top left and have the most
positive voltage.
Predicting and calculating the potential difference of spontaneous reactions in

galvanic cells
In galvanic cells, at least two oxidising agents and two reducing agents are present. The following
procedure can be useful in predicting which spontaneous reaction occurs in a galvanic cell. The Daniell cell
is used as an example.
1. Write the half-equations occurring in the galvanic cell in descending order of E0 For example:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E0 = +0.34 V

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Zn(s) E0 = −0.76 V
2. Circle the species present in the galvanic cell that could participate.
⇁
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ↽ Cu(s) E 0 = + 0.34 V
⇁
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ↽ Zn(s) E 0 = − 0.76 V
3. Select the oxidising agent with the highest E0 . This is reduced at the cathode, which accepts electrons
more easily than an oxidising agent with a lower E0 .
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) E0 = +0.34 V
4. Select the reducing agent with the lowest E0 . This is oxidised at the anode, which donates electrons
more easily than a reducing agent with a higher E0 . Write this equation as an oxidation equation —
that is, reverse it.
Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
5. Balance electrons if necessary from the half-equations.

6. Write the full equation.
Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s) ⇌ Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)

7. Determine the cell potential difference by using the formula:
cell potential difference = E0oxidising agent − E0reducing agent

= +0.34 − (−0.76)
= +1.10 V
In summary, when the electrode reactions are written in descending order of E0 values, the strongest
oxidising agent (highest E0 ) on the left-hand side of the equation reacts with the strongest reducing agent
(lowest E0 ) on the right.
In the E0 table, the strongest oxidising agent, top left, reacts with the strongest reducing agent,
bottom right.
TIP: When working out the potential difference (V) of a cell, always subtract the least positive
number from the most positive number. Always add + or − to the value calculated.
FIGURE 3.21 Whatever the cell, reduction always occurs at the cathode (REDCAT) and oxidation always occurs
at the anode (ANOX).
oxidising agents reducing agents

Oxx+ is reduced to Ox.
Oxx+ + xe− Write equation forwards. Ox
reac
ts wi
th
Red is oxidised to Redy+.

Redy+ + ye− Write equation backwards. Red
Oxx+ + xe− Ox
Red Redy+ + ye−
Ox = oxidising agent; Red = reducing agent
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
The standard half-cell potentials of some metal–metal ion half-cells are:
Half-cell E0 (volts)
Ag+ (aq)/Ag(s) +0.80
Co2+ (aq)/Co(s) –0.28
Ba2+ (aq)/Ba(s) –2.90
Determine which species is the best oxidising agent and which is the best reducing agent.

THINK WRITE
1. Cations are formed when atoms donate electrons. Ag+ (aq), Co2+ (aq) and Ba2+ (aq) are
Therefore, cations can readily accept electrons all oxidising agents.
back, reducing them and acting as an oxidising
agent.
2. Atoms are formed when cations accept electrons. Ag(s), Co(s) and Ba(s) are all
Therefore, atoms can readily donate electrons back, reducing agents.
oxidising them and acting as a reducing agent.
3. In a conventional table of standard half-cell Ag+ (aq) is the strongest oxidising
reduction potentials, the strongest oxidising agent agent, while Ba(s) is the strongest
has the most positive E0 value, while the strongest reducing agent.
reducing agent has the most negative E0 value.
TIP: Students must clearly identify whether the
atom or the ion is the strongest when describing the
reaction occurring.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Consider the following conjugate redox pairs and their E𝟎 values.
Cl2 (g)/Cl− (aq) +1.36 V

−
I2 (s)/I (aq) +0.54 V
Al3+ (aq)/Al(s) −1.67 V
MnO− 2+
4 (aq)/Mn (aq) +1.52 V
2+
Pb (aq)/Pb(s) −0.13 V
a. Which species is:

i. the strongest oxidising agent
ii. the strongest reducing agent
iii. the weakest oxidising agent
iv. the weakest reducing agent?
b. Write fully balanced half-equations for each conjugate redox pair.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Given the two half-equations:
Br2 (l) + 2e− ⇌ 2Br− (aq) E0 = + 1.09 V
Mg2+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Mg(s) E0 = − 2.34 V

predict the likely spontaneous redox reaction.

THINK WRITE
1. For a redox reaction to occur, a reducing agent must Br2 (l) does not react with Mg2+ (aq)
react with an oxidising agent. (because they can act only as
oxidising agents) and Br– (aq) does
not react with Mg(s) (because they
can act only as reducing agents).
2. For a spontaneous redox reaction to occur, the E0 of Br2 (l) reacts spontaneously with Mg.
the oxidising agent must be more positive than the
E0 of the reducing agent.
TIP: In galvanic cells the most positive
half-equation gets reduced (forward reaction in the
table).
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Given the two half-equations:
Fe3+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Fe2+ (aq) E𝟎 = +0.77 V
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Ni(s) E𝟎 = −0.23 V
Identify the anode and cathode, write the overall equation and calculate the standard cell potential
that would be produced in a galvanic cell made from these half-cells.
TIP: When writing balanced chemical equations from redox half-equations, make sure to cancel
out electrons/species.
Resources
Video eLesson Predicting products of redox reactions (med-0437)
Digital documents Experiment 3.2 Predicting redox reactions (doc-31254)
Experiment 3.3 Galvanic cells and redox potentials (doc-31255)
Teacher-led video Experiment 3.3 Galvanic cells and redox potentials (tlvd-0739)
3.4.3 Limitations of using the electrochemical series

Although E0 values can be added to decide whether a spontaneous reaction will occur between an oxidising
agent and a reducing agent, they do not provide any information about the rate of the reaction. It may be
predicted that a redox reaction is possible between two reactants, but no reaction may be observed if the
reaction proceeds very slowly. Redox predictions may be checked by experiment.
Non-standard conditions may change redox reaction E0 values. If the redox reaction conditions deviate
significantly from those at which standard electrode potentials are measured, the relative order of redox
conjugate pairs in the table of standard electrode potentials could be altered. This could mean that
previously favourable reactions become unfavourable under the new conditions.

3.4.4 Common commercial cells and batteries
Batteries are practical applications of electrochemical cells. They are used as small, portable and efficient
sources of electrical energy. A battery is a combination of cells in series or parallel, but common cells such
as the dry cell are also often referred to as batteries.
One of the first electrochemical cells used widely was invented by Daniell in 1836. At the time, it was
used extensively in telegraph and telephone work as a reliable source of electricity. However, Daniell cells
are examples of wet cells, where the electrolyte is in a liquid state, and they could not be stored easily
and were easily spilled. This meant their application was limited. The demand for portable, leakproof
electrochemical cells led to the development of the Leclanché cell, or dry cell.
Cells come in rechargeable and non-rechargeable varieties. Common dry cells are used until the supply
of electrical energy is exhausted and are then discarded. Once the chemical reaction is over, they are
useless. These cells are sometimes called primary cells and are not rechargeable. Other cells, such as
the lead–acid accumulator battery or nickel–cadmium cells, are rechargeable. Rechargeable batteries are
sometimes referred to as secondary cells, which are discussed in topic 7.
Another type of cell is the fuel cell, which uses a supply of fuel in order to create a flow of electrons and
is discussed in topic 4.
FIGURE 3.22 Cells can be primary (non-rechargeable) cells, secondary (rechargeable) cells or fuel cells.
Batteries
Non-rechargeable Rechargeable Fuel cells
Examples Examples Examples

• dry cell • lithium ion • hydrogen–oxygen
• button cell • lead–acid • methane–oxygen
• alkaline cell
Factors affecting selection of cells

Many factors must be considered when selecting a cell for a particular use. These include:
• initial and operating cost: This depends on the materials used and the technology involved in
development and production.
• size and shape: The main shapes are cylindrical, coin, button, pouch and prismatic.
• mass: In portable devices, lightness is a priority, whereas transport vehicles can accommodate heavier
or bulkier cells.
• single-use or rechargeable
• memory effect: Some cells have decreased capacity to be fully charged. This occurs when rechargeable
batteries are not fully discharged before recharging.
• voltage provided: Different cells output different levels of voltage. For example, cells with aqueous
electrolytes cannot provide more than 2 volts.
• discharge curve: This is how the voltage changes over time. For some batteries, the voltage decreases
steadily; other batteries supply relatively constant voltage until most of the charge is consumed.
• current: The greater the surface area of the electrodes, the greater the current, although this limits the
amount of electrolyte present.
• shelf life: Some cells discharge over time even when not being used.
• ease of disposal and other environmental factors: The mercury button cell has been phased out due to
environmental concerns, and there is also concern about the toxicity of cadmium in nickel–cadmium
(NiCd) cells. All rechargeable batteries should be recycled.

3.4.5 Primary cells
There are different types of primary cells. The most common are the dry cell, the alkaline zinc/manganese
dioxide cell and the button cell.
The dry cell

An electrochemical cell in which the electrolyte is a paste, rather than a liquid, is known as a dry cell, or
Leclanché cell. The most commonly used dry cell is a C battery, which has a voltage of 1.5 V. Dry cells are
commonly used in torches, toys and transistor radios because they are cheap, small, reliable and easy to use.
The oxidising agents and reducing agents used in such cells should:
• be far enough apart in the electrochemical series to produce a useful voltage from the cell
• not react with water in the electrolyte too quickly, or they will discharge early (therefore, highly
reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and calcium are not found in such batteries)
• be inexpensive.
FIGURE 3.23 Arrangement of cells in circuits: (a) Two 1.5 V cells connected in series make a 3.0 V battery and
(b) tTwo 1.5 V cells connected in parallel allow a higher current at 1.5 V.
(a) (b)
+ –
+ –
A dry cell consists of a zinc container filled with an electrolyte paste. This paste contains manganese(IV)
oxide, MnO2 , zinc chloride, ZnCl2 , ammonium chloride, NH4 Cl, and water. A carbon rod is embedded in
the paste and forms the cathode. The zinc container is the anode. The thick paste prevents the contents of
the cell from mixing, so a salt bridge is not needed. Intermittent use or slight warming of the cell prevents
the build-up of these products around the electrodes, increasing the life of the cell. Once the materials
around the electrodes have been used up, the cell stops operating.
The electrode half-equations are:
Anode (oxidation):
Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
Cathode (reduction):
2MnO2 (s) + 2NH+ −

4 (aq) + 2e → Mn2 O3 (s) + 2NH3 (aq) + H2 O(l)
The overall cell reaction can be written as:
2MnO2 (s) + 2NH+ 2+

4 (aq) + Zn(s) → Mn2 O3 (s) + 2NH3 (aq) + H2 O(l) + Zn (aq)

FIGURE 3.24 (a) Dry cells in a torch and (b) a simplified cross-section of a dry cell
(a) (b) +
steel cap
steel cover
insulation
electrolyte paste
(NH4Cl, ZnCl2, H2O, MnO2)
cathode (+)
(graphite and MnO2)
zinc chamber acts
as the anode (−)
steel base
Resources
Digital document Experiment 3.4 Looking at a dry cell (doc-31256)
The alkaline zinc/manganese dioxide cell

Alkaline cells were developed as a consequence of the greater demand for a higher capacity portable energy
source than the dry cell could provide. An alkaline cell is designed to give a greater current output than the
standard dry cell and the voltage output falls off more slowly. Alkaline batteries also have longer shelf lives
than dry cells. Less electrolyte needs to be used in an alkaline cell than in a dry cell, which means that more
electrode reactants can be packed into the cell. Alkaline cells are commonly used in a variety of hand-held
devices including remote controls, high-drain toys and head torches.
The alkaline cell is a primary cell that is more expensive than a dry cell but lasts much longer.
The alkaline cell has a powdered zinc anode in an electrolyte paste of potassium hydroxide. The cathode
is a compressed mixture of manganese dioxide and graphite. A separator, consisting of a porous fibre
soaked in electrolyte, prevents mixing of the anode and cathode components. The cell is contained within
a steel shell.
FIGURE 3.25 (a) Alkaline zinc/manganese dioxide cells and (b) a simplified cross-section of an alkaline
zinc/manganese dioxide cell
(a) (b) steel cathode
plastic casing
separator
cathode
(manganese dioxide anode
and graphite in (powdered zinc
electrolyte) in OH– electrolyte)

The electrode half-equations are:
Anode (oxidation):
Zn(s) + 2OH− (aq) → Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2e−
2MnO2 (s) + 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → 2MnO(OH)(s) + 2OH− (aq)
The overall cell reaction is:
2MnO2 (s) + 2H2 O(l) + Zn(s) → 2MnO(OH)(s) + Zn(OH)2 (s)
The alkaline cell has a voltage of 1.55 V, but this drops slowly with time. Although it may last up to five
times longer than a dry cell, it is more difficult to make and more expensive. The alkaline is also bulky,
making it unsuitable for smaller devices such as watches and calculators.
The button cell

Button cells are primary cells that were developed because some appliances require the use of very small
electrochemical cells, although they are expensive to produce. However, they give a very steady voltage
during operation. Button cells are small, long-life cells used in devices such as calculators, hearing aids,
pacemakers, cameras and watches. They also last longer than dry cells and alkaline cells. There are a
number of different types of button cells, including the silver oxide cell and the zinc–air cell.
Silver-oxide cell
Silver-oxide cells are ideal for very small devices, such as watches, calculators and hearing aids. This cell
has a flat discharge curve and the voltage is 1.5 V.
FIGURE 3.26 The silver-oxide cell has a good shelf life and a long operating life.
(a) negative terminal metal cap (b)

–
powdered
zinc anode
electrolyte
(KOH paste)
graphite–
silver-oxide cathode
+
positive terminal
The reactions at each electrode may be written as:

Anode (oxidation):
Zn(s) + 2OH− (aq) → Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2e−
At the cathode in the zinc/silver cell, silver(I) oxide is reduced.
Ag2 O(s) + H2 O(l) + 2e− → 2Ag(s) + 2OH− (aq)
This means the overall equation for this reaction is:
Zn(s) + Ag2 O(s) + H2 O(l) → Zn (OH)2 (s) + 2Ag(s)

Zinc–air cell
A zinc–air cell uses oxygen from the air as a reactant
FIGURE 3.27 The zinc–air cell has a small
(see figure 3.27). It is less expensive to produce than the vent and material to absorb the carbon
silver-oxide cell and is mainly used for hearing aids. The dioxide from the air to prevent it from reacting
electrolyte is potassium hydroxide and the half-equations with the hydroxide electrolyte.
for each electrode may be written as follows.
negative terminal
Anode (oxidation): –
2Zn(s) + 4OH− (aq) → 2ZnO(s) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− plastic sealing ring
powdered
− − zinc anode
O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e → 4OH (aq) + air hole
positive terminal
2Zn(s) + O2 (g) → 2ZnO(s)
A zinc–air cell produces a voltage of about 1.4 V and can be considered a fuel cell because the oxygen
is continually drawn from the air. Fuel cells use a continuous supply of fuel to produce a flow of electrons,
and are discussed in detail in topic 4.
3.4.6 Lithium cells

Lithium cells are cells based on lithium anodes. Lithium is
FIGURE 3.28 A pacemaker can be
a very reactive metal, and also very light, so these batteries powered by a lithium battery. A magnetic
can produce a high cell voltage. They require a more robust switch operates the device, and the
construction and are far more expensive than common lithium battery usually lasts for three to
batteries, but have a shelf life of ten years. Owing to their five years.
relatively long shelf life, lithium cells are mainly used as
power sources for electronic memory, but may also be used
in electronic switchboards, navigation systems, industrial
clocks and even poker machines. In many applications lithium
cells outlast the probable useful lifetime of the equipment they
power.
Primary lithium cells include lithium manganese dioxide
and lithium thionyl chloride cells. The most common is
the lithium–manganese cell. This has a lithium anode, a
manganese dioxide cathode, and a non-aqueous electrolyte,
such as propylene carbonate. The half-equations are written as
follows.
Anode (oxidation):
Li(s) → Li+ (l) + e−
MnO2 (s) + Li+ (l) + e− → LiMnO2 (s)

These cells can be used in watches, calculators, games
FIGURE 3.29 A simplified diagram of a
and cameras. Lithium cells come in button, flat, cylindrical, spiral-wound lithium cell
solid core or spiral wound form. key
Spiral wound cells (figure 3.29) consist of two coiled lithium anode
sheets, one of lithium foil and one of manganese dioxide, carbon cathode + terminal cap
separated by a sheet containing electrolytic salts. They have separator
a good shelf life and produce about 3 V. spacer

Another type of lithium battery, the lithium thionyl
chloride cell (figure 3.30), consists of a lithium anode, insulator
a carbon cathode and an electrolyte solution of lithium
aluminium chloride, LiAlCl4 , in thionyl chloride, SOCl2 .
The cathode is a highly porous Teflon-coated carbon
cylinder that is saturated with the electrolyte material.
The SO2 produced at the cathode dissolves in the thionyl
chloride. The anode and cathode are kept apart by a
separator.
The half-equations at each electrode may be written as
follows. –
Anode (oxidation):
Li(s) → Li+ (aq) + e−
2SOCl2 (l) + 4e− → SO2 (g) + S(s) + 4Cl− (aq)
The overall equation for the reaction is:
2SOCl2 (l) + 4Li(s) → SO2 (g) + S(s) + 4LiCl(aq)
FIGURE 3.30 A simplified cross-section of a lithium/thionyl chloride battery
+ lithium anode
carbon cathode
collector (stainless
steel)
separator
plastic seal over a

nickel-coated steel
can
3.4 EXERCISE
1. Use a table of standard electrode potentials to determine whether the following reaction is a spontaneous
redox reaction. Justify your decision.
2Ag+ (aq) + 2Br− (aq) → 2Ag(s) + Br2 (l)

2. Write the likely spontaneous redox reactions that would occur given the following half-equations.
(a) Cl2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cl− (aq) E0 = +1.36 V
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Ni(s) E0 = −0.23 V
(b) Al3+ (aq) + 3e− ⇌ Al(s) E0 = −1.67 V
Mg2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Mg(s) E0 = −2.34 V
(c) MnO− 4
(aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e− ⇌ Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2 O(l) E0 = +1.52 V
−
ClO4 + 2H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ ClO3 + H2 O(l) E0 = +1.19 V
(d) Fe2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Fe(s) E0 = −0.44 V
MnO− 4
(aq) + 8H+ (aq) + 5e− ⇌ Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2 O(l) E0 = +1.52 V
3. Suggest two reasons why predicted spontaneous redox reactions may not be observed.
4. Identify the anode and cathode, write the overall equation, label the direction of electron flow and calculate
the standard cell potential that would be produced in a galvanic cell constructed from half-cells using the
following redox half-equations.
(a) Pb2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Pb(s) E0 = −0.13 V
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Zn(s) E0 = −0.76 V
(b) Ag+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Ag(s) E0 = +0.80 V
Fe3+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Fe2+ (aq) E0 = +0.77 V
(c) O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E0 = 1.23 V
Fe2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Fe(s) E0 = −0.44 V
5. Sketch the galvanic cells based on the following overall equations, labelling the direction of electron flow,
cathode, anode, polarity and direction of cation movement in the salt bridge.
(a) Cu2+ (aq) + Mg(s) → Cu(s) + Mg2+ (aq)
(b) 2Co3+ (aq) + Pb(s) → Pb2+ + 2Co2+ (aq)
6. A galvanic cell constructed by a VCE student in a school laboratory recorded zero cell voltage after it had
been operating previously at +0.38 V. Suggest three possible reasons for this observation.
7. Describe the difference between primary cells and secondary cells.
8. What is the reducing agent in a Leclanché cell? Justify your answer.
9. Calculate the change in oxidation number of manganese during discharge in a Leclanché cell.
10. Draw a diagram of a galvanic cell, consisting of two half-cells that could be constructed in the laboratory,
to investigate the half-reactions in a silver-oxide button cell. Label the electrodes and the direction of the
electron flow.
11. At the cathode of a zinc–air cell, has the oxidation number of the substance reacting increased or
decreased?
12. What property of lithium batteries makes them so useful for electronic devices?
3.5 Review
3.5.1 Summary
Redox reactions and half-equations
• Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons between an oxidising agent and a reducing agent.
• Redox reactions can be divided into a reduction process and an oxidation process.
• Reduction is the process of gaining electrons whereas oxidation is the process of losing electrons.
• Redox reactants can be divided into oxidising agents and reducing agents. Reducing agents allow (or
cause) another substance to undergo reduction because they supply electrons (as they undergo the
process of oxidation). Oxidising agents allow another substance to undergo oxidation because they
consume electrons (as they undergo the process of reduction).

• Spontaneous redox reactions can transform chemical energy into either heat or electrical energy,
depending on the physical arrangements under which the reactions are carried out.
• A set of rules can be used for balancing the half-equations that represent the oxidation and reduction
processes.
• Oxidation numbers can be used to determine the species in a redox reaction that may act as an
oxidising agent or a reducing agent, because reduction corresponds to a decrease in oxidation number,
whereas oxidation corresponds to an increase in oxidation number.
Galvanic cells
• Galvanic cells consist of two separate half-cells, with each half-cell containing a different conjugate
redox pair. A connecting wire between the electrodes forms the external circuit through which
electrons travel from the reducing agent to the oxidising agent, and a salt bridge forms an internal
circuit through which ions can travel to maintain cell neutrality.
• In a galvanic cell, oxidation occurs at the negatively charged anode whereas reduction occurs at the
positively charged cathode.
• The electrical potential of a galvanic cell is the ability of the cell to produce an electric current and is
measured in volts (V).
• The reduction potential of a half-cell is a measure of the tendency of the oxidising agent to accept
electrons and thus undergo reduction.
• The difference between the reduction potentials of two electrically connected half-cells is called the
cell potential difference.
The electrochemical series
• An electrolyte is a solution containing(ions )that can conduct electricity.
• The standard cell potential difference E0cell is the measured cell potential when the concentration of
each species in solution is 1 M, the pressure of a gas is 1 atm and the temperature is 25 °C. It may be
calculated according to:
E0cell = E0oxidising agent − E0reducing agent
• The standard hydrogen half-cell is used as a standard reference electrode and has been assigned an
arbitrary value of 0.00 volts.
• The standard electrode potential (SEP) table, also known as the electrochemical series, can be used to
predict whether a particular redox reaction can proceed to an appreciable extent.
• The SEP table gives no indication of the rate of a reaction or whether the reaction is spontaneous. It
can only be used to predict if the reaction is feasible.
• Strong oxidising agents have high E0 values and are found at the top left of the SEP table, whereas
strong reducing agents have low E0 values and are found at the bottom right of the SEP table.
• ‘Wet’ cells are electrochemical cells where the electrolyte is in a liquid state.
• An electrochemical cell in which the electrolyte is a paste, rather than a liquid, is known as a dry cell.
• A battery is a small, portable, efficient source of electrical energy that is constructed from a
combination of electrochemical cells connected in series or in parallel.
• Electrochemical cells that are used until the supply of electrical energy is exhausted are called primary
cells. Primary cells cannot be recharged.
• Different types of primary cells currently in use include Leclanché cells (dry cells), alkaline
Zn(s)/MnO2 (s) cells, button cells, Zn(s)/air cells and lithium cells. Each of these contains an anode,
cathode and an electrolyte, and is a practical application of a galvanic cell.
Resources

3.5.2 Key terms
anode the electrode at which oxidation occurs. In a galvanic cell, it is the negative electrode, since it is the
source of negative electrons for the circuit. If the reducing agent is a metal, it is used as the electrode material.
button cell a small, long-life cell used in devices such as calculators, hearing aids, pacemakers, cameras
and watches
cathode the electrode at which reduction occurs. In a galvanic cell, it is the positive electrode, since the negative
electrons are drawn towards it and then consumed by the oxidising agent, which is present in the electrolyte.
cell potential difference the difference between the reduction potentials of two half-cells
Daniell cell one of the first electrochemical cells to produce a reliable source of electricity; it uses the redox
reactions between zinc metal and copper ions to produce electricity
dry cell an electrochemical cell in which the electrolyte is a paste, rather than a liquid; also called a
Leclanché cell
electrical potential the ability of a galvanic cell to produce an electric current
electrochemical cell cell that generates electrical energy from chemical reactions
electrochemical series a series of chemical elements arranged in order of their standard electrode potentials
electrodes a solid used to conduct electricity in a galvanic half-cell
electrolytes liquids that can conduct electricity
external circuit circuit composed of all the connected components within an electrolytic or a galvanic cell to
achieve desired conditions
half-cell one half of a galvanic cell containing an electrode immersed in an electrolyte that may be the oxidising
agent or the reducing agent depending on the oxidising strength of the other cell to which it is connected
internal circuit a circuit within a conductor. Anions flow to the anode and cations flow to the cathode.
Leclanché cell see dry cell
lithium cells cells that use lithium anodes and can produce a high voltage
oxidants see oxidising agents
oxidation an increase in the oxidation number; a loss of electrons
oxidation numbers a set of rules that assist in the identification of redox reactions
oxidising agents electron acceptors
primary cells an electrolytic cell in which the cell reaction is not reversible
rechargeable describes a battery that is an energy storage device; it can be charged again after being
discharged by applying DC current to its terminals
redox reactions reactions that involve the transfer of one or more electrons between chemical species
reducing agents electron donors
reductants see reducing agents
reduction a decrease in the oxidation number; a gain of electrons
reduction potential a measure of the tendency of an oxidising agent to accept electrons and so undergo
reduction
salt bridge a component that provides a supply of mobile ions that balance the charges built up in the half-cells
of a galvanic cell during reaction
secondary cells electrolytic cells in which the cell reaction is reversible
standard cell potential difference the measured cell potential difference, under standard conditions, when the
concentration of each species in solution is 1 M, the pressure of a gas, where applicable, is 100 kPa and the
temperature is 25 °C (298 K)
standard hydrogen half-cell a standard reference electrode; assigned 0.00 volts
zinc–air cell cell that uses oxygen from the air as a reactant
Resources
Digital document Key terms glossary-Topic 3 (doc-31403)

3.5.3 Practical work and experiments
Experiment 3.3
Galvanic cells and redox potentials
Aim: To set up galvanic cells, measure the cell voltages and predict
the relative oxidising–reducing strength of four redox pairs.
Teacher-led video: eles-3460
Resources
Experiment 3.1 Investigating the Daniell cell (doc-31253)
Experiment 3.2 Predicting redox reactions (doc-31254)
Experiment 3.4 Looking at a dry cell (doc-31256)
3.5 Exercises

1. In a particular reaction, it is observed that electrons are transferred from substance A to substance B.
Which of the following statements is correct?
A. A undergoes oxidation and is an oxidising agent.
B. A undergoes oxidation and is a reducing agent.
C. B undergoes oxidation and is a reducing agent.
D. A undergoes reduction and is an oxidising agent.
2. The oxidation number of each sulfur atom in S2 O3 2– is:
A. –2
B. +2
C. +6
D. +4.
3. For the reaction
NO2 (aq) + H2 O(l) → e− + NO− +

3 (aq) + 2H (aq)
the oxidation number of nitrogen changes from:

A. 0 to +1
B. 0 to –1
C. +2 to –3
D. +4 to +5.
4. In a reaction, the oxidation numbers of two elements were found to change as follows.
X changes from +2 to +5.
Y changes from +7 to +5.
Which of the following describes the changes correctly?

A. X and Y are both oxidised.
B. X is oxidised and Y is reduced.
C. X is reduced and Y is oxidised.
D. X and Y are both reduced.
5. The half-equation for the reduction of NO3 – to N2 O can be represented as:
aNO− + −
3 (aq) + bH (aq) + 8e → cN2 O(g) + dH2 O(l)
where the values of a and b respectively are:

A. 2 and 5
B. 2 and 10
C. 1 and 4
D. 1 and 5.
6. The tarnish on silverware, Ag2 S, can be removed by placing the articles in an aluminium pan and
covering them with a warm solution of dilute sodium hydroxide. The following half-reactions show
why this method is effective.
Ag2 S(s) + 2e− → 2Ag(s) + S2− (aq)

Al(s) + 3OH− (aq) → Al (OH)3 (s) + 3e−
Which of the following equations represents a balanced ionic equation for the reaction that occurs?
A. 3Ag2 S(s) + 2Al(s) + 6OH– (aq) → 6Ag(s) + 3S2– (aq) + 2Al(OH)3 (s)
B. Ag2 S(s) + Al(s) + 3OH– (aq) → 2Ag+ (aq) + S2– (aq) + Al(OH)3 (s) + e–
C. Ag2 S(s) + Al(OH)3 (s) → 2Ag+ (aq) + S2– (aq) + Al(s) + 3OH– (aq)
D. Al(s) + 3OH– (aq) + 2Ag(s) + S2– (aq) → Ag2 S(s) + Al(OH)3 (s) + 3e–
7. An electrochemical cell functions only when there is a complete circuit for electrical flow. For reactions
to occur that produce an electric current, it is necessary to have an:
A. external and internal circuit for the flow of ions
B. external circuit for electron flow and an internal circuit for ion flow
C. external circuit for ion flow and an internal circuit for electron flow
D. internal and external circuit for the flow of electrons.
8. In any electrochemical cell, the cathode is the electrode:
A. that is closest to the outside of the cell
B. at which electrons are liberated by some species
C. at which reduction occurs
D. at which hydrogen is liberated.
9. In a lithium–manganese dioxide button battery, the anode is made from lithium foil on a stainless steel
backing and the cathode is manganese dioxide mixed with carbon black to act as an organic electrolyte.
The equations occurring at the electrodes are:
Anode: Li(s) → Li+ (l) + e–
Cathode: MnO2 (s) + e– → MnO2 – (l)
The lithium manganese dioxide button battery is a primary cell. Which of the following is the
strongest oxidising agent?
A. Li(s)
B. Li+ (aq)
C. MnO2 (s)
D. MnO2 – (aq)

10. A small piece of silver was placed in a solution containing both magnesium nitrate and copper(II)
nitrate. Which one of the following will occur?
A. No reaction occurs.
B. The silver dissolves and only copper is precipitated.
C. The silver dissolves and only magnesium is precipitated.
D. A mixture of copper and magnesium forms on the silver.
11. In which of the following pairs of elements does neither metal release hydrogen gas when dilute
hydrochloric acid is added?
A. Zn and Ag
B. Cu and Ag
C. Fe and Al
D. Mg and Ni
12. Which of the following reactions does not occur spontaneously?
A. Cu2+ (aq) + Pb(s) → Pb2+ (aq) + Cu(s)
B. Fe(s) + Pb2+ (aq) → Pb(s) + Fe2+ (aq)
C. 2Ag(s) + 2H+ (aq) → 2Ag+ (aq) + H2 (g)
+ 1 +
D. Li(s) + H (aq) → 2 H2 (g) + Li (aq)
13. A piece of nickel is placed in a solution of copper(II) sulfate.
Given:
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e– ⇌ Ni(s) E0 = −0.23 V
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– ⇌ Cu(s) E0 = +0.34 V
which one of the following statements is incorrect?
A. Copper is precipitated from solution.
B. Copper ions are oxidised.
C. Nickel dissolves into solution.
D. There is no increase in electrical charge in the solution.
14. A student is given five metals and 1 M solutions of nitrates of the metals. The metals are labelled M, N,
O, P and Q, and the solutions are labelled M 2+ , N 2+ , O2+ , P2+ and Q2+ .
The student carries out a number of experiments and the results obtained are listed below.
i. Metal M remains unchanged in all solutions.
ii. Metal O becomes coated with another metal when placed in each of solutions M 2+ , N 2+ , P2+
and Q2+ .
iii. Metal P becomes coated with another metal when placed in each of solutions M 2+ and N 2+ , but
not when placed in solution Q2+ .
Considering the experimental data above, which of the following reactions takes place spontaneously
with the greatest observed cell voltage?
A. M(s) + O2+ (aq) → M 2+ (aq) + O(s)
B. O(s) + M 2+ (aq) → O2+ (aq) + M(s)
C. N(s) + P2+ (aq) → N 2+ (aq) + P(s)hesher
D. Q(s) + O2+ (aq) → Q2+ (aq) + O(s)
15. Which of the following reactions occurs spontaneously in the direction indicated?
A. 2I– (aq) + Cl2 (g) → 2Cl– (aq) + I2 (s)
B. Br2 (aq) + 2Cl– (aq) → 2Br– (aq) + Cl2 (g)
C. I2 (s) + 2Br– (aq) → 2I– (aq) + Br2 (aq)
D. 2F– (aq) + Cl2 (g) → F2 (g) + 2Cl– (aq)

1. Early definitions of oxidation were:
- the addition of oxygen
- the loss of hydrogen

whereas early definitions of reduction were:
- the removal of oxygen
- the addition of hydrogen.
a. Choose an example of a reaction that illustrates the adequacy of each of these definitions.
b. Choose an example of a reaction that illustrates the inadequacy of each of these definitions.
c. Use the examples chosen in (b) to show the redox nature of the reaction by considering the modern
definitions of oxidation as the loss of electrons and reduction as the gain of electrons.
d. Provide a definition of oxidation and reduction with respect to oxidation numbers and illustrate your
definition with an example.
2. In each of the following reactions, use oxidation numbers to find which species has been reduced and
which has been oxidised.
a. Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (s) + H2 (g)
b. 2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
c. Mg(s) + H2 SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
d. 2Al(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
3. Identify the oxidising agent and reducing agent in each of the following redox equations.
a. 2I– (aq) + Cl2 (g) → 2Cl– (aq) + I2 (s)
b. Br2 (aq) + 2Cl– (aq) → 2Br– (aq) + Cl2 (g)
c. I2 (s) + 2Br– (aq) → 2I– (aq) + Br2 (aq)
d. 2Co3+ (aq) + Pb(s) → Pb2+ (aq) + 2Co2+ (aq)
e. Fe(s) + Pb2+ (aq) → Pb(s) + Fe2+ (aq)
f. Hg(l) + 2H+ (aq) → H2 (g) + Hg2+ (aq)
g. 2F– (aq) + Cl2 (g) → F2 (g) + 2Cl– (aq)
4. Balance the following equations using half-equations.
a. Br– (aq) + SO4 2– (aq) → SO2 (g) + Br2 (l)
b. Al(s) + Cl2 (g) → AlCl3 (s)
c. I2 (s) + H2 S(g) → I– (aq) + S(s)
d. Cu(s) + HNO3 (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + NO(g)
e. Cu(s) + HNO3 (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + NO2 (g)
f. CuO(s) + NH3 (g) → N2 (g) + Cu(s)
g. PbS(s) + H2 O2 (l) → PbSO4 (s) + H2 O(l)
e−
h. Cr2 O7 2– (aq) + CH3 CH2 OH(aq) → CH3 COOH(aq) + Cr3+ (aq) wire
5. Consider the reaction occurring in the diagram shown, and complete
the following. Zn Fe
a. State the anode reaction.
b. State the cathode reaction.
c. Find the overall cell reaction. Zn2+(aq) Fe2+(aq)
6. Define the following terms. −
NO3 (aq) NO3−(aq)
a. Galvanic cell
b. Internal circuit
c. External circuit
d. Cathode
e. Anode
f. Salt bridge
g. Inert electrode
7. By referring to a table of standard electrode potentials, state whether you would expect:
a. bromine gas to form if chlorine gas was bubbled into a solution of bromide ions
b. chlorine gas to form if bromine gas was bubbled into a solution of chloride ions
c. iron to be oxidised by acidified hydrogen peroxide solution
d. iron(II) ions to be reduced when reacted with hydrogen peroxide solution.

8. Design a galvanic cell that produces electricity from each of the reactions below. For each cell, show
how it is constructed. Identify the anode and cathode, showing the equations occurring at each. Indicate
the direction of electron flow and the migration of each kind of ion in the cell and the salt bridge.
a. 2Ag+ (aq) + Mg(s) → 2Ag(s) + Mg2+ (aq)
b. 2Al(s) + 3I2 (s) → 2Al3+ (aq) + 6I– (aq)
c. Cl2 (g) + Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2Cl– (aq)
d. 2Fe3+ (aq) + Fe(s) → 3Fe2+ (aq)
9. Draw a galvanic cell that uses the reaction between solid aluminium metal and an aqueous solution of
blue copper sulfate. Potassium nitrate can be used in the salt bridge.
a. Clearly label the following:
– the anode, the cathode and the appropriate electrolytes
– equations for the reactions at the anode and cathode, marked as either oxidation or reduction
– the overall cell reaction
– the direction of electron flow
– the direction of flow of anions and cations in the salt bridge.
b. What would happen if the salt bridge was removed? Explain.
c. What happens to the colour of the copper sulfate solution? Explain.
10. Considering the positions of iron, magnesium and zinc in the electrochemical series, explain why iron
is protected from rusting when blocks of magnesium or zinc are attached to it.
11. Explain the difference between a cell and a battery.
12. Electrochemical cells constructed in the laboratory often consist of two separate half-cells connected by
electrical wire and a salt bridge.
Explain the features of commercial cells that enable electrical power to be generated from chemicals
in only one cell.
13. The structure of an aluminium–air battery is shown in the
porous positive
figure. electrode terminal
In the aluminium–air battery, a piece of aluminium electrolyte
+
is immersed in an electrolyte near a porous electrode. This
aluminium –
porous electrode has air on one side and the electrolyte on negative
the other. The electrolyte can be a common salt, NaCl, terminal
solution, an alkali solution, such as potassium hydroxide, KOH, or sea water. Although the choice of
electrolyte is quite flexible, only special alloys of aluminium can be used. With ordinary alloys, the
aluminium immediately becomes coated with a protective oxide layer or simply dissolves as aluminium
oxide, giving off hydrogen gas.
In this battery, the aluminium anode reacts with hydroxide ions to form aluminium hydroxide, with
the release of three electrons.
Anode: Al(s) + 3OH− (aq) → Al(OH)3 (s) + 3e−
The OH– ions are present either because the electrolyte is an alkali solution or because they are
produced at the cathode.
At the porous cathode, the water in the electrolyte reacts with oxygen from the air and the electrons
from the anode to produce hydroxide ions.
Cathode: O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH− (aq)
If the cathode is covered (for example, with water) so that oxygen cannot enter the cell, a slightly
different reaction occurs in the cell in which hydrogen gas is produced.
2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)

a. Write the overall equation for the aluminium–air battery operating under optimal conditions.
b. Write the overall equation if the cathode is covered with water.

A student set up an electrochemical experiment as shown in the figure.
He kept the copper half-cell constant, but changed the other half-cell. For each cell, he recorded the metal
that was used as the anode and the overall cell voltage.
Cell Anode Voltage (V) copper rod V metal
copper–lead lead 0.49 salt bridge
copper–silver copper 0.31

copper–magnesium magnesium 1.45
copper–iron iron 0.57
copper–aluminium aluminium 0.94
copper–copper copper 0.00
copper(II) sulfate solution metal ion solution
copper–nickel nickel 0.31
a. How did the student determine which of the metals in the cell acted as the anode? 2 marks
b. Why did the copper–copper cell produce no voltage? 1 mark
c. Determine the likely order of reactivity of the metals. Justify your placements. 2 marks
A half-cell is constructed with a copper electrode in a 1.0 M copper(II) sulfate solution. It is connected by a
salt bridge to another half-cell containing an aluminium electrode in a 1.0 M aluminium nitrate solution.
Al V Cu
a b
– 2–
NO3 (aq) SO4 (aq)
Al3+(aq) Cu2+(aq)
a. A voltmeter is connected into the external circuit. What would be the expected E0 value for
this cell? 1 mark
b. Give two changes that might be observed in the copper half-cell if a large current flowed for
many hours. 2 marks
c. What is the polarity of the copper electrode? 1 mark
d. Which arrow, a or b, shows the direction of negative ions in the salt bridge? 1 mark
e. Write a balanced half-equation for the reaction occurring at the anode. 1 mark

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AREA OF STUDY 1
4 Fuel cells as a source of

energy
4.1 Overview
4.1.1 Introduction
Fuel cells are similar to batteries but they do not run out
FIGURE 4.1 The US Space program has
of stored energy or need recharging — they continue to used hydrogen fuel since their first missions.
convert chemical energy to electrical energy as long as
the fuel is supplied. The US Space program has used
hydrogen fuel cells for all of their missions to space.
The Space Shuttle would consume nearly 3 million
litres of liquefied hydrogen gas on each mission. On the
International Space Station, hydrogen is generated by
splitting water into oxygen for breathing and hydrogen
for fuel. In the future, hydrogen will be further recycled
by recombining it with exhaled carbon dioxide to create
water. Hydrogen generation and recycling in space will
reduce the need for supplies to be delivered from Earth
and may bring us closer to a trip to Mars.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the common design features of fuel cells including use of porous electrodes for gaseous reactants to
increase cell efficiency (details of specific cells not required)
• the comparison of the use of fuel cells and combustion of fuels to supply energy with reference to their
energy efficiencies (qualitative), safety, fuel supply (including the storage of hydrogen), production of
greenhouse gases and applications
• the comparison of fuel cells and galvanic cells with reference to their definitions, functions, design features,
energy transformations, energy efficiencies (qualitative) and applications.

TOPIC 4 Fuel cells as a source of energy 113

Resources
4.2 Fuel cells

KEY CONCEPTS
• The common design features of fuel cells including use of porous electrodes for gaseous reactants to
increase cell efficiency (details of specific cells not required)
• The comparison of the use of fuel cells and combustion of fuels to supply energy with reference to their
energy efficiencies (qualitative), safety, fuel supply (including the storage of hydrogen), production of
greenhouse gases and applications
• The comparison of fuel cells and galvanic cells with reference to their definitions, functions, design features,
energy transformations, energy efficiencies (qualitative) and applications
4.2.1 What is a fuel cell?

A fuel cell is a type of galvanic cell that converts chemical energy
FIGURE 4.2 Will today’s batteries
into usable DC electricity and heat through redox reactions. It does be replaced by refillable fuel cells in
not rely upon combustion as an intermediate step. Unlike batteries, the near future?
fuel cells do not store energy but rather rely on a constant external
source of reactants. By combining fuels such as hydrogen and
oxygen in the presence of an electrolyte, the products of a fuel cell
are electricity, heat and water. The process was first demonstrated
in 1839, but fuel cell technology grew significantly in the 1960s, as
part of the US space program.
Fuel cell technology has advanced with the search for energy
alternatives that have greater operating efficiencies and lower costs.
Power generation from fuel cells averages between 40 and 60%
efficiency compared with 30 to 35% efficiency from fossil fuel
combustion. Fuel cells produce no air pollutants, and have the
added advantage of portability.
4.2.2 Where are fuel cells used?

Fuel cells are used, or are being investigated for use, in the following situations.
• As a portable power source for charging small appliances, such as batteries in laptops or smartphones
• For larger scale, stationary applications, including backup power in hospitals and industry
• For transport applications such as forklifts, boats and buses. The silent operation of fuel cells is
advantageous for submarines, and considerable research is being undertaken to improve the efficiency
and reduce costs of fuel cell cars.

4.2.3 Fuel cell design
Similarities between fuel cells and other galvanic cells
Fuel cells have many design features in common with galvanic cells.
• Both convert chemical energy to electrical energy through redox reactions
• Site of oxidation physically separated from site of reduction
• Oxidation occurs at the negative electrode (anode) and reduction at the positive electrode (cathode)
• Electrolytes occur between electrodes to allow the flow of ions that make up the internal circuit
• Fuel cells and batteries occur in groups called stacks to obtain a usable voltage and power output.
Differences between fuel cells and other galvanic cells
Although fuel cells are galvanic cells, there
FIGURE 4.2 A typical fuel cell that can be used in a
are a few significant differences in fuel cell laboratory
design compared to other galvanic cells.
• Fuel cells do not store reactants, they
must be continuously supplied from an
external source
• Primary galvanic cells produce electricity
until the chemical reaction is finished,
at which point the electrical energy is
exhausted. Secondary galvanic cells are
rechargeable and are discussed in topic 7.
• Fuel cell electrodes are porous. This
provides a high surface area and the
opportunity to introduce catalysts
(which makes the reactions on their
surfaces more efficient). Porous electrodes
also allow more effective contact between fuels (which are often gases) and the electrolyte.
• Fuel cells do not lose charge. They convert the energy in fuels directly into electricity and operate as
long as they are supplied with fuel and an oxidising agent. This means that fuel cells do not have to be
recharged. The input fuel passes over the anode (and oxygen over the cathode) where it is split into
ions and electrons. The electrons go through an external circuit while the ions move through the
electrolyte towards the oppositely charged electrode. At this electrode, ions combine to create
by-products. Depending on the input fuel and electrolyte, different chemical reactions occur.
Economic and environmental impacts

Although fuel cells are often expensive to manufacture, the low operating and maintenance costs over their
lifetime make them a more efficient method for generating electricity than many single-use primary cells
in current use. At present, energy efficiency of fuel cells is 35–70% while single use galvanic cells have an
energy efficiency of 45–90%.
Fuel cells emit almost none of the sulfur and nitrogen compounds released by the burning of fossil
fuels, and can operate using a wide variety of fuels including methane, coal-derived gas, landfill gas,
biogas, alcohols, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons. They are quieter and can operate more cheaply than a
conventional electric generator. A detailed comparison of fuels cells and the fuel combustion is presented in
section 4.2.5, and comparison with other galvanic cells is presented in section 4.2.8.
Resources
Weblink New methane fuel cell runs on cheap fuel

4.2.4 Types of fuel cell
There are six main types of fuel cell, which are categorised according to the type of electrolyte and/or the
fuel they used. These types are:
• alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell
• proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC)
• phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
• molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
• solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
• direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC).
There is ongoing research into new designs for fuel cells, not only for new fuels, but also new electrolytes.
For example, there is a current line of research investigating the use of biological materials as electrolytes.
Alkaline fuel cell

The alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell, is one of the oldest and furthest
travelled fuel cells. It uses potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and was used in the Gemini and Apollo
space programs during the 1960s and 70s to produce electrical energy and water. The AFC is clean and very
efficient but requires pure hydrogen and oxygen.
The AFC has three compartments: the cathode compartment, the anode compartment and the central
compartment, which are separated from each other by two electrodes. Oxygen (the oxidising agent) is fed
into the cathode compartment and hydrogen (the fuel) is fed into the anode compartment. The gases diffuse
slowly through the electrodes. The electrolyte in the central compartment is a hot, concentrated solution of
potassium hydroxide. Electrons from the oxidation reaction at the anode pass through an external circuit to
enter the reduction reaction at the cathode.
FIGURE 4.3 A cross-section of an alkaline fuel cell
electrical current
e−
– +
fuel in oxidising
H2 agent in
O2
H2
O2
H2O
OH−
water and
heat out
porous porous cathode:

nickel anode aqueous electrolyte nickel oxide
solution: concentrated coated nickel
potassium hydroxide
The equation for the anode reaction (oxidation) may be written as:
2H2 (g) + 4OH− (aq) → 4H2 O (l) + 4e−

The equation for the cathode reaction (reduction) may be written as:
O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH− (aq)
The equation for the overall reaction may be written as:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l)
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell

The proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) offers high power density and operates at relatively low
temperatures. They are used in cars, forklifts and buses, as well as some large-scale systems. Suitable fuels
for the PEMFC include hydrogen gas, methanol and reformed fuels.
A typical PEMFC uses a polymer membrane as its electrolyte, which eliminates the corrosion and safety
concerns associated with liquid electrolyte fuel cells. Although it is an excellent conductor of hydrogen
ions, the membrane is an electrical insulator. The electrolyte is sandwiched between the anode and cathode,
forming a unit less than one millimetre thick. Its low operating temperature provides instant start-up and
requires no thermal shielding to protect personnel.
Hydrogen from the fuel gas stream is consumed at the anode, producing electrons that flow to the cathode
via the electric load and hydrogen ions that enter the electrolyte. At the cathode, oxygen combines with
electrons from the anode and hydrogen ions from the electrolyte to produce water. The PEMFC operates
at about 80 °C, so the water does not dissolve in the electrolyte. Instead, it is collected from the cathode as
it is carried out of the fuel cell by excess oxidising agent flow.
FIGURE 4.4 A cross-section of a PEMFC
electrical current
e−
– +
depleted depleted oxidising

fuel out agent and product
gases (H2O) out
O2
H2 H+
H2O
polymer
membrane
fuel in oxidising agent in
anode electrolyte cathode
H2 (g) → 2H+ (aq) + 2e−
O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− → 2H2 O(l)

2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l)
FIGURE 4.5 The design of a PEMFC allows the depleted gases and excess oxidising agent gas to flow through
the cell stack.
fuel cell stack

single fuel cell
expanded single flowfield plate

fuel cell hydrogen
membrane
air
The fuel cell equation:

All fuel cells that use H2 (g)/O2 (g) as reactants have the same overall equation:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g)→ 2H2 O(l)
However, they have different half-equations depending on whether they are in acidic or
alkaline conditions. It is important to consider whether the cell involves the acid or alkali
half equations.
Direct methanol fuel cell (acidic)

The direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is relatively new technology and is powered by pure methanol,
which has a higher energy density than hydrogen and is easier to transport. The anode catalyst withdraws
hydrogen from the liquid methanol. DMFCs are suitable for mobile phones, portable music devices
and laptops, due to the small size of their cells and low operating temperature, and because there is no
requirement for a fuel reformer, which allows devices to operate for longer periods of time.
2CH3 OH(aq) + 2H2 O(l) → 2CO2 (g) + 12H+ (aq) + 12e−
12H+ (aq) + 12e− + 3O2 (g) → 6H2 O(l)
2CH3 OH(aq) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)

FIGURE 4.6 A cross-section of a direct methanol fuel cell.
electrical current
e−
– +
carbon dioxide depleted oxidising
out agent and product
CO2 H 2O gases (H2O) out
H+
CH3OH H+
H+
H2O
H+
O2
fuel and water in oxidising agent in
Resources
Video eLesson Direct methanol fuel cell (med-0438)
Digital document Experiment 4.1 Investigating the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell (doc-31257)
Teacher-led video Experiment 4.1 Investigating the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell (tlvd-0741)
Weblink Fuel cells
4.2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells

Table 4.1 summarises the advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells.
TABLE 4.1 Advantages and disadvantages of fuel cells
Advantages Disadvantages
• High energy conversion efficiency

• Modular design, different sizes available • Manufacturing process and materials are
• Low chemical pollution expensive; infrastructure required for pumping
• Fuel flexibility gases
• Co-generation capability by using heat • The need for reliable and continual supply of fuel
produced • Distribution, storage and transportation of
• Quiet operation hydrogen is difficult
• Unlimited run time while fuel is supplied • Technology of producing hydrogen from other
• No need to be recharged fuels is still being developed
• Low maintenance due to lack of moving parts • Few refuelling stations are available for fuel-cell
• Low running costs vehicles
• Lower weight and volume than conventional • Some technological issues with water regulation
batteries for electric-powered vehicles and temperature control in some fuel cells
• Potential to power portable devices for longer • Electrodes are expensive because they must
times than conventional batteries also function as catalysts
4.2.6 Comparing fuels cells

Fuel cells offer great potential for the future. The reactions in fuel cells are the same as when burning the
fuels in a combustion reaction. A check of the overall reactions in the AFC, PEMFC and DMFC illustrates
this. As infrastructure is developed for the distribution and storage of their fuels (particularly hydrogen),

and electrode manufacturing techniques are improved and become cheaper, fuel cell use should become
more widespread. They are generally no more dangerous than generating electricity by currently used
methods.
TABLE 4.2 Comparison of fuel cells
Fuel cell Cathode

type Electrolyte Anode gas gas Temperature Efficiency Applications
Alkaline Potassium Hydrogen Pure below 80 °C 50–70% Transportation
(AFC) hydroxide oxygen Water, heat and electricity
Phosphoric Phosphoric Hydrogen, Oxygen and 210 °C 35–50% Stationary power
acid (PAFC) acid reformed air generation including
hydrocarbon backup power
fuels Larger scale electricity
production
Molten Alkali, Hydrogen, Oxygen and 650 °C 45–60% Stationary power
carbonate carbonates carbon air, carbon generation including
(MCFC) monoxide, dioxide backup power
methane, Larger scale electricity
reformed production
hydrocarbon
fuels
Proton Solid Hydrogen Pure 75 °C 35–55% Powering small devices
exchange polymer oxygen Other portable
membrane membrane or oxygen applications
(PEMFC) mixed with Stationary power
air generation including
backup power
Larger scale electricity
production
Solid oxide Ceramic Hydrogen, Oxygen and 800–1000 °C 45–60% Stationary power
(SOFC) oxide methane, air generation including
reformed backup power
hydrocarbon Larger scale electricity
fuels production
Direct Solid Methanol Oxygen and 75 °C 35–45% Powering small devices
methanol polymer solution in air Other portable
(DMFC) membrane water applications
FIGURE 4.7 Countries such as the US are already using fuel cells to provide the energy requirements for mass
transport.

4.2.7 Comparison of fuel cells and the combustion of fuels
TABLE 4.3 Comparison of fuels for energy efficiency, safety, supply, greenhouse gas emissions and applications
Energy Greenhouse gases

Fuel efficiency Safety Supply (during operation) Applications
Petrol 20–35% (in a Very flammable Crude oil On average, produces Transportation
(octane) combustion Special storage 8 molecules of vehicles —
engine) considerations carbon dioxide and mainly cars
9 molecules of water
per mole of octane
Diesel 25–40% (in a Less flammable Crude oil On average, produces Transportation
combustion than petrol 12 molecules of vehicles —
engine) Special storage carbon dioxide and cars, tractors,
considerations 12 molecules of water trucks and
per mole of dodecane trains.
(C12 H24 ).
AFC 60% Contains Mainly methane On average, produces The military

KOH(aq), which gas (from crude 1 mole of water per and space
is corrosive oil) and steam mole of hydrogen programs
and uses
hydrogen gas
Special storage
considerations
PEMFC 35–60% Uses hydrogen Mainly methane On average, produces Backup power,
gas gas (from crude 1 mole of water per portable power
Special storage oil) and steam mole of hydrogen and specialty
considerations vehicles
Fuel cell efficiency:

Although fuel cells can more efficiently convert chemical energy to electrical energy than
fossil fuel power stations, it is important to remember that fuel cells are not 100% efficient
in that conversion.
FIGURE 4.8 The Hyundai Nexo is powered by a fuel cell

stack that uses oxygen from the air and hydrogen stored
in specially-constructed tanks. Water is the only significant
emission.

4.2.8 Precautions for using hydrogen gas in fuel cells
Hydrogen is a fuel and an awareness of its properties is essential for producing, storing and using it safely.
Hydrogen storage
Hydrogen has a high energy content by weight but not by volume. This means that storing hydrogen can
be difficult, because it is the lightest element and must undergo considerable compression to be contained
in a suitably sized tank, which must withstand the extreme pressures required. Hydrogen can be stored as a
liquid, but this requires keeping its temperature at −252.8 °C in very well-insulated containers. Hydrogen
can also be stored by combining it with certain metal or complex hydrides that can absorb the hydrogen —
from there it can be released by heating it or adding water. Carbon nanomaterials or glass microspheres and
other chemical methods are also being investigated as a means of storage (see figure 4.9).
FIGURE 4.9 Research into improving high pressure hydrogen storage systems for use in cars continues. This is a
recently released polymer gas tank.
Hydrogen safety
Hydrogen has a lower ignition point than hydrocarbons, is highly flammable and has a much lower radiant
heat when ignited than burning hydrocarbons. The flame of burning hydrogen is almost invisible, and this
would pose a problem to firefighters. It is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas, so leaks are difficult
to detect. However, hydrogen is not toxic and, due to its lightness, leaks would rise and rapidly dissipate
into the air. By contrast, vapour from petrol leaks is denser than air, and can collect below a vehicle and
potentially ignite. Hydrogen can be explosive at relatively higher concentrations than petrol, but, because of
its tendency to rise rapidly, it is less likely to explode than heavier hydrocarbon gases.

FIGURE 4.10 The Hindenburg airship disaster was caused by leaking hydrogen gas that was ignited by
electrostatic discharge.
4.2.9 Environmental impact of using fuels cells

Molten carbonate and solid oxide cells use methanol or a hydrocarbon, such as natural gas, because the
high operating temperatures allow the reforming hydrogen to occur within the fuel cell structure. Direct
methanol fuel cells use the anode catalyst to remove the hydrogen from the liquid methanol without
a fuel reformer. This process is a more efficient way of producing energy than burning fuel to produce
steam to drive a turbine, which means that less fuel is wasted and that fewer amounts of greenhouse gases
are generated.
In general, fuel cells rely on hydrogen as a fuel, making them more environmentally friendly
than combustion fuels. The hydrogen can be obtained from the electrolysis of water (for more about
decomposition using electricity, see topic 7) or reformed from another fuel, such as methanol, natural
gas, petrol and diesel. Enzymes in cyanobacteria can also generate hydrogen biologically. Solar power,
wind power or bioethanol can be used to power the electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen, and
the reformation process produces fewer greenhouse gases than combustion of these fuels. If hydrogen can
be produced by renewable means, the use of hydrogen results in water being the main by-product of fuel
cells. Additionally, fuel cells do not have the same problems of disposal as lead–acid batteries or the fumes
associated with the use of diesel generators.

4.2 EXERCISE
1. Explain the difference between electrochemical cells and fuel cells.
2. For the following fuel cells, write half-equations to show the reactions taking place at each of the electrodes
and then write the overall equation.
(a) An alkaline hydrogen fuel cell.
(b) An acid methane fuel cell.
(c) An ethanol fuel cell.
3. State two advantages of fuel cell vehicles over conventional vehicles.
4. State the three ways in which hydrogen can be stored in a fuel cell vehicle.
5. Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages of using fuels cells rather than fossil fuels for energy.

4.3 Review
4.3.1 Summary
Fuel cells
• A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts chemical energy into usable DC electricity and
heat using a continuous supply of fuel, without combustion as an intermediary step.
• The simplest fuel cell is the alkaline fuel cell. Its function can be represented by the equation:
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l)
• There are six basic types of fuel cells, which are based on the electrolyte used:
• alkaline fuel cell
• phosphoric acid fuel cell
• molten carbonate fuel cell
• solid oxide fuel cell
• proton exchange membrane fuel cell
• direct methanol fuel cell.
• Fuel cells are more efficient at generating electricity than combustion of the fuel.
• Fuel cells and galvanic cells both have an anode and a cathode, and an electrolyte to carry ions
between these electrodes. However, in a fuel cell the reactants (fuel and oxidising agent) are supplied
continuously, which means it can generate electricity as long as this supply is maintained.
• The structure and nature of the electrodes in a fuel cell are critical to the effective operation of the cell.
They are often porous and may also contain catalysts.
• The most common fuel for fuel cells is hydrogen, which can be obtained by a reforming process using
hydrocarbon fuels or by using renewable sources to provide electricity to break down water into
hydrogen and oxygen.
• Hydrogen can be stored using compression, liquefying or chemical means.
• Hydrogen is a low molecular mass, a colourless, odourless, non-toxic and flammable gas that requires
particular safety precautions.

TABLE 4.4 Comparison of fuel cells and galvanic cells
Energy Energy
Cell Definition Function Design features transformations efficiency Applications
Fuel Electrochemical To Site of oxidation (negative Convert the 35–70% Portable

cell that provide anode) is separated from reactant’s power
produces an site of reduction (positive chemical energy source for
electrical electrical cathode) into electrical appliances
energy directly current Electrolyte between energy Backup
from a fuel (DC) electrodes to allow flow power (e.g.
of ions (internal circuit) in hospitals)
Electrodes are porous Transport
(higher surface area as vehicles
fuels are often gases) (forklifts,
Uses catalysts buses and
If fuel and oxidising agent boats)
are continuously supplied, Submarines
then they do not go flat. (very quiet
Can be stacked in parallel operation)
to increase voltage.
Galvanic Electrochemical To Site of oxidation (negative Converts the 45–90% Portable

cell that provide anode) is separated from stored chemical power
produces an site of reduction (positive energy into source
electrical electrical cathode) electrical energy for small
energy from current Electrolyte between devices
chemical (DC) electrodes to allow flow (e.g. mobile
reactions of ions (internal circuit) phones,
Uses catalysts laptops, etc)
Single use — primary cells
cannot be recharged.
Can be stacked in parallel
to increase voltage.
Resources
4.3.2 Key terms
alkaline fuel cell (AFC) fuel cell that converts oxygen (from the air) and hydrogen (from a supply) into electrical
energy and heat
direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) a new technology that is powered by pure methanol
fuel cell an eletrochemical cell that produces electrical energy directly from a fuel
proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) a fuel cell being developed for transport applications as well as
for stationary fuel cell applications and portable fuel cell applications
Resources

Experiment 4.1
Investigating the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell
Aim: To investigate the chemistry of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell
Digital document doc-31257
Teacher-led video tlvd-0741
Resources
Digital document Practical investigation logbook (doc-30407)
4.3 Exercises

1. In a hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell that uses an acidic electrolyte:
A. hydrogen gas is oxidised at the anode to form hydrogen ions
B. hydrogen gas is reduced at the anode to form hydrogen ions
C. hydrogen ions are oxidised at the cathode to form hydrogen gas
D. hydrogen ions are reduced at the cathode to form hydrogen gas.
2. A fuel cell designed to produce electricity from the reaction between grain alcohol and oxygen has the
following overall equation.
C2 H5 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l)
Which of the following statements is true?

A. Carbon dioxide is evolved at the negatively charged anode.
B. The grain alcohol and oxygen are mixed together in a 1 : 3 ratio within the electrolyte.
C. The grain alcohol undergoes reduction at the negatively charged electrode.
D. Oxide ions travel through the external circuit to the cathode.
3. A major hurdle to the widespread use of fuel cells that use hydrogen and oxygen is:
A. the difficulty in obtaining the oxygen required
B. that they cannot function without the use of an alkaline electrolyte
C. the current difficulty of transporting and storing the hydrogen fuel required
D. that the voltage produced is too small.
4. Which of the following is a feature of a fuel cell but not a galvanic cell?
A. Small size
B. An anode and a cathode
C. A suitable electrolyte
D. Input connections for chemicals
5. The process of fuel reforming involves:
A. adding oxygen to a fuel to assist combustion
B. converting a fossil fuel into carbon monoxide
C. removing carbon monoxide from a fossil fuel
D. converting a fossil fuel into hydrogen.

6. When hydrogen burns in air, it reacts to form:
A. H2 O
B. N2
C. CO2
D. CH4
7. Hydrogen can be stored as a:
A. compressed gas
B. liquid
C. metal hydride
D. all of the above.

1. a. What is a fuel cell?
b. List the advantages of a fuel cell over a primary galvanic cell.
2. Fuel cells have been used in spacecraft for a number of years as a source of electrical energy. To obtain
sufficient current, two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, are kept in cylinders under high pressure. The gases
are passed over nickel electrodes. The product of these fuel cells is water, which is drunk by the
astronauts. Each hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell used in the Apollo spacecraft weighed approximately
100 kg.
a. What advantages do fuel cells have over internal combustion engines for use in spacecraft?
b. What are the limitations of fuel cells, compared with the internal combustion engine?
3. Fuel cells have been developed to run on methane. Assuming that the electrolyte is acidic:
a. write the half-equation for the oxidation reaction
b. write the half-equation for the reduction reaction.
Draw a diagram of this cell and label the following.
c. The methane and oxygen inlets
d. The anode and cathode and their polarities
e. The direction of electron flow
f. The ion flow in the electrolyte.
4. Obtaining hydrogen for use in fuel cells is not yet economically viable, but researchers have come up
with a fuel cell that runs on octane, the main component of petrol. Previously, the reforming process
caused a build-up of carbon on the electrodes in the fuel cell, reducing efficiency. A new system
combines the reformer and the fuel cell and uses a more advanced catalyst.
a. Write the equation for the combustion of octane, C8 H18 .
b. This reaction is the same as the one that occurs in the fuel cell and produces the same amount of
carbon dioxide. Explain what benefit there is in using a fuel cell to supply energy to power a vehicle.
c. Write the half-equations for the anode and cathode reactions in this fuel cell assuming an acidic
electrolyte.
d. Add the two half-equations from question 4c to get the overall reaction. Compare your answer with
question 4a. What do you notice?
5. Discuss the statement ‘Electrochemical cells may help decrease our use of fossil fuels as an energy
source’.
6. Describe how the method of producing electricity from an electrochemical cell differs from the method
of producing electricity from:
a. a hydro-electricity scheme
b. a coal-fired power station.

Fuel cells have been developed to use different alkanes for fuels. An example is the propane–oxygen fuel
cell. The overall reaction (assuming an acidic electrolyte) is identical to the combustion of propane in
oxygen.
C3 H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)
a. Write an equation showing the reaction occurring at the anode. 1 mark

b. Write an equation showing the reaction occurring at the cathode. 1 mark
c. Describe two advantages in using propane in a fuel cell instead of burning propane in a
power station. 2 marks
d. How do the electrodes in a fuel cell differ from those in a primary cell? 1 mark
The chairperson of a leading car manufacturer says, ‘Cars powered by hydrogen will be pollution-free and
are therefore carbon-neutral’.
a. Give two reasons why this state is not true. 2 marks
Hydrogen has been proposed by many car manufacturers as a future alternative to fossil fuels. One
possibility is to store hydrogen as a solid hydride, which generates hydrogen gas when heated.
b. What is one advantage of using hydrogen instead of petrol as a fuel for vehicles? 1 mark
c. What is one advantage of storing the hydrogen as a solid hydride rather than as a gas? 1 mark

Test maker

UNIT 3 | AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW
AREA OF STUDY 1 What are the options for energy

production?
OUTCOME 1
Compare fuels quantitatively with reference to combustion products and energy outputs, apply knowledge of the
electrochemical series to design, construct and test galvanic cells, and evaluate energy resources based on energy
efficiency, renewability and environmental impact.
PRACTICE EXAMINATION
STRUCTURE OF PRACTICE EXAMINATION
Section Number of questions Number of marks
A 20 20
B 6 31
Total 51
Duration: 50 minutes
Information:
• This practice examination consists of two parts. You must answer all question sections.
• Pens, pencils, highlighters, erasers, rulers and a scientific calculator are permitted.
• You may use the VCE Chemistry Data Book for this task.
Resources
Weblink VCE Chemistry Data Book
SECTION A – Multiple choice questions

All correct answers are work 1 mark each; an incorrect answer is worth 0.
1. Which of the following statements concerning renewability is correct?

A. Biodiesel is a renewable fuel source because carbon dioxide is taken in as the plant grows.
B. Petrodiesel is a non-renewable fuel because it releases pollutants such as sulfur-containing compounds.
C. Biogas is a renewable fuel source because it can be produced at the same rate as it is being used.
D. Crude oil is a non-renewable fuel because its extraction is damaging to the environment.
2. Which is the correct thermochemical equation for the complete combustion of butane?
A. 2C4 H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(l) ∆H = −2880 kJ mol−1
B. 2C4 H10 (g) + 9O2 (g) → 8CO(g) + 10H2 O(l) ∆H = +2880 kJ mol−1
C. 2C4 H10 (g) + 13O2 (g) → 8CO2 (g) + 10H2 O(l) ∆H = −5760 kJ mol−1
D. 2C4 H10 (g) + 9O2 (g) → 8CO(g) + 10H2 O(l) ∆H = +5760 kJ mol−1
UNIT 3 Area of Study 1 Review 129

3. A petrol engine has been found to be 35% efficient. If the heat content of petrol is 48.0 kJ g−1 , what mass of
petrol is required to produce 1.00 MJ of energy using the petrol engine?
A. 32.1 g
B. 20.8 g
C. 59.5 g
D. 7.29 g
4. Petrodiesel is obtained through fractional distillation of crude oil. Biodiesel can be produced from plant crops
such as canola oil in a process called transesterification. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. Petrodiesel has a higher viscosity than biodiesel and gels at lower temperatures.
B. Petrodiesel has a lower viscosity than biodiesel and gels at lower temperatures.
C. Petrodiesel has a higher viscosity than biodiesel and gels at higher temperatures.
D. Petrodiesel has a lower viscosity than biodiesel and gels at higher temperatures.
5. The amount of energy in MJ produced by combustion of 2.0 kg of ethane is closest to:
A. 1.0 × 102 MJ
B. 2.1 × 102 MJ
C. 1.0 × 103 MJ
D. 2.1 × 103 MJ
6. 46.0 L of CO2 are released from the complete combustion of propane at SLC. The amount of energy released,
in kJ, is closest to:
A. 1.4 × 103 kJ
B. 7.6 × 106 kJ
C. 8.4 × 105 kJ
D. 1.2 × 103 kJ
7. What do the arrow and the shape of the diagram represent, respectively, in the following diagram?
Energy
A. Net energy released, exothermic

B. Net energy absorbed, exothermic
C. Net energy released, endothermic
D. Net energy absorbed, endothermic
8. Consider the following equations:
2NH3 (g) → N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ∆H = +92 kJ mol−1
N2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2NO(g) ∆H = +181 kJ mol−1
Using the two equations above what is the enthalpy for the following reaction?
4NO(g) + 3H2 (g) → N2 (g) + 2O2 (g) + 2NH3 (g)
A. −454 kJ mol−1
B. +270 kJ mol−1
C. −270 kJ mol−1
D. −456 kJ mol−1

9. Consider the following equation for incomplete combustion of carbon.
2C(s) + O2 (g) → 2CO (g) ∆H = −221 kJ mol–1
500 mL of CO is produced at SLC. How much energy is released?
A. 4.4 kJ
B. 1.4 MJ
C. 2.2 kJ
D. 2.2 MJ
10. The equation for photosynthesis is:
6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) → C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g)
What volume of carbon dioxide, at SLC, is required to produce 200 mL of oxygen?
A. 200 mL
B. 1200 mL
C. 33.3 mL
D. 60.0 mL
11. The oxidation number of Mn, in KMnO4, is:
A. +1
B. +3
C. +5
D. +7
12. When metallic lead is placed in a solution of Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions, a redox reaction occurs. The correct
reduction equation is:
A. Fe2+ (aq) → Fe3+ (aq) + e−
B. Fe3+ (aq) + e− → Fe2+ (aq)
C. Fe2+ (aq) + 2e− → Fe(s)
D. Pb2+ (aq) + 2e− → Pb(s)
13. The reaction given is a reduction half-equation. The correct values for the coefficients a, b, c, d and e,
respectively, are:
aCr2 O7 2− (aq) + bH+ (aq) + ce− → dCr3+ (aq) + eH2 O(l)
A. 1, 14, 9, 1, 7
B. 1, 14, 9, 2, 7
C. 1, 14, 6, 2, 7
D. 2, 28, 12, 4, 14
14. In a simple galvanic cell:
A. Electrons flow through the external circuit from anode to cathode
B. Electrons flow through the internal circuit from anode to cathode
C. Anions flow through the external circuit to the anode
D. Anions flow through the internal circuit to the cathode.
15. Nickel can displace silver ions from solution. This reaction can therefore be used to construct a galvanic cell.
Use the electrochemical series to predict the voltage and the material of the cathode when the two half-cells
are combined.
A. 0.55 V, silver
B. 1.05 V, silver
C. 0.55 V, nickel
D. 1.05 V, nickel

16. The following diagram shows a simplified fuel cell that uses the reaction between methanol and oxygen.
electrolyte
CH3OH (g) H+(aq) O2(g)
electrodes
H2O(I) and CO2(g)
The equation for the reaction occurring at the cathode of this fuel cell is:
A. O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH− (aq)
B. O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e− → H2 O2 (l)
C. O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e– → 2H2 O(l)
D. CH3 OH(l) → CO2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e−
17. A key difference between fuel cells and galvanic cells is that:
A. In fuel cells, the cathode is negative and the anode is positive
B. In fuel cells the oxidising and reducing agents are always gaseous
C. In fuel cells there is a continuous supply of reactants
D. Fuel cells produce noise pollution when operating.
18. The zinc–air cell makes use of oxygen from the air as a reactant.
The overall equation for the cell is:
2Zn(s) + O2 (g) → 2ZnO(s)
The oxidation half-equation is:
2Zn(s) + 4OH– (aq) → 2ZnO(s) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e–
The correct reduction half-equation is:
A. O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− → 2H2 O(l)
B. O2 (g) + 2H+ (aq) + 2e− → H2 O2 (aq)
C. O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH– (aq)
D. O2 + 2e– → 2O− (aq)
19. The electrodes in fuel cells:
A. Are porous to allow electrons to flow through them
B. Are always made of graphite
C. Are porous so that they maximise contact with gaseous reactants
D. Act as the salt bridge.
20. The following half-equation is for the reduction of lead(IV) oxide to lead(II) ions.
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e− → Pb2+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l)
When this half-cell is combined with the Fe3+ /Fe2+ half-cell, the voltage recorded under standard conditions
is 0.69 V. What is the standard electrode potential for the PbO2 /Pb2+ half-cell?
A. +0.08 V
B. +0.25 V
C. +1.46 V
D. +1.13 V

SECTION B − Short answer questions
A sample of ethanol undergoes complete combustion to produce 80.0 L of carbon dioxide, collected at 35.0 °C
and 105 kPa. The density of ethanol is 0.789 g L−1 and M(C2 H5 OH) = 46.0 g mol−1 .
Calculate the volume of ethanol that reacted.
It is hoped that biofuels can eventually replace fuels sourced from crude oil and other non-renewable sources.
One benefit of this would be reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Biodiesel can be made from a variety of different
fats and oils, predominantly from plants.
a. By what process is biodiesel produced from plant oils? 1 mark
b. Write balanced chemical equations for the combustion of a biodiesel molecule produced from:
i. palmitic acid 1 mark
ii. a petrodiesel with chains that are 10 carbons long. 1 mark
c. Calculate the volume, in litres, of carbon dioxide produced by 5.0 kg of biodiesel produced from palmitic
acid at SLC. 3 marks
d. Why does biodiesel contribute less to greenhouse gases than petrodiesel? 1 mark
e. At the same temperatures, the viscosity of petrodiesel and biodiesel differ. State which of these fuels is more
viscous and explain why. 3 marks
The overall equation for a zinc–air button cell with a KOH electrolyte is:
2Zn(s) + O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) → 2Zn(OH)2 (s)
a. Write the oxidation half-equation for this cell. 1 mark
b. Suggest a suitable material for the cathode. 1 mark
c. Given that the cell produces a voltage of 1.4 V, determine the electrode potential for the oxidation
half-equation. 1 mark
An experiment was carried out in which ethanol was burnt to heat 150.0 mL of water at 15.0 °C to 70.0 °C. The
experimental set up is shown in the following diagram.
cooking pot
fuel
stove
a. Calculate the mass of ethanol burnt to produce this temperature rise. 3 marks
b. Is the actual value likely to be higher or lower than the calculated value? Explain your answer. 2 marks
c. Comment on the reliability of the value calculated in question 4a. 1 mark

voltmeter
Ni(s) salt bridge Cd(s)
Ni2+(aq) Cd2+(aq)
half cell 1 half cell 2
a. For the galvanic cell above, which half-cell will the cations of the salt bridge travel to? 1 mark
b. What is the polarity of the nickel electrode? 1 mark
c. What will happen to the mass of the Cd electrode? 1 mark
44 kJ of energy is required to convert 1 mol of liquid water to steam.

a. Write this as a balanced thermochemical equation. 2 marks
b. Sketch an energy profile diagram for the reaction, with labels. 3 marks

PRACTICE SCHOOL-ASSESSED COURSEWORK
ASSESSMENT task − Reflective journal

In this task you will be required to write a reflective journal outlining different energy sources, with an analysis of
energy efficiency, renewability and environmental impact.
• Students are permitted to use pens, pencils, highlighters, erasers, rulers and a scientific calculator.
• Students may use the VCE Chemistry Data Book for this task.
Total time: Two 50-minute lessons (50 minutes for literature search, 50 minutes for writing time)
Total marks: 50 marks
Why do we need current research into the advancement of energy sources?

Recent events in Australia, such as mounting
power outages in Victoria, especially over
the summer months, and the ‘Stop Adani’
campaign and rallies have forced our society
to question the role of fossil fuels in everyday
life. As the world population continues to
increase, there is a desperate need to find
an energy source that is efficient, renewable
and effective.
Write a reflective journal outlining different
energy sources. For each energy source,
include an analysis of energy efficiency,
renewability and environmental impact. Your
response should provide a personal and
justified opinion about the viability of the
energy sources explored.
The title of the reflective journal is:
Why do we need current research into the advancement of energy sources?
Your response must include:
1. An evidence-based introduction as to why there is a need for alternative energy sources
2. Discussion of the environmental and financial impact of new sources of energy
3. Research on at least three new energy sources. Each energy source analysis must include:
(a) Advantages and disadvantages of each new energy source
(b) Detailed chemistry of each new energy source.
4. At least five scientific references.
Resources
Digital document U3AOS1 School-assessed coursework (doc-32005)

AREA OF STUDY 2
HOW CAN THE YIELD OF A CHEMICAL PRODUCT BE OPTIMISED?
5 Rate of chemical reactions

5.1 Overview
5.1.1 Introduction
The speed, or rate, of a chemical reaction
FIGURE 5.1 The explosions used in mining are chemical
can make all the difference between it being reactions designed to happen almost instantaneously. They
useful or not. For example, the reactions of release huge volumes of gases and vast amounts of energy.
blasting chemicals would be useless if they
did not occur at an extremely fast rate. If a
potentially useful reaction is either too fast
or too slow, being able to change the rate of
a chemical reaction can be very useful. To
achieve this, you need to understand how a
reaction occurs and the different factors that
affect its rate.
In this topic, you will learn about collision
theory and activation energy, and use
these to develop a simple picture of how a
reaction takes place. Factors that can affect
the rate of reaction include as temperature,
concentration, pressure, surface area and
catalysts. These factors are applied with the Law of Conservation of Mass across a range of industries
where the rate of chemical reactions are fundamental. These industries include mining, vehicle manufacture
and performance, petrochemical extraction and the subsequent removal of impurities. Knowledge of rates
of reaction and how these can be manipulated allows chemists to create more energy efficient, less wasteful
chemical processes.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• chemical reactions with reference to collision theory, including qualitative interpretation of
Maxwell–Boltzman distribution curves
• the comparison of exothermic and endothermic reactions including their enthalpy changes and
representations in energy profile diagrams
• factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction including temperature, surface area concentration of
solutions, gas pressures and presence of a catalyst
• the role of catalysts in changing the rate of chemical reactions with reference to alternative reaction
pathways and their representation in energy profile diagrams.

Resources
5.2 How does a chemical reaction occur?

KEY CONCEPT
• Chemical reactions with reference to collision theory, including qualitative interpretation of
Maxwell–Boltzman distribution curves
5.2.1 Collision theory

The Law of Conservation of Mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical reaction.
This means that all chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms that are already present. For
such a rearrangement to occur existing, or ‘old’, bonds need to be broken and ‘new’ bonds allowed to form.
A chemical reaction may be pictured as particles that are moving around in constant random motion and
sometimes colliding with each other. Some of these collisions will have enough energy to break the old
bonds — these may be regarded as ‘successful’ collisions. This is then followed by the resulting pieces
rearranging and forming new bonds to make the products. The greater the number of successful collisions,
the faster the rate. Not all collisions result in a reaction; the particles may simply bounce off each other
if they do not have enough energy, resulting in nothing more than changes in velocity. In other cases, the
particles might not hit each other in the right orientation for bonds to break.
For a reaction to take place the reactants must:

• collide
• have the correct orientation for bond breaking to occur
• have sufficient energy for the reaction to occur.
Activation energy
The minimum amount of energy required to break the old bonds in a chemical reaction is called the activation
energy, Ea . Collisions that do not have this minimum energy requirement will not result in a reaction. The
activation energy acts as a barrier that must be overcome in order for a reaction to occur. The activation
energy is shown as the peak of an energy profile diagram, which are discussed in detail in section 5.3.2.
For a reaction to occur, reactants must have energy equal to or greater than the level of
activation energy, Ea .
TOPIC 5 Rate of chemical reactions 137

Measuring reaction rates
The progress of a reaction may be conveniently monitored by following either the decrease in the amount
of a reactant or the formation of a product. Methods used to observe reaction rates include measuring the
change over a period of time of:
• the volume of a gas evolved
• the mass of a solid formed
• the decrease in mass due to a gas evolved
• the intensity of colour of a solution
• the formation of a precipitate
• pH
• temperature.
A typical example of apparatus used to measure rates is illustrated in figure 5.2 with the reaction between
calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2 (g)

The rate of the reaction can be observed by measuring the change in mass over fixed intervals of time,
such as grams per 10 seconds. As the reaction proceeds, the mass of the flask and contents decrease due
to formation (and escape from the flask) of CO2 (g). The variables that might be tested are temperature,
concentration of the hydrochloric acid or the size of the particles of calcium carbonate (surface area).
Figure 5.3 displays the mass of CO2 (g) lost, which is found by subtracting the mass at each time interval
from the initial mass of the apparatus. The gradient (steepness) of the green line is greater, indicating a
faster rate than the blue line. Factors that increase the rate of reaction include higher temperature, higher
concentrations of reactants and smaller pieces of solid reactants, which have a larger surface area. These
factors are discussed in subtopic 5.4. The graph flattens when the limiting reactant is consumed.
FIGURE 5.2 Apparatus used FIGURE 5.3 Graph displaying mass of gas lost
to measure rate from apparatus
faster reaction
higher temperature
higher concentration
smaller pieces
Mass of gas produced
slower reaction
220 g lower temperature
lower concentration
larger pieces
calcium carbonate
+
hydrochloric acid
Mass changes Time from start of reaction

during experiment
HOW BONDS FORM

Visualising a reaction as breaking old bonds first and then forming new ones is a simplification of how reactants
are turned into products for many reactions. Often, old bonds weaken at the same time that new ones begin
to form. Once quantitative measurements of rate are made, such as changes in concentration, a mathematical
relationship, called the rate law of the reaction concerned may be produced. Investigate how these rate laws are
calculated.

5.2.2 Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curves
During the second half of the seventeenth century, work by scientists James Clerk Maxwell and Ludwig
Boltzmann led to what is now known as the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. This is a statistical analysis
of the range of energies present in the particles of a gas sample, although many of its ideas can also be
applied to liquids and reactions in solution. Shown on a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve, it is
useful in explaining some of the factors that influence chemical reactions and their rates.
FIGURE 5.4 The Maxwell–Boltzmann curve shows the number of particles with a particular energy graphed
against the value of that particular energy.
Number of particles with
kinetic energy E
Kinetic energy, E
There are some points to note about a Maxwell–Boltzmann curve.
• The particles in a sample have a wide range of
kinetic energies. As kinetic energy is given by FIGURE 5.5 Increasing the temperature of a gas
the formula KE = 21 mv2 (where m is mass and sample stretches the Maxwell–Boltzmann curve to the
v is the velocity of the particles), there is also a right.
range of velocities. This is due to the collisions
that the particles are constantly undergoing.
• Only a small proportion of particles in the
sample have kinetic energy that is equal to or

kinetic energy E
greater than the activation energy, Ea . T1 T2 > T1
• It is not symmetrical.
• The highest point represents the most probable T2
velocity; this is not the same as the average particles with enough
velocity. energy to react
• The area under the graph represents the total
number of particles in the sample.
• If the temperature of a sample is increased, the graph
Ea Kinetic energy, E
changes in a predictable manner (see figure 5.5).
Increasing the temperature of the gas sample stretches the graph to the right. As a result, there are more
particles with higher kinetic energies. Although the area under the graph is the same (the total number of
particles has not been altered), on average they all move faster and the average kinetic energy is higher.
Therefore, more particles have energy levels at or above activation energy (Ea ) and can therefore react.
Note that, at the higher temperature, the graph is stretched to the right, rather than moved to the right. The
graph is always anchored to the origin, because there are always a few particles with very low or zero velocity.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
State two scenarios that will decrease the number of collisions in a given time period. Use
collision theory to explain the effect that these will have on the rate of a reaction.

THINK WRITE
1. Identify required scenarios. Decreasing temperature will mean particles have less
energy, which will result in fewer successful collisions
per unit time. Decreasing concentration, or pressure in a
gas, will result in fewer successful collisions.
2. Recall the effect of collision A decreased number of successful collisions per unit
theory on rates of reaction. time will result in a slower rate of reaction. Lower
temperatures, lower concentrations, and lower pressures
for gases mean a slower rate of reaction as less particles
will have the required activation energy, Ea .
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
State two scenarios that will increase the number of collisions in a given time period. Use collision
theory to explain the effect that these will have on the rate of a reaction.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
The figure shows the distribution of energies for a fixed amount of gas, before and after a
particular change is made to its conditions.
a. Is the area under each graph the same?
b. What change has been made to the sample?
T2
kinetic energy, E
T2 < T1
T1
Kinetic energy, E Ea
THINK WRITE
a. Recall that the area under the curve represents the a. Yes the area under each curve is the
number of particles (amount) that is present. same, because it represents the same
amount of gas.
b. Recall that as temperature is lowered, the particles b. The temperature has been lowered.
will move more slowly and have less energy. This is indicated by the graph for T2
has particles that, on average, have
lesser energy.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Refer to the figure in sample problem 2.
If the same sample is returned to T1 and is then heated to produce T3 how will this effect:
a. the area under the graph?
b. the shape of the graph?
5.2 EXERCISE
1. State the three requirements of the collision theory of chemical reactions.
2. Describe the effect on the shape of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve of increasing temperature and
the concentration.
3. Explain why the shape of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution changes the way it does when temperature is
increased.
4. Describe how the graph of the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution for a sample of gas is altered if additional
gas is added at the same temperature.
5. Use collision theory to explain:
(a) why there is always a range of particle velocities at any temperature.
(b) why there will always be an amount of reaction, however small, at any given temperature. Make reference
to the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution in your answer.
6. If the distribution curve for a sample of gas uses velocity on the horizontal axis instead of energy, how will
each pair of graphs in the following scenarios compare
(a) Oxygen gas at 298 K and oxygen gas at 350 K.
(b) Hydrogen gas at 313 K and methane gas at 313 K.
(c) Propane gas at 283 K and carbon dioxide gas at 283 K.

5.3 Exothermic and endothermic reactions

KEY CONCEPT
• The comparison of exothermic and endothermic reactions including their enthalpy changes and
representations in energy profile diagrams
5.3.1 Enthalpy
Energy is critical to all chemical reactions. As we have already seen, a minimum amount of energy is
required before a reaction can proceed. Often a reaction may occur in a number of steps, with unstable
intermediate products being temporarily formed. These are called activated complexes or transition states.
Due to their instability (and corresponding high energy content), these quickly decompose and, in the

process, give out energy as the new bonds in the final products form. Therefore, it is useful to consider
chemical reactions from the viewpoint of energy and energy changes.
The total energy stored in a substance is called the enthalpy, or heat content, of the substance and
is given the symbol H. It is not possible to measure H directly but the change in enthalpy (∆H) can be
measured when a substance undergoes a chemical reaction. Change in enthalpy was discussed in topic 1.
5.3.2 Energy profile diagrams

Energy changes can be summarised using the energy profile diagrams shown in figure 5.6.
FIGURE 5.6 A chemical reaction can be recognised as either exothermic or endothermic by its ∆H value. If the
∆H value is negative, the reaction is exothermic. If the ∆H value is positive, the reaction is endothermic.
Energy diagram for an exothermic reaction Energy diagram for an endothermic reaction
activation energy
activation
energy, Ea — evolved
energy energy energy, Ea—
when new
Energy
Energy
required evolved energy
to break required bonds are
when new
bonds to break formed
bonds are
reactants formed bonds products
ΔH = –ve
ΔH = +ve
products
reactants
From these diagrams we can note a number of points:

• The energy required to break the old bonds is called the activation energy, Ea .
• For an exothermic reaction, the activation energy is less than the energy released when new bonds
form. Consequently, there is a net release of energy (usually as heat released to the surroundings).
• In an endothermic reaction, the activation energy is greater than the energy released when new bonds
form. Consequently, there is a net input of energy (in most cases, heat is absorbed from the
surroundings).
• In exothermic and endothermic reactions, the activation energy represents a requirement for the
progress of the chemical reaction. This must be overcome before a reaction proceeds.
Energy needed for bond breaking > Energy released for bond forming +∆H
Energy needed for bond breaking < Energy released for bond forming −∆H
For exothermic reactions +ΔH

For endothermic reactions −ΔH
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
The following diagram shows the energy profile for a particular reaction. Some values for
enthalpy have been inserted on the vertical axis.

400
Enthalpy (kJmol–1)
300
200
100
a.Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic?

b. What is the value of the activation energy?
THINK WRITE
a. Recall that an exothermic or endothermic reaction is a. Exothermic.
indicated by comparing enthalpies of the reactants and the
products. Here the products are lower in enthalpy than the
reactants so it is exothermic.
b. Recall that the activation energy is the difference in enthalpy b. 380 − 300 = 80 kJ mol−1
between the reactants and the highest point of the energy
profile diagram.
TIP: Remember that the value of the activation energy is
always positive, because all reactions need energy to start
them.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
The reaction profile shown refers to a particular reaction and has some enthalpy values indicate as
shown.
a. Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic?
b. What is the activation energy for this reaction?
400
300
200
100

Resources
Digital document Experiment 5.1 Investigating heat changes in reactions (doc-31251)
Teacher-led video Experiment 5.1 Investigating heat changes in reactions (tlvd-0742)
Video eLesson Exothermic and endothermic reactions (med-0424)
Interactivities Identifying exothermic and endothermic reactions (int-1242)
Constructing energy profile diagrams (int-1243)
5.3 EXERCISE
Question 1 refers to the following energy profile diagram.
250
225
200
175
1. (a) Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic?

(b) For this reaction, what is the value of:
i. ∆H
ii. the minimum energy required to break the reactant bonds
iii. the activation energy
iv. the energy evolved when the new bonds form.
2. The gas silane, SiH4 , reacts spontaneously with oxygen at normal temperatures to produce silicon dioxide,
SiO2 . What does this indicate about the activation energy for this reaction?
3. Why is it not possible to have a reaction with an activation energy of 200 kJ mol−1 and a ∆H of +350 kJ mol−1 ?
4. Many chemical reactions are reversible, meaning that they can react in a backward direction. These are
discussed in more detail in topic 6.
How does the activation energy of the forward reaction compare to the activation energy of the backward
reaction for:
(a) an exothermic reaction?
(b) an endothermic reaction?


5.4 Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction
KEY CONCEPT
• Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction including temperature, surface area concentration of
solutions, gas pressures and presence of a catalyst
There are four main factors that affect the rate of a chemical reaction: concentration, gas pressure,
temperature and surface area.
5.4.1 Concentration
Concentration is the amount of a substance in a space. Table 5.1 shows some results from an experiment
involving the reaction:
2H2 (g) + 2NO(g) → 2H2 O(g) + N2 (g)
TABLE 5.1 Rate of reaction between NO and H2 at 800 °C
Initial concentrations (M)
Initial rate of H2 O
Experiment [NO] [H2 ] production (M s−1 )
1 6.0 × 10−3 1.0 × 10−3 0.64 × 10−2
2 6.0 × 10−3 2.0 × 10−3 1.28 × 10−2
3 1.0 × 10−3 6.0 × 10−3 1.00 × 10−3
4 2.0 × 10−3 6.0 × 10−3 3.90 × 10−3
Note that square brackets denote concentration in mol L−1 (M).

In experiments 1 and 2, [NO] is the same but [H2 ] is different. In experiments 3 and 4, [H2 ] is the same
but [NO] is different. Therefore, each pair of experiments allows us to analyse the effect of changing the
concentration of one of the two substances. Compare experiment 1 with experiment 2, and then compare
experiment 3 with experiment 4. Increasing the concentration of either reactant causes an increase in the
rate of the reaction. In terms of our model of a chemical reaction, we can explain this by the crowding
together of the reacting particles as the concentration is increased. This results in an increased number
of overall collisions during a given period of time. With more collisions, there will be an increase in the
number of successful collisions, resulting in a higher rate of reaction. The relative proportion of successful
collisions does not increase.
5.4.2 Gas pressure

For reactions involving gases, the effect of increasing pressure is the same as increasing concentration.
Both effects result in more crowding together of the particles and therefore more collisions. This ensures
more successful collisions within a certain time. This can be verified using the universal gas equation,
pV = nRT. For a given temperature, it can easily be shown that pressure is proportional to concentration by
nRT
manipulating the equation to produce p = , where n is the number of moles.
V

5.4.3 Temperature
Most chemical reactions are observed to
FIGURE 5.7 Increasing the temperature means that there are
proceed more quickly as the temperature more particles with enough energy to overcome the activation
is increased. Examples from everyday energy barrier.
life that demonstrate this are the cooking
of food and setting of some glues. An
T1
examination of the Maxwell–Boltzmann T2 > T1

curves at different temperatures in
kinetic energy E
T2
figure 5.7 reveals why this is so.
For the given activation energy (Ea ),
the shape of the graph shows that there
is more area under the graph (and hence
more particles) to the right of Ea at the
higher temperature than at the lower one.
A greater proportion of collisions will
therefore be successful in overcoming the Ea
Kinetic energy, E
activation energy barrier.
Another effect of increasing the temperature is that there is an increased frequency of collisions due
to the particles moving faster. However, a more sophisticated analysis of the situation reveals that this is
secondary to the effect of the energy distributions.
Resources
Video eLesson Temperature and reaction rate (eles-1670)
5.4.4 Surface area

Surface area is an important factor in
FIGURE 5.8 The higher surface area of the powder (left) results in
heterogeneous reactions — reactions a higher reaction rate than the solid on the right.
where the reactants are in different
phases, such as a solid and a liquid.
Its effect is due to the fact that, by
increasing the surface area, more of a
substance is brought into contact with
other substances with which it might
react. For example, the same mass of
wood on a fire burns much faster if
it is cut into small pieces than if it is
left as a log, and powdered calcium
carbonate reacts faster in acid solution
than a block of calcium carbonate of
the same mass.
In terms of collision theory, an
increase in surface area means
that more reactant particles can
collide with one another which logically produces more collisions. More collisions produces more
successful collisions between them in a given period of time, leading to an increased rate of reaction. This
is demonstrated in figure 5.8, in which both beakers contain 25 mL of hydrochloric acid and 1 g of calcium
carbonate (marble). The marble in the beaker on the left has been ground into a powder; in the beaker on the
right, it is in large chunks. The powder has a much higher surface area than the large chunks, resulting in a
much higher reaction rate, which is shown by the faster release of carbon dioxide bubbles.

The effect of increasing surface area on the rate of combustion reactions can lead to unexpected, and
sometimes catastrophic, results. Solids such as coal and wheat do not normally burn very fast, but as a dust
they present a huge surface area to the oxygen in air. All that is needed is an errant spark, from a machine
or from static electricity, and the resulting reaction is so fast that it causes an explosion. This effect has
destroyed wheat silos and caused tragedies in underground mines.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A gas phase reaction is carried out at four different sets of conditions of temperature and
pressure as shown below.
Which set of conditions will produce the fastest rate and why?
Set A. 25 °C and 100 kPa
Set B. 50 °C and 100 kPa
Set C. 50 °C and 150 kPa
Set D. 25 °C and 150 kPa
THINK WRITE
Recall that higher temperatures and higher Set C will produce the fastest reaction
pressures will increase the rate of a reaction. rate because it occurs at both the
Condition Set C meets both these criteria. highest temperature and at the highest
pressure. Both these factors increase
the rate of a reaction.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
With reference to the conditions shown in sample problem 4, which set of conditions will produce the
slowest rate of reaction?
Resources
Digital document Experiment 5.2 Rate of hydrogen production – a problem solving exercise (doc-32160)
5.4 EXERCISE
1. State four methods that can be used to increase the rate of a reaction.
2. Explain why the chemicals used in fireworks are present in powdered form.
3. The reaction between two gases occurs at a measurable rate at 700 °C. If the temperature is held constant
at 700 °C and the reacting mixture is compressed, predict and explain what will happen to the rate of this
reaction.
4. The evolution of bubbles when a soft drink is opened is due to dissolved carbonic acid decomposing to
carbon dioxide and water. The equation for this process is:
H2 CO3 (aq) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)

(a) This evolution is initially fast, but gradually slows down with time. Why does the rate of carbon dioxide
evolution decrease?
(b) How would the rate of reaction be affected if the soft drink was warm?
5. The use of powdered coal is being investigated in experimental railway locomotives as an alternative to oil.
Powdered coal can be introduced in smaller doses that burn much faster than the traditional lump coal once
used in steam locomotives.
Why does the powdered coal have a much faster rate of combustion?
6. In an investigation of the rate of reaction of gas produced from magnesium and hydrochloric acid, HCl, a
student has available three forms of magnesium: powder, small turnings and a strip. Also available are
reagent bottles of 0.5 M HCl, 1 M HCl and 2 M HCl. The student could also use a hot water bath and a cool
water bath.
(a) Which combination of reactants and conditions would produce the fastest rate of reaction?
(b) Which combination would produce the slowest rate of reaction?
7. (a) Gas leaks in confined spaces can be very dangerous — a single spark can lead to an explosion. Explain,
in terms of reaction rates, why this is so.
(b) This reaction is exothermic. Why is this important in producing the explosion?

5.5 Catalysts and reaction rates

KEY CONCEPT
• The role of catalysts in changing the rate of chemical reactions with reference to alternative reaction
pathways and their representation in energy profile diagrams
5.5.1 Catalysts
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction without being consumed. It provides an
alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy. This increases the proportion of collisions with
energy greater than the activation energy.
Catalysts are usually used to speed up a reaction. Sometimes they are added to slow a reaction down, in
which case they are called negative catalysts or inhibitors. Adding a catalyst does not alter the value of ∆H.
Appropriate catalysts lie at the heart of many industrial processes, especially in green chemistry
industries, which attempt to reduce the use of hazardous substances. Companies spend large amounts of
money on research into new and improved catalysts, and the results of such research are often among a
company’s most closely guarded secrets. Biological catalysts, or enzymes, are also responsible for the
management of thousands of biological reactions important in maintaining life.
The presence of a catalyst in a chemical reaction provides an alternative pathway for particles to collide
with sufficient energy to break bonds. This pathway has a lower activation energy, as shown in figure 5.10.

FIGURE 5.9 A catalyst acts by providing an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy for reactants to
form products.
uncatalysed
reaction
pathway
activation energy
catalysed (Ea)
reaction
Energy pathway
with without
catalyst catalyst
Progress of reaction
FIGURE 5.10 A catalyst provides an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy, which allows more
particles to overcome the new activation energy requirement.

energy > Ea (uncatalysed)
kinetic energy E

energy > Ea (catalysed)
Particles with
these low energies
cannot react.
Ea (uncatalysed) Kinetic energy, E

Ea (catalysed)
This means that the value of Ea on the Maxwell–Boltzmann curve is shifted to the left and that there are
a greater proportion of particles under the curve to the right of this new Ea value. These are the particles
that have enough energy to overcome the activation energy requirement, allowing the reaction to occur at a
faster rate due to the increase in successful collisions.
FIGURE 5.11 Catalysts reduce the energy required for a reaction to occur.

TIP: Lowering the activation energy characteristic of a catalyst is not the same as increasing the
energy of reactant molecules.
Resources
Digital documents Experiment 5.3 Reaction rates 1 (doc-31258)
Experiment 5.4 Reaction rates 2 (doc-31259)
Video eLesson Role of catalysts (med-0425)
CATALYTIC CONVERTERS — CATALYSTS IN CAR EXHAUSTS

Catalytic converters are used in the exhaust
systems of cars to reduce the amount of FIGURE 5.12 A typical catalytic converter from the
gaseous pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. exhaust system of a modern car.
The essential feature of these converters is a
rare metal catalyst made from platinum and
rhodium. This is finely dispersed over an internal
structure that provides a very large surface
area, over which the exhaust gases are forced
to pass. Table 5.2 shows the effect that these
catalysts have on the exhaust gases that pass
over them. Catalytic converters not only convert
poisonous carbon monoxide and nitrogen
oxides to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and oxygen,
they also convert hydrocarbons that have not
combusted to water and carbon dioxide. They
are a very effective way to reduce air pollution
and all vehicle manufacturers must include
catalytic converters for cars sold in Australia.
TABLE 5.2 The changes in exhaust gas composition

caused by catalytic converters
Before reaction After reaction
CO + O2 CO2
hydrocarbons + O2 H2 O + CO2
nitrogen oxides N2 + O2
5.5 EXERCISE
1. Can a catalyst turn an exothermic reaction into an endothermic one? Explain.
2. Draw an energy profile for an exothermic reaction that occurs with a catalyst. On the same diagram, add an
energy profile for the reaction without a catalyst.
3. By referring to a Maxwell–Boltzmann graph, explain how a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction.
4. Catalysts X and Y both catalyse an endothermic reaction that occurs slowly under typical laboratory
conditions. It is noted that X produces a faster rate of reaction than Y.
Summarise this information in the form of an energy profile diagram.

5. Consider a reaction that is represented by the equation below, and is catalysed by a finely divided metal
powder, X.
A—B (g) + C (g) → C—A (g) + B (g)
An important part of the catalytic mechanism is that the catalyst forms temporary bonds with AB on its
surface.
(a) Explain why this catalyst is more effective in powdered form than in a metallic lump.
(b) Given that a catalyst lowers the activation energy, what effect do you think the temporary bonds that
form between X and AB have on the bonds that need to be broken for this reaction to occur?
(c) Given that the catalyst temporarily holds AB on its surface in a certain way, what else is happening here
to increase the rate of the reaction?
(d) Given that product CA does not bind to the surface of the catalyst, explain why X can keep performing
its function and is not used up.

5.6 Review
5.6.1 Summary
How does a chemical reaction occur?
• Chemical reactions show a wide range of reaction rates.
• The Law of Conservation of mass states that matter cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical
reaction. A chemical reaction involves breaking old bonds and allowing new bonds to form between
atoms that are already present.
• Chemical reaction rates may be explained in terms of collisions between the particles involved. Such
collisions must possess the correct orientation and a certain minimum amount of energy — the
activation energy.
• A Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve is a graph that shows the number of particles with a
particular energy graphed against kinetic energy.
• Maxwell–Boltzmann curves are useful in explaining how factors such as temperature increase and
catalysts affect the rate of a chemical reaction.
Exothermic and endothermic reactions
• The activation energy is the energy required to break the original bonds, before new bonds can form.
• Enthalpy is a term that may be interpreted as the heat content of a substance. Because all substances
have different enthalpies, a chemical reaction will always involve a change in enthalpy, denoted by the
symbol ∆H.
• A chemical reaction is exothermic (and has a negative ∆H value) if the energy released as new bonds
form is greater than the energy required to break the old bonds.
• A chemical reaction is endothermic (and has a positive ∆H value) if the energy released as new bonds
form is less than the energy required to break the old bonds.
• The energy or enthalpy changes that take place during a chemical reaction may be represented by an
energy profile diagram.

Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction
• The rate of a chemical reaction is affected by factors such as the concentration of the particles, the
pressure, the temperature, the surface area and the presence of a catalyst. Each of these can be
explained using collision theory.
Catalysts and reaction rates
• A catalyst is a substance that provides an alternative pathway for a reaction. This pathway has a lower
activation energy.
• Although a catalyst plays an important role in a reaction, it is not used up and does not affect the
nature of the actual products formed.
Resources
5.6.2 Key terms
activation energy the minimum energy required by reactants in order to react

catalyst a substance that alters the rate of a reaction without a change in its own concentration
energy profile diagram a graph or diagram that shows the energy changes involved in a reaction from the
reactants through the intermediate stages to the products.
enthalpy a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system
exothermic describes a chemical reaction in which energy is released to the surroundings
heat content a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve a graph that plots the number of particles with a particular energy
(vertical axis) against energy (horizontal axis)
universal gas equation PV = nRT, where pressure is in kilopascals, volume is in litres and temperature
is in kelvin
Resources
5.6.3 Practical investigations
Experiment 5.1
Investigating heat changes in reactions
Aim: To investigate and draw energy diagrams for some exothermic and
endothermic reactions.
Digital document doc-31251
Teacher-led video tlvd-0742

Resources
Digital document Practical investigation logbook (doc-31398)
Experiment 5.2 Rate of hydrogen production – a problem solving exercise (doc-32160)
5.6 Exercises

1. Most chemical reactions display a rate increase with increasing temperature. This can be explained by:
A. the temperature lowering the activation energy
B. the particles having more collisions involving higher energies
C. the temperature making the reactant’s bonds weaker
D. the temperature making the collisions between the particles more elastic.
2. An energy profile diagram for a chemical reaction is shown
on this graph. On this graph:
A. a represents the activation energy for the forward
reaction and c represents the activation energy for the a
backward reaction
Energy
B. a represents the activation energy for both the forward and b
the reverse reactions

c
C. b represents the activation energy for both the forward and
the reverse reactions
D. a represents the activation energy for the forward reaction
and b represents the activation energy for the backward reaction.
3. Which of the following statements about activation energies is correct?
A. Activation energies are always positive.
B. Activation energies are always negative.
C. Activation energies are positive only for endothermic reactions.
D. Activation energies are negative only for exothermic reactions.
4. These Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution graphs show a
A
sample of gas at four different temperatures.
kinetic energy, E

A. Graph A represents the highest temperature. 300 K
B. The area under graph A is greater than the area B
1000 K
under graph B.
C. A possible temperature for graph B could be 600 K.
D. Graph A contains more fast-moving molecules than
0 Kinetic energy, E
graph B.

5. A sample of gas is heated. Which of the following statements is incorrect?
A. The most common speed for its molecules increases.
B. The average speed of its molecules increases.
C. The number of collisions between molecules, per unit time, increases.
D. The area under the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve increases.
6. When zinc is added to hydrochloric acid, the rate at which hydrogen gas is evolved can be used as a
measure of reaction rate. Which of the following combinations produces the fastest rate of hydrogen
gas evolution?
A. Powdered zinc added to 2 M HCl at 20 °C
B. Powdered zinc added to 2 M HCl at 40 °C
C. Granular zinc added to 2 M HCl at 20 °C
D. Granular zinc added to 2 M HCl at 40 °C
7. When a reaction occurs at a higher temperature, two important things happen.
Effect 1: More collisions between particles occur each second.
Effect 2: More energy is involved in these collisions.
A. Effect 1 is more important than effect 2 for increasing the rate of a reaction.
B. Effect 2 is more important than effect 1 for increasing the rate of a reaction.
C. Effects 1 and 2 are both equally significant for any increase in reaction rate.
D. Neither 1 nor 2 affects the rate of the reaction.
8. An industrial process involving an exothermic reaction requires that the reaction be slowed down so
that the heat evolved can be collected safely. In order to achieve this:
A. the ∆H value of the reaction needs to be decreased
B. the ∆H value of the reaction needs to be increased
C. the activation energy of the reaction needs to be increased
D. the activation energy of the reaction needs to be decreased.
9. To lower the activation energy of a reaction,
A. an increase in temperature is required.
B. a catalyst is required.
C. an increase in concentration is required.
D. an increase in the surface area of reactants is required.
10. The following reaction has an activation energy of 183 kJ mol−1 .
2HI(g) → H2 (g) + I2 (g)
The reverse reaction: H2 (g) + I2 (g) → 2HI(g)
has an activation energy of 157 kJ mol−1 .

The ∆H value for the first equation above is:
A. −340 kJ mol−1 B. +340 kJ mol−1 C. −26 kJ mol−1 D. +26 kJ mol−1 .

1. Based on your everyday experience, classify the following chemical reactions as either slow, moderate
of fast.
a. The rusting of iron.
b. The burning of petrol in a car engine.
c. The reacting of chemicals in a glow stick to produce light.
d. The reacting of chemicals in the battery of a mobile phone to produce electricity.
e. The dissolving of old nail polish by nail polish remover.
f. The drying of plaster in a cast around a broken bone.

2. Using the concepts of activation energy and reaction pathways, explain how a catalyst can speed up the
rate of a chemical reaction.
3. The dehydration properties of concentrated sulfuric acid are often demonstrated using sucrose,
C12 H22 O11 . Black carbon and steam, along with sulfur dioxide and considerable heat, are produced.
The equation for this reaction is:
2C12 H22 O11 (s) + 2H2 SO4 (aq) + O2 (g) → 22C(s) + 2CO2 (g) + 24H2 O(g) + 2SO2 (g)
Explain why this reaction occurs much faster when castor sugar, rather than granulated sugar, is used as
a source of sucrose.
4. Maxwell–Boltzmann curves show that particles have a wide range of velocities and energies. Using
collision theory, explain why this is so.
5. Use a Maxwell–Boltzmann curve to clearly explain why:
a. a catalyst can alter the rate of a reaction
b. increasing temperature usually increases the rate of a reaction.
6. Comment on the rates observed for each of the following situations. For each one, use the collision
theory for chemical reactions to explain the rate behaviour observed.
a. Nail polish dries quicker on a hot day than on a cold day.
b. A piece of steel wool burns in a Bunsen flame, but the same mass of solid steel does not.
c. A pinch of manganese dioxide added to hydrogen peroxide continues to produce oxygen for as long
as fresh hydrogen peroxide is added.
d. The chemicals mixed by a panelbeater to make body filler harden faster on a hot day than on a
cold day.
e. The addition of vinegar to bicarbonate of soda causes an evolution of gas that is quick at first but
then slows down.
f. Photographers using infrared-sensitive film store it in a refrigerator before use.
7. The reaction between hydrogen gas and nitrogen(IV) oxide is represented by the equation:
2H2 (g) + 2NO2 (g) → 2H2 O(g) + N2 (g)
Explain why the rate of this reaction decreases with time.

a.
Explain why the progress of this reaction can be monitored by measuring the drop in pressure.
b.
8. The decomposition of ammonia to produce nitrogen and hydrogen according to:
2NH3 (g) → N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
has an activation energy of 330 kJ mol−1 and a ∆H value of +92 kJ mol−1 . If tungsten is used as a
catalyst, the activation energy is 163 kJ mol−1 .
a. Give a definition for the term ‘catalyst’.
b. Show all of the information above on an energy profile diagram for this reaction.
The reverse reaction to this as shown by the equation:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
is a very important reaction in industry.

c. Calculate the activation energy for the uncatalysed version of this reaction.
d. Calculate the activation energy when tungsten is used as a catalyst.

9. Enzymes are a very important class of biochemical molecules that are often described as biological
catalysts. For example, the enzyme lipase is an important digestive enzyme that assists in the
breakdown of fats according to the following generalised equation.
lipase
fat + water ⇌ fatty acids + glycerol
Using the concept of activation energy, explain why the rates of reactions such as this are much
a.
greater in the presence of lipase.
b. How does the amount of lipase present at the start of a reaction such as this compare with the
amount present at its completion?
10. The rate of a chemical reaction is a very important consideration in industrial chemistry where
chemicals are made on a large scale. Reactions need an acceptable rate to be economical. A number of
important industrial reactions have rates that are too slow at even moderate temperatures and, therefore,
need to be sped up. Further increasing the temperature is a common means of achieving this; however,
sometimes this is an inappropriate strategy.
Suggest two other methods by which an increase in reaction rate may be produced in these situations.

The gas phase reaction between two gases, A and B, to form C, may be represented by the following
equation.
A(g) + B(g) → C(g)
The progress of this reaction can be monitored by measuring the production of product (C).
This reaction was investigated in the presence of a fourth substance, X, and then again in the presence of
substance Y. Equal amounts of A and B were used in both experiments. The concentrations of C and either
X or Y are shown in the following graphs.
C C
Concentration
Concentration
X Y
Time Time
a. At which stage in each reaction is the production of C occurring at the fastest rate? Explain. 2 marks
b. Explain why the concentration of C reaches the same maximum in both experiments. 1 mark
c. What role can be attributed to substance Y in the second experiment? Give two pieces of evidence to
support your answer. 3 marks
d. Substance X may or may not be performing the same role as substance Y. Suggest an experiment that
would help you decide. 2 marks

An important chemical (C) is made on a large scale in industry from two immiscible liquids (A and B).
Both B and C are less dense than A. The equation for the reaction involved is:
A (l) + B (l) → C (s) ∆H = +ve.
The traditional process involves pumping liquid B across the surface of a vat containing liquid A. The rate
of pumping is carefully adjusted so that by the time liquid B has reached the opposite side of the vat, the
reaction is complete. This process is shown in diagram 1.
A modification to this method has been proposed for making substance C. In this method, substance B
is introduced into the base of the vat in the form of a fine spray, but at a rate to match the pumping rate
from before. A fan blowing air across the surface assists in the collection of C as it rises to the surface. It
is planned that this new process will operate at the same temperature as the original one. This process is
shown in diagram 2.
Fan
B Collection Collection
of C of C
A A
B in
A in A in
Temperature T1 Temperature T2
Diagram 1 T1 = T2 Diagram 2
a. Is the above reaction exothermic or endothermic? 1 mark

b. Which of the above methods would produce substance C the quickest? 1 mark
c. Use the collision theory for reacting particles to explain your answer for (b). In your answer, consider
which methods would change the reaction rate, and which methods would be expected to have little
influence. 2 marks
d. In terms of substance C, explain one disadvantage of the second method and how this can be
minimised. 2 marks
e. As an alternative modification to the original method, it has been proposed that the temperature of the
two reacting liquids (A and B) be increased, even though this will require more energy.
Explain why this will enable liquid B to be pumped across the surface of liquid A at a
faster rate. 1 mark
In chemistry, a number of reactions are collectively referred to as ‘clock reactions’. These reactions produce
a sudden colour change after a period of time. One of the better known examples of such reactions is that
between iodide ions and persulfate ions (S2 O2− 2−
8 ) in the presence of thiosulfate ions (S2 O3 ) and starch.
Two reactions are involved:
−
Reaction 1: 2I− (aq) + S2 O28 (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2SO2−
4 (aq)
−
Reaction 2: I2 (aq) + 2S2 O2− 2−
3 (aq) → 2I (aq) + S4 O6 (aq)
The iodine produced by reaction 1 is immediately removed by reaction 2. However, S2 O2− 3 ions are also
consumed and are eventually all used up. After this time, iodine builds up and is detected by the starch

present, which forms an intensely coloured dark blue complex. This occurs at iodine concentrations as low
as 10−5 M, making starch an excellent indicator for this reaction.
If the amount of S2 O2−
3 (aq) is kept constant, the appearance of the dark blue colour may be used to
measure the rate of reaction 1.
In one such experiment using 0.2 M KI(aq) solution, 0.2 M Na2 S2 O8 (aq) and 0.1 M Na2 S2 O3 (aq)
solutions, the following results were obtained.
S2 O28 − (aq) S2 O23 − (aq) Time for
V(I− (aq)) volume volume V(starch) blue colour
solution solution solution V(water) solution to appear
Trial number (mL) (mL) (mL) (mL) (mL) (s)
1 20 20 20 40 10 220
2 20 40 20 20 10 150
3 40 20 20 20 10 142
a. Explain how these results show that increasing S2 O2− 8 (aq) concentration produces a faster rate in
reaction 1. Compare two appropriate trials from the data above as part of your explanation. 2 marks
b. Use the results above to explain how the rate of reaction is affected by the concentration of iodide ions.
Select two appropriate trials to support your explanation. 2 marks
c. The experiment is repeated using solutions that were stored in a refrigerator for 24 hours. These
solutions were used immediately after being removed. How would the reaction times in the table be
affected? 1 mark
d. What is the purpose of the two different amounts of water used in the trials? 2 marks
e. Explain why the amount of S2 O2− 3 (aq) solution is kept constant in each trial. 1 mark

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
6 Extent of chemical reactions

6.1 Overview
6.1.1 Introduction
Equilibrium reactions, or reversible reactions, are chemical
FIGURE 6.1 The sour taste of
reactions that appear not to use up all their reactants. While this lemons is due to an equilibrium
might seem strange at first, such reactions are very common. reaction involving citric acid
Chemical reactions involving equilibria are all around us. Weak and water.
acids are examples of substances that produce equilibrium
reactions when dissolved in water. The sour taste of lemons is
due to a weak acid — citric acid. Many other equilibrium reactions
occur inside our bodies and play a vital role in keeping us alive and
healthy.
Equilibrium reactions respond to changes, which is an important
feature in how they function to keep us healthy. Knowledge of the
equilibrium law and the ability to predict the response to change
is vital to the understanding of these reactions. Additionally,
equilibrium reactions are at the heart of processes that manufacture
some of our most widely used chemicals. A thorough knowledge
of equilibrium reactions is therefore essential to their efficient
manufacture.
Understanding of equilibrium principles presented in this topic,
is built upon knowledge of reaction rates and their explanations
using collision theory, thermochemical equations and the
broad division of reactions into exothermic and endothermic
classifications. These principles are then combined with moles
ratios and stoichiometry to calculate moles, concentrations of
substances and how to manipulate chemistry to maximise products.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the distinction between reversible and irreversible reactions, and between rate and extent of a reaction
• homogenous equilibria involving aqueous solutions or gases with reference to collision theory and
representation by balanced chemical or thermochemical equations (including states) and by
concentration–time graphs
• calculations involving equilibrium expressions and equilibrium constants (Kc only) for a closed
homogeneous equilibrium system including dependence of value of equilibrium constant, and its units, on
the equation used to represent the reaction and on the temperature
TOPIC 6 Extent of chemical reactions 159

• Le Châtelier’s principle: identification of factors that favour the yield of a chemical reaction, representation
of equilibrium system changes using concentration-time graphs and applications, including competing
equilibria involved in the occurrence and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning resulting from
incomplete combustion of fuels.

Resources
6.2 Reversible and irreversible reactions

KEY CONCEPT
• The distinction between reversible and irreversible reactions, and between rate and extent of a reaction
6.2.1 Reversible reactions

In all the stoichiometric calculations you have done so far, an important assumption has been that the
reaction proceeds to completion. In other words, you have assumed, subject to mole ratios and amounts
present, that all reactants are converted into products. This allowed the amount of expected product to be
calculated. While many reactions follow this pattern, many do not go to completion. The following two
examples illustrate this point.
Reaction 1: The decomposition of hydrogen bromide FIGURE 6.2 A typical concentration
versus time graph for the decomposition
If hydrogen bromide is placed in a suitable container and
of hydrogen bromide
heated, it decomposes according to the following equation:
2HBr(g) → H2 (g) + Br2 (g)
If the products are analysed after some time, it is found that

the amounts of hydrogen and bromine are as predicted from a
[HBr]
normal stoichiometric calculation. If the concentration of the

hydrogen bromide is monitored against time, a graph similar
to that shown in figure 6.2 is obtained.
Another way to describe this reaction is that it ‘goes
completely to the right’. The ‘right’, of course, means the
product side of the chemical equation.
Time

Reaction 2: The decomposition of hydrogen iodide
FIGURE 6.3 A typical
The equation for the decomposition of hydrogen iodide is: concentration versus time graph
for the decomposition of hydrogen
2HI(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g) iodide
At first glance, you might expect this decomposition to be very

similar to that shown for hydrogen bromide. However, when this
decomposition is attempted under similar conditions to the hydrogen
bromide reaction, the yield of hydrogen and iodine is always less
[HI]
than the stoichiometric prediction. This occurs no matter how long
you wait. Furthermore, it appears that the concentrations of all
species reach certain values and thereafter remain constant. The
graph in figure 6.3 shows this effect.
This second example illustrates what we call an equilibrium
reaction, which occur when reactions do not completely convert all
Time
the reactants into products — some reactants always remain, mixed
with the products of the reaction. Because such reactions are quite common, a method using them to make
predictions would be an advantage. The profitability of an important industrial process costing millions of
dollars to research and develop could depend on such calculations.
Strictly speaking, all chemical reactions are equilibrium reactions. However, in many cases the degree of
backward reaction (that is, products re-forming reactants) is so small that it can effectively be ignored.
Equilibrium reactions are also called reversible reactions, as opposed to irreversible reactions. Their
equations show a double arrow (⇌) rather than a single arrow (→). An example of an irreversible reaction
is the combustion of fuel. When a fuel burns to produce carbon dioxide and water, these products do not
react with each other to re-form the fuel.
Equilibrium reactions can be classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous, depending on the physical
states of the substances involved. If these states are all the same, it is called a homogeneous equilibrium.
If they are different, it is heterogeneous, and are discussed in greater detail in section 6.3.1.
• Reversible reactions are equilibrium reactions where reactants re-form into products
to a significant extent. The yield of the products is always less than the stoichiometric
prediction.
• Irreversible reactions occur only in the forward direction; reactants do not re-form
from products.
6.2.2 The distinction between rate and extent of a reaction

It is important that the terms ‘rate’ and ‘extent of a reaction’ are not confused. The rate of a reaction
is simply an indication of how fast it occurs. This shows how long it takes to establish the position of
equilibrium. The extent of a reaction describes the degree to which reactants are converted into products.
This can also be thought of as the ‘position’ of equilibrium or ‘how far to the right’ (with respect to the
equation) it is situated. This degree of conversion may be quantified by reference to the equilibrium
constant, Kc , for the reaction concerned (see section 6.4.1 for more on the determination and use of Kc
values). A high value for Kc indicates a significant conversion of reactants into products, and such a reaction
would be described as having occurred to a significant extent. A low value indicates the opposite — that
the reaction has occurred only to a small extent and there has been only a small amount of conversion of
reactants into products.
It is possible to have slow reactions occur to a great extent as well as other combinations between rate
and extent. An explosion, for example, can be described as a fast reaction that occurs to a large extent,
whereas it is possible to have equilibrium reactions that occur at moderate rates and to moderate extents.

A catalyst has no effect on the degree of conversion of reactants into products (the position of
equilibrium). A catalyst affects the rate of the forward reaction and the rate of the backward reaction
equally. It merely alters the time taken to get to equilibrium, not the position of it.
• The rate of reaction is an indication of how fast a reaction proceeds.

• The extent of a reaction is the degree to which reactants are converted into products
and describes the equilibrium position.
• Catalysts alter the rate of reactions but not their extent. They do not alter the
equilibrium position.
6.2 EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between a reversible reaction and an irreversible reaction?
2. What is the difference between the rate of a reaction and the extent of a reaction?
3. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes to water and oxygen. The extent of this reaction is large. Explain why
bottles of hydrogen peroxide may be kept for long periods of time but eventually need to be replaced.
Questions 4 and 5 refer to the following information.
A student decides to investigate three different reversible reactions as a prelude to her practical
investigation. Each of these is set up during the same lesson and then observed again during her next
lesson the next day.
Her initial purpose is to attempt a classification of each reaction according to the following table.
Extent
Small Large
Slow Type 1 Type 2

Rate
Fast Type 3 Type 4
Upon her return the following day, she observes the following:
• Reaction I: Large amount of product. No detectable reactants.
• Reaction II: No apparent change. No detectable products.
• Reaction III: A mixture of reactants and products is observed.
4. Attempt to classify each of the reactions according to the table. Note that there may be more than one
classification for each reaction.
5. For those reactions with multiple classifications, suggest a possible follow up experiment that might be able
to distinguish them.

6.3 Homogenous equilibria

KEY CONCEPT
• Homogenous equilibria involving aqueous solutions or gases with reference to collision theory and
representation by balanced chemical or thermochemical equations (including states) and by
concentration–time graphs

6.3.1 Homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions
Chemical reactions may be classified in a number of ways, and the chosen classification often depends on
the context in which the reaction is being studied. One simple classification is based on the physical states
(or phases) of the reagents involved. In a homogenous reaction, the reaction occurs entirely within the
same physical state. The most common examples of such reactions occur either in the gaseous phase or in
solution. A homogeneous equilibrium is one in which all the species in the equilibrium mixture are all in
the same physical state. A heterogeneous reaction is one that occurs at a boundary or interface between
two different physical states. An obvious example of a heterogeneous reaction is a solid reacting with either
a liquid or gas. Heterogeneous reactions can also occur between liquids that are immiscible, thus forming a
boundary when they are mixed together.
6.3.2 The dynamic nature of equilibrium

Although it is tempting to think that the reaction has stopped when it reaches equilibrium, further
investigation reveals that this is not so. Instead, the forward and reverse reactions are still occurring, but
at the same rate. The reagents in the reaction are thus being formed and used at the same rate, with their
concentrations showing no overall change. Equalibrium is dynamic, not static.
Experiments involving the use of radioactive tracers may be used to verify the dynamic nature of the
equilibrium state. For example, if the hydrogen iodide system in section 6.2.1 is heated and allowed to
come to equilibrium, it is possible to remove some of the iodine and replace it with the same amount of
radioactive iodine — iodine containing the 131 I isotope. As isotopes are chemically identical, such a change
would have no effect on the chemical nature of the equilibrium. If the system is examined again some
time later, the radioactive iodine is found to be distributed between the hydrogen iodide and the iodine
molecules. This can be explained only if the forward and reverse reactions are still proceeding.
During dynamic equilibrium the forward and reverse reactions are still occurring, but at
the same rate. The reaction does not stop.
There are many different ways that a reaction can work itself towards equilibrium. The scenario that most
people would think of first is when the reactants are mixed together. In this situation, concentration effects
dictate that the initial rate of the forward reaction would be considerably greater than the initial rate of the
backward reaction. However, as the reaction proceeds, concentrations change — reactant concentrations
drop, while product concentrations rise. This means that the rate of the forward reaction decreases, while
the rate of the backward reaction increases. These changes will occur until the two reaction rates are equal.
The reaction will now be at equilibrium. However, another scenario might be when products are mixed
together, of the two reactions that occur, the backward reaction will initially be faster than the forward
reaction. However, concentration changes will once again affect these rates until they are both equal and
the reaction attains equilibrium.
In between these two extremes there are an infinite number of possible starting conditions for an
equilibrium reaction. In each case it will be how the initial rate of the forward reaction compares
with the initial rate of the backward reaction that determines how the reaction ultimately reaches its
equilibrium state.
Resources
Video eLesson Dynamic equilibrium and concentrations of products and reactants (med-0426)
6.3.3 Dynamic equilibrium and collision theory

As a reaction proceeds towards equilibrium, there are collisions between reactant particles and collisions
between product particles. Some of these collisions have enough energy to overcome their respective

activation energies and so form either more products or re-form more reactants. As the concentrations
of the reactants and products rise and fall because of this, there will come a point where the number of
successful collisions going in one direction is balanced by the number of successful collisions in the
opposite direction. In other words, the rates of these opposing reactions will be equal and the reaction will
be at equilibrium.
6.3.4 Representing chemical equilibria

Chemical equilibria can be represented using balanced chemical and thermochemical equations, and
using graphs.
Using balanced chemical and thermochemical equations
Balanced chemical and thermochemical equations can be used to summarise equilibrium reactions in the same
way as for the reactions you have met previously in this course. The main difference is that double arrows
(⇌) are used to emphasise that the reaction is reversible. As the position of an equilibrium is affected by
temperature differently for exothermic and endothermic reactions, thermochemical equations convey slightly
more information about a reversible or equilibrium reaction than do equations without a ∆H value.
Because a reversible reaction involves both forward and reverse reactions, it is just as valid to write the
equation the opposite way around. For example, the equations
2HI(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)

H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
both refer to the same equilibrium reaction.

This has the potential to produce confusion when discussing forward and reverse reactions. To overcome
this, the accepted procedure is to write the equation either way. It is then understood that any subsequent
discussion of reactants, products, forward, reverse reactions, Kc , etc refers to the equation as it has been
written.
Graphical representations
Using graphs of equilibrium situations can be a very informative way to summarise and understand an
equilibrium reaction, as well as produce a deeper understanding of what is happening in such situations.
Two types of graphs are frequently used:
• rate versus time graphs
• concentration versus time graphs.
To illustrate these, consider a situation where substance A is added to a container and allowed to come to
equilibrium with products B and C at constant temperature, according to the equation:
A(g) ⇌ B(g) + 2C(g)
As discussed in topic 5, the rate of a reaction

FIGURE 6.4 An example of a rate versus time graph
depends on concentration. As substance A is used
up, its concentration drops and so does the rate of the
forward reaction. Conversely, as the concentrations
of substances B and C increase, so too does the rate forward
of the backward reaction. A general rate versus time reaction
Rate
graph, as shown in figure 6.4, illustrates this. There

will be a net forward reaction until time t, when the
two rates become equal and equilibrium is established. backward
reaction
Thereafter, there will be no change in these rates
as the net concentrations of reactants and products
remain constant. t
Time

This equilibrium could just as easily be produced by
FIGURE 6.5 An example of a concentration
mixing substances B and C together and allowing a versus time graph
net backward reaction to produce equilibrium. In this
case, the graph would show a decreasing rate for the
backward reaction and an increasing rate for the forward
Concentration (M)
reaction until equilibrium is once again established.
It is also possible to represent this scenario using A
concentration versus time graphs. In the first scenario C
above (forward reaction), such a graph might appear
as shown in figure 6.5. Here, the final concentrations B
of substances A, B and C depend on their initial
concentrations, the stoichiometry in the equation and
the value of the equilibrium constant (i.e. the degree of t
conversion). Time
The concentrations of the substances involved in
figure 6.5 increase or decrease depending on whether they are produced or consumed. They also change
by amounts that reflect the stoichiometry of the reaction. In this example, substance A decreases by the
same amount that substance B increases, which can be seen by the 1:1 ratio between them in the equation.
Substance C increases by twice the amount that substance B does, shown by the 2:1 ratio involved.
If this reaction had a catalyst added to it, the only change to this graph would be that time, t, would be
lower. In other words, equilibrium would be attained faster. However, the final concentrations of substances
A, B and C would not be altered.
Concentration–time graphs are very useful when considering changes made to a reaction once it has
reached equilibrium. This is discussed further in section 6.6.2.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The following graph shows the reversible reaction for
2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2 O4 (g)
Use this graph to answer the following questions.
Concentration
NO2
N2O4
t1 t2
Time
a. How does the concentration of NO2 at t1 compare to t2 ?

b. Describe what is happening to the NO2 using the information in the graph.
c. What is the significance of the flattening out of the NO2 graph at the same time as the flattening
out of the N2 O4 graph?

THINK WRITE
a. This is a concentration–time graph. Horizontal a. The concentration of NO2 at t1 will be
sections mean that the species is at its equilibrium equal to its concentration at t2 .
concentration and will not alter further unless a
change is made. Here NO2 is at equilibrium.
b. The graph indicates that NO2 is decreasing (but at b. NO2 is decreasing but at an ever
an ever slower rate) while N2 O4 is increasing slower rate until the reaction reaches
(indicating an ever faster rate). This is due to the equilibrium. After this its value stays
dynamic nature of equilibrium. The changes will constant. This happens because a
occur until the two rates equalise at equilibrium. competing backward reaction that
reforms NO2 gradually gets faster,
which reduces the rate at which NO2
drops. Eventually the rates of the two
reactions equalise and the reaction is
at equilibrium. After this there will be
no further concentration changes.
c. Equilibrium always occurs at a point in time when c. Equilibrium has been attained. This
the two rates first become equal. This cannot occurs when the two rates first
happen at different times otherwise concentration become equal, resulting in no net
changes would still occur. change to concentrations thereafter.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Answer the following questions with reference to the same reaction and graph for sample problem 1
a. How does the concentration of N2 O4 at t1 compare to t2 ?
b. Explain what is happening to the N2 O4 in the light of the information in the graph.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 6.1 Modelling an equilibrium (doc-31261)
6.3 EXERCISE
1. Explain what is meant by the phrase ‘the dynamic nature of equilibrium’.
2. Using radioactive tracers (small amounts of radioactive isotopes), it is possible to demonstrate the dynamic
nature of equilibrium. Describe how such an experiment may be performed, choosing a specific example to
illustrate your answer.
3. When molecular iodine is mixed with iodide ions, an equilibrium is set up as triiodide ions are produced. The
equation for this process is:
I2 (aq) + I− (aq) ⇌ I−
3 (aq)

Suppose that, once this equilibrium is established, some iodine is removed and replaced by exactly the
same amount of radioactive iodine.
If this reaction is examined sometime later, describe the expected observations if
(a) equilibrium is static.
(b) equilibrium is dynamic.
4. When hydrogen iodide is placed in a sealed container and heated, it begins to decompose into its
constituent elements according to the equation
2HI(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)
Comment on the comparative rates of the forward and reverse reactions at the following stages.
(a) Just after the reaction has started
(b) As the reaction is approaching equilibrium
(c) When the reaction reaches equilibrium
(d) After the reaction has reached equilibrium
Question 5 refers to the following concentration–time graph for the equilibrium reaction represented by the
equation
2X(g) + Y(g) ⇌ 3Z(g)
3.0
Z
Concentration
2.0
1.0 Y
0
15 30 45 60
Time (seconds)
5. (a) Describe the appearance of this graph if it was extended to the 120 second mark.
(b) Explain the changes in the concentration of Z in comparison to the changes in concentrations
of X and Y.
(c) At time zero, describe the initial constitution of the reaction mixture and what subsequently happens in
terms of reaction rates.
6. In terms of collision theory, explain why one reaction always slows down while the other always speeds up
when a reaction is progressing towards equilibrium.


6.4 Calculations involving equilibrium systems
KEY CONCEPT
• Calculations involving equilibrium expressions and equilibrium constants (Kc only) for a closed
homogeneous equilibrium system including dependence of value of equilibrium constant, and its units, on
the equation used to represent the reaction and on the temperature
6.4.1 The equilibrium law and Kc values

Every reaction, given enough time, reaches a point at which the composition of the reaction mixture no
longer changes and the system is said to be at equilibrium. If the concentrations of the substances present
are measured at this stage, a large amount of seemingly unrelated data may be obtained. However, on closer
analysis, a surprising result emerges.
Recall the hydrogen iodide reaction from section 6.2.1.
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
Table 6.1 shows the results of experiments where different initial amounts of the three substances
involved were mixed and heated, and enough time allowed for equilibrium to be reached. The resulting
equilibrium concentrations were then measured. Table 6.2 shows a similar set of results for the synthesis
of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen.
The right-hand column in both tables shows that it is possible to write a concentration fraction involving
the equilibrium concentrations that has a constant value. A closer inspection of this fraction reveals that its
form is closely related to the equation for the reaction. The numerator of the fraction contains the products
and the denominator contains the reactants. The coefficients from the chemical equation become indices
to their respective concentrations in this fraction. This is the equilibrium law. The value of this fraction at
equilibrium is called the equilibrium constant, which is often assigned the symbol Kc .
Note that square brackets are used to denote concentration measured in M (or mol L1 ).
TABLE 6.1 Data for the reaction H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g) (at 458 ºC)
[ ]
Equilibrium amounts HI 2
Kc = [ ][ ]
[H2 ] (M) [l2 ] (M) [Hl] (M) H 2 I2
0.002 484 0.002 514 0.016 95 46.0

⎫
⎪
0.002 636 0.002 305 0.016 64 45.7 ⎪
(i)
0.004 173 0.001 185 0.014 94 45.1 ⎬
⎪
⎪
0.003 716 0.001 478 0.015 76 45.2 ⎭
0.002 594 0.002 597 0.017 63 46.3
⎫
⎪
0.001 894 0.001 896 0.012 83 45.9 ⎪
(ii)
0.001 971 0.001 981 0.013 42 46.1 ⎬
⎪
⎪
0.002 413 0.002 424 0.016 41 46.0 ⎭
(i) Equilibrium established by combination of hydrogen and iodine

(ii) Equilibrium established by decomposition of hydrogen iodide

TABLE 6.2 Data for the reaction N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
[ ]
Equilibrium amounts NH3 2
K c = [ ] [ ]3
Run [N2 ] (M) [H2 ] (M) [NH3 ] (M) N2 H2
1 0.0011 0.0011 2.73 × 10−7 0.051

−6
2 0.0025 0.0055 4.58 × 10 0.050
3 0.55 0.65 0.0886 0.052
4 0.25 0.75 0.074 0.052
For the general reaction:
aA + bB + cC + dD + …⇌ zZ + yY + xX + …
the equilibrium constant is:
[Z]z [Y]y [X]x …

Kc =
[A]a [B]b [C]c [D]d …
The value of the equilibrium constant can be used to indicate the extent of the reaction.
• If the value is large (Kc > 104 ), we can predict that there has been a significant conversion of reactants
into products by the time that equilibrium was reached.
• If the value is between Kc = 104 and Kc = 10−4 we can predict the extent of the reaction is moderate
with concentrations of both products and reactants present at equilibrium.
• If the value is small (Kc < 10−4 ) we can predict that not much conversion has occurred, and the
position of equilibrium favours the back reaction.
When describing an equilibrium qualitatively, the phrase ‘position of equilibrium’ is often used. If
the value of the equilibrium constant is small, the equilibrium is said to lie to the left. If the value of the
equilibrium constant is large, the equilibrium is said to lie to the right. Left and right refer to the equation as
it has been written and used to evaluate Kc .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Write the Kc expression for the following reaction.
2CH3 OH(g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2CH2 O(g) + 2H2 O(g)
THINK WRITE
[CH2 O]2 [H2 O]2
The Kc expression is a fraction related to the equation. The Kc = [ ]
products form the numerator and the reactants form the [CH3 OH]2 O2
denominator. The co-efficients become indices to their respective
concentrations. Use square brackets to denote concentrations.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Write the Kc expression for the following reaction.
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
At 250 °C, phosphorus(V) chloride decomposes to phosphorus(III) chloride plus chlorine,
according to the following equation:
PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
In a particular investigation, a quantity of PCl5 was heated in a 12.0 L reaction vessel to
250 °C and allowed to reach equilibrium. Subsequent analysis revealed that 0.210 mol of PCl5 ,
0.320 mol of PCl3 and 0.320 mol of Cl2 were present. Calculate the value of the equilibrium
constant.
THINK WRITE
[PCl3 ][Cl2 ]
1. Write the equilibrium expression. Kc =
[PCl5 ]
0.320
2. Calculate the equilibrium concentrations for [PCl3 ] =
n 12.0
each substance recalling that c =
V = 0.0267 M
TIP: A variation of this formula can be found in 0.320
[Cl2 ] =
table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book. 12.0
= 0.0267 M
0.210
[PCl5 ] =
12.0
= 0.0175 M
(0.0267)(0.0267)
3. Substitute these values to obtain Kc . Kc =
(0.0175)
= 0.0407
M×M
4. Work out the units. Units: =M
M
5. Give the answer to 3 significant figures. Kc = 0.0407 M
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Consider an equilibrium reaction that is represented by the equation:
3A(aq) + B(aq) ⇌ 2Y(aq) + Z(aq)
In a particular experiment, random amounts of the above substances were mixed and allowed to
come to equilibrium in 500 mL of solution. The amounts present at equilibrium were:
A: 0.351 mol Y: 0.632 mol
B: 0.18 mol Z: 1.21 mol
Use this information to calculate the value of the equilibrium constant.

Resources
Interactivity Matching equations and equilibrium constant expressions (int-1244)
6.4.2 A closer look at equilibrium constants

The equilibrium constant is affected by temperature, and its value may depend on how the reaction equation
is written, which also determines the units of the equilibrium constant. This means that the equilibrium
constant is not always constant. Putting it another way, a particular chemical reaction may have an
equilibrium constant with different values and different units, depending on how its equation is written and
the temperature at which the reaction occurs. To illustrate these points, consider the data in table 6.3 for the
dissociation of dinitrogen tetroxide gas, N2 O4 , into nitrogen dioxide gas, NO2 , at a constant temperature.
TABLE 6.3 Equilibrium data for the reaction N2 O4 ⇌ 2NO2
Experiment number [N2 O4 ] (M) [NO2 ] (M)
1 0.127 0.150
2 0.253 0.216
3 0.364 0.255
4 0.492 0.293
5 0.645 0.338
Case 1:
The equation is written as N2 O4 (g) ⇌ 2NO2 (g), using data from experiment 1:
[NO2 ]2
Kc =
[N2 O4 ]
(0.150)2
=
0.127
= 0.177
M2
Units for Kc : =M
M
Case 2:
1
The equation is written as N2 O4 (g) ⇌ NO2 (g), using data from experiment 1:
2
[NO2 ]
Kc = 1
[N2 O4 ] 2
0.150
= 1
(0.127) 2
= 0.421
M 1
Units for Kc : 1
= M2
M2
Case 3:
Using the reverse reaction, 2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2 O4 (g), as there are two reactions involved in every equilibrium
reaction and using data from experiment 1.

[N2 O4 ]
Kc =
[NO2 ]2
0.127
=
(0.150)2
= 5.64
M −1
Units for Kc : =M
M2
These three cases show that the same reaction can have different equilibrium constants and different
units. Therefore, when discussing equilibrium constants, it is important to be clear about the equation being
used to represent the reaction.
A special situation is when an equation has the same number of total moles on each side, such as in the
hydrogen iodide reaction mentioned earlier:
2HI(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)
If we analyse the equilibrium expression for this reaction, all concentrations cancel out. The equilibrium
constant (Kc ) is therefore without units.
Temperature and the equilibrium constant
Equilibrium constants are also affected by temperature. However, in many situations, such as the
N2 O4 (g)/NO2 (g) equilibrium discussed previously, we deal with a situation at a particular temperature.
Therefore, when the equation is clearly written or understood, Kc is always constant. The effect of
temperature on the value of Kc is discussed further in section 6.6.2.
In summary, when dealing with equilibrium reactions and equilibrium constants, it is important that the
equation being used to represent the reaction is clearly understood. It is also assumed that, in the absence of
information to the contrary, temperature is constant.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
The reaction
2X(aq) ⇌ Y(aq) + 2Z(aq) (1)
has an equilibrium constant of 250 M at a particular temperature.
Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction
1
X(aq) ⇌ Y(aq) + Z(aq) (2)
2
THINK WRITE
[Y][Z]2
1. Write and examine the Kc expression for each Kc (1) =
equation. [X]2
1
[Y] 2 [Z] 1
2. Recognise that the desired value is the square root Kc (2) = = (Kc (1)) 2
of the given value. [X]

1
1 M2 M
3. Evaluate including units. Kc (2) = (250) 2
M
1
= 15.8 M 2
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
The reaction
2X(aq) ⇌ Y(aq) + 2Z(aq) (1)
has an equilibrium constant of 250 M at a particular temperature.

Calculate the equilibrium constant for the reaction
Y(aq) + 2Z(aq) ⇌ 2X(aq) (2)
6.4.3 Using stoichiometry in equilibrium law calculations

Equilibrium calculations can involve situations with more steps than the simple examples introduced in
section 6.4.2. Typical examples of these more complicated types of calculations include:
• situations where initial concentrations are given and only one of the equilibrium concentrations
• situations where an equilibrium constant is known and you are asked to calculate something about one
of the substances in the reaction. This may be a concentration, a mass or a variable relating to a gas.
The ICEBOX method uses stoichiometry in equilibrium calculations when one or more equilibrium
concentrations is not known. This involves setting up a table with row headings ‘I’ (initial), ‘C’ (change)
and ‘E’ (equilibrium). This table can be used when working with moles (which are then converted to
concentrations) or directly with concentrations as demonstrated in sample problem 5.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
In studying the reaction represented by the equation:
A(g) ⇌ 2Y(g) + Z(g)
a small amount of substance A was added to a reaction vessel, such that its initial concentration
was 1.0 M. When equilibrium was subsequently attained, the concentration of product Z was
measured and found to be 0.3 M.
Use this information to determine the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction.
THINK WRITE
1. Using stoichiometry, work out changes to
[A] ⇌ [2Y] + [Z]
concentration to determine equilibrium
values. Use the ICEBOX method with row
Initial amount 1 0 0
headings ‘I’ (initial), ‘C’ (change) and ‘E’
(equilibrium). Take care to distinguish Change in amount −0.3 +0.6 +0.3
between initial and equilibrium
concentrations. Equilibrium amount 0.7 0.6 0.3

[Y]2 [Z] M2 × M
2. Write the expression and substitute values to Kc = Units: = M2
determine Kc . [A] M
(0.6)2 (0.3)
Don’t forget units and significant figures. =
(0.7)
= 0.2 M2
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
For the reaction represented by:
B(aq) ⇌ W(aq) + X(aq)
initial concentrations of 2.0 M and 3.0 M were recorded for substances B and X respectively. After
allowing sufficient time for the reaction to reach equilibrium, the concentration of X had increased
to 3.5 M.
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
The equilibrium constant for the reaction represented by the equation:
2A(g) + 3B(g) ⇌ X(g) + 2Y(g)
is 300 M−2 . In a vessel of volume 4.00 L, equilibrium is established and the following
concentrations are determined:
[A] = 0.326 M [B] = 1.537 M [X] = 2.541 M
Calculate the number of moles of substance Y that were present at equilibrium.
THINK WRITE
[X][Y]2
1. Substitute all known information into the Kc Kc =
expression. [A]2 [B]3
TIP: Remember to check that equilibrium
concentrations (not initial concentrations)
are substituted into the equation.
(2.541)[Y]2
2. Transpose and evaluate to determine [Y]. 300 =
Don’t forget the square root. (0.326)2 (1.537)3
300 × (0.326)2 × (1.537)3
[Y]2 =
(2.541)
= 45.6
[Y] = 6.75 M
3. Determine the number of moles of Y by n=c×V
using n = c × V. n (Y) = 6.75 × 4.00
= 27.0 mol.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
The formation of ammonia gas is represented by the following equation:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ NH3 (g)
At a particular temperature, the equilibrium constant for this reaction is 0.052 M−2 .
In one particular investigation, it was established that the concentrations of N2 and H2 at
equilibrium were 0.55 M and 0.65 M respectively. Calculate the concentration of ammonia at
equilibrium.
Resources
Video eLesson Calculations involving initial and equilibrium concentrations (med-0428)
6.4.4 How can we tell if a reaction is at equilibrium?

In some cases, it can be unclear when a reaction is at equilibrium. If a reaction reaches equilibrium
quickly because its rate is fast, then it will soon become apparent that no further concentration changes are
occurring and that chemical equilibrium has been attained. However, if concentrations are changing slowly
in reactions that are slower, it may appear that the concentrations have become constant. To overcome this
problem, we use the idea of the reaction quotient, Q (also known as the concentration fraction).
Reaction quotient, Q, and the equilibrium constant, Kc

The equilibrium law generates an expression that can be called a ‘concentration fraction’. This is just a
fraction that involves concentrations, so it is possible to write a similar fraction at any other stage during
a reaction. When we do this, we often give it the symbol Q (for reaction quotient). It therefore follows that:
• if Q = Kc the reaction is at equilibrium.
• If the value of Q is different to the value of Kc , the reaction has yet to reach equilibrium.
• If Q > Kc a net backward reaction is occurring. The rate of the backward reaction is greater than the
rate of the forward reaction as this mixture moves towards equilibrium.
• If Q < Kc , a net forward reaction is occurring. The rate of the forward reaction is greater than the rate
of the backward reaction as this reaction seeks equilibrium.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
At 25 °C, the reaction
W(aq) + 2X(aq) ⇌ Y(aq)
has an equilibrium constant of 109 M2 . In an experimental trial of this reaction, the

concentrations of all species are measured and the following results obtained.
[W] = 0.13 M [X] = 0.092 M [Y] = 0.090 M
Is this reaction at equilibrium? If not, how does the rate of the forward reaction compare to the
rate of the backward reaction?
THINK WRITE
[Y]
1. Write the formula forQ. Q=
[W][X]2

(0.090)
2. Calculate Q by substituting the given Q=
concentrations. (0.13)(0.092)2
= 82 M−2
3. The value of Kc is given, Kc = 109 M2 . As Q < Kc there is a net forward reaction.
If Q < Kc a net forward reaction is occurring. The rate of the forward reaction is faster
If Q > Kc a net backward reaction is occurring. than the rate of the backward reaction.
If Q = Kc the reaction is at equilibrium.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
In another trial of the same reaction as in sample problem 7, the following concentrations were
obtained.
[W] = 0.14 M [X] = 0.085 M [Y] = 1.0 M.
Is this reaction at equilibrium? If not, how does the rate of the forward reaction compare to the
rate of the backward reaction?
6.4 EXERCISE
1. It has been estimated that the reaction between methane and oxygen represented by the equation:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g)
has an equilibrium constant of 10140 at room temperature.

(a) What does this value suggest about the extent of this reaction?
(b) Do you think the use of the ⇌ arrow is justified?
2. (a) Write an expression for the equilibrium constant for each of the following equations.
i. Cl2 (g) + 3F2 (g) ⇌ 2ClF3 (g)
ii. N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO(g)
iii. 4HCl(g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2H2 O(g) + 2Cl2 (g)
iv. 2COF2 (g) ⇌ CF4 (g) + CO2 (g)
v. P4 (g) + 10F2 (g) ⇌ 4PF5 (g)
(b) For each of the reactions shown in part (a), state the units for Kc .
3. A reaction has an equilibrium expression of:
[C][D]2
Kc =
[A]2 [B]
What is the equation for this reaction?

4. When COF2 is held at 1000 o C, the following equilibrium occurs.
2COF2 (g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + CF4 (g)
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant, given the following equilibrium data.
[COF2 ] = 0.024 M
[CO2 ] = [CF4 ] = 0.048 M
5. Consider the following information for the reaction
W(aq) + 2X(aq) ⇌ 3Y(aq) + Z(aq)
This reaction is carried out in a 250 mL beaker.

At equilibrium, the respective concentrations of W, X and Y are 1.24 M, 0.56 M and 0.85 M.
The molar mass of Z is 56.5 g mol−1 .
The equilibrium constant for this reaction at the temperature of the investigation is 1.89 M2 .
(a) Calculate the mass of Z that is present.
(b) If the equation is rewritten as follows, calculate the equilibrium constant.
2W(aq) + 4X(aq) ⇌ 6Y(aq) + 2Z(aq)
6. The equilibrium represented by the equation
H2 (g) + CO2 (g) ⇌ H2 O(g) + CO(g)
has a Kc value of 1.62 at 985 o C.

(a) What is the value of Kc for the reaction
H2 O(g) + CO(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + CO2 (g)
(b) What is the value of Kc for the reaction
2H2 (g) + 2CO2 (g) ⇌ 2H2 O(g) + 2CO(g)
7. In a reaction specified by the equation:
A(g) ⇌ 2B(g) + C(g)
3.5 mol of substance A is initially introduced into a 500 mL reaction vessel and allowed to reach
equilibrium. At this stage, its concentration was found to be 2.0 M. Calculate the value of the equilibrium
constant for this reaction.
8. An equilibrium reaction is represented by the following equation:
W(aq) + 2X(aq) ⇌ 2Y(aq) + Z(aq)
The magnitude of the equilibrium constant at a particular temperature is 6.3.

(a) What are the units of the equilibrium constant?
(b) Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for the reaction:
2Y(aq) + Z(aq) ⇌ W(aq) + 2X(aq)
9. The reaction represented by the equation:

A + 2B ⇌ C + D
was investigated by mixing various amounts of these four substances. After a period of time, the
concentration of each species was measured. This procedure was repeated a number of times to give the
results shown in the following table.
Experiment [A] [B] [C] [D]
1 1.7 1.2 2.5 2.8
2 1.4 0.9 2.3 2.7
3 1.6 1.1 2.3 2.4
4 1.5 0.9 2.6 2.8
5 1.4 1.0 2.5 2.7
At the temperature of this experiment, it is known that the value of the equilibrium constant is 6.0.
In which of the above experiments was the reaction mixture at equilibrium when it was analysed?


6.5 Measuring the efficiency of a reaction or process

Background knowledge
• The yield of a chemical reaction
6.5.1 Percentage yield

There are many situations in chemistry where we want to know how much reactant has been converted into
product. Chemists use the concept of reaction yield to express this idea in quantitative terms. The yield of a
reaction is often quoted as a percentage and is defined as follows.
actual yield 100

% yield = ×
theoretical yield 1
The equilibrium reactions we have been studying in this topic are examples of reactions that display
yields of less than 100%, that is, the actual mass obtained is less than the theoretical or predicted maximum
mass. However, there are often additional reasons why a given reaction does not achieve a 100% yield.
Some of these may be practical (to do with the method by which the chemical is made), or may involve a
very slow reaction that has not been given enough time to either reach equilibrium or go to completion. This
is an important consideration in equilibrium work and in the design of large-scale manufacturing techniques
for chemicals produced from equilibrium reactions.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
A student is collecting silver chloride produced from a reaction between sodium chloride and
silver nitrate. Using the starting amounts of each chemical, he uses stoichiometry to calculate that
2.197 g should be produced. Upon collection and weighing, the silver chloride produced is found
to have a mass of 1.112 g. Calculate the percentage yield obtained.
THINK WRITE
actual yield 100
1. Recall the formula for calculation of % yield = ×
percentage yield. theoretical yield 1
TIP: The % yield formula can be found in
table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.

1.112
2. Substitute given values into the formula % yield = × 100
and calculate. 2.197
Don’t forget significant figures. = 50.61%
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
A student is collecting silver chloride produced from a reaction between sodium chloride and silver
nitrate. Using the starting amounts of each chemical, she uses stoichiometry to calculate that 2.356 g
should be produced. Upon collection and weighing, the silver chloride produced is found to have a
mass of 1.476 g. Calculate the percentage yield obtained.
6.5.2 Green chemistry and atom economy

The chemical industry has traditionally focused on getting the best yields from the chemical synthesis of
products — that is, getting the most products. A lesser focus has been on the impact of chemical processes
on the environment and their long-term viability. Although getting high yields is important, there are other
issues that need to be addressed in the production of chemicals for a sustainable future, including:
• high atom efficiency
• minimising the number of steps in the production
• ensuring safer, simpler and energy efficient processes
• reducing the amount of wastes produced
• using renewable and recyclable resources.
Green chemists think that it is necessary to change from secondary prevention (costly cleaning up of
wastes after they have been generated) to primary prevention (the development of manufacturing processes
that are essentially non-polluting). This process of clean production not only targets the elimination of
pollution, it also aims to encourage profitable manufacturing with more efficient use of raw materials
and energy.
Because green chemistry not only aims to maximize the yield but also to reduce waste, the concept
of atom economy is a used. This is a very useful concept when planning or reviewing a process. Atom
economy is expressed as a percentage, according to the following formula:
molar mass of desired product 100

% atom economy = ×
molar mass of all reactants 1
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
A postgraduate student is examining whether it would be possible to remove carbon dioxide from
the air by a process of reverse fermentation to produce glucose. The equation for such a process
would be:
2CH3 CH2 OH(aq) + 2CO2 (aq) → C6 H12 O6 (aq)

Calculate the % atom economy of this potential process.

THINK WRITE
1. Recall the formula for the % atom economy = ×
calculation of % atom economy. molar mass of all reactants 1
TIP: The % atom economy formula
can be found in table 3 of the VCE
Chemistry Data Book.
2. Calculate molar masses for the M(C6 H12 O6 ) = 180.0 g mol−1
desired product and for all M(CH3 CH2 OH) = 46.0 g mol−1
reactants. M(CO2 ) = 44.0 g mol−1
180.0 100
3. Substitute into the formula and % atom economy = ×
calculate the answer. Make sure that (2 × 46.0) + (2 × 44.0) 1
the stoichiometry of the equation is = 100%
taken into account.
Note: A consequence of this formula is that if the desired product is the only product, the figure will
always be 100%, because all the reactant atoms are used to make the product and none end up in a waste
or by-product.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
Calculate the % atom economy of the fermentation of glucose to ethanol. The equation for this
process is:
C6 H12 O6 (aq) → 2CH3 CH2 OH(aq) + 2CO2 (aq)
6.5 EXERCISE
1. Calculate the percentage yield of a reaction that produces 34.5 tonne of product out of a theoretical
maximum of 40.0 tonne.
2. Hydrogen can be made by reacting methane with steam.
CH4 (g) + H2 O(g) → 3H2 (g) + CO(g)
(a) Calculate the % atom economy for making hydrogen using this process.
(b) If a use for all of the carbon monoxide produced is found, what would the % atom economy now be?
Explain.
3. The production of quicklime (CaO) takes place when calcium carbonate is heated to a high temperature.
Carbon dioxide is also produced. If this occurs in an open system so that the carbon dioxide can escape,
the reaction essentially goes to completion.
If 100.1 g of calcium carbonate produces 50.3 g of quicklime, calculate the percentage yield. The
equation for this reaction is:
CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)

6.6 Le Châtelier’s principle
KEY CONCEPT
• Le Châtelier’s principle: identification of factors that favour the yield of a chemical reaction, representation
of equilibrium system changes using concentration-time graphs and applications, including competing
equilibria involved in the occurrence and treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning resulting from
incomplete combustion of fuels
6.6.1 Making changes to equilibrium mixtures

An important consequence of the equilibrium law is that it is possible for every equilibrium mixture
belonging to a particular reaction to be different. This is because the whole equilibrium expression is
constant, while individual concentrations within this expression may vary quite considerably from one
equilibrium situation to another. However, so long as the value of the whole expression is equal to the value
of the equilibrium constant, a mixture will be at equilibrium.
This property can be put to use in the manufacture of some important chemicals. It is often possible
to make these economically, despite the fact that the reactions from which they are formed have low
equilibrium constants. By altering the concentrations of the other species involved in the equilibrium
expression, it is often possible to maximise the production of the desired product, thereby increasing
its yield.
To see how changes made to an equilibrium mixture affect its components, we often make use of an
important predictive tool — Le Châtelier’s principle.
6.6.2 Introduction to Le Châtelier’s principle
Le Châtelier’s principle
Any change that affects the position of an equilibrium causes that equilibrium to shift, if
possible, in such a way as to partially oppose the effect of that change.
Using this, we can make predictions about what will happen if we disturb a system that is at equilibrium.
There are three common ways in which a system at equilibrium might be disturbed:
• by adding or removing a substance that is involved in the equilibrium
• by changing the volume (at constant temperature)
• by changing the temperature.
We will now consider the effect of each of these in turn.

6.6.3 Adding or removing a substance that is involved in the reaction
Consider the reaction between carbon monoxide and water vapour to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
CO(g) + H2 O(g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)
If extra water vapour is added to this system once

it has attained equilibrium, the equilibrium will be
FIGURE 6.6 An example of a concentration–time
disturbed. According to Le Châtelier’s principle, the
graph where a substance has been added to the
system will then react by trying to use up some of equilibrium mixture
this extra water vapour in its efforts to get back to
a new equilibrium position. The only way that this
can be done is by causing some of the reactants to
be transformed into products. Thus, more CO2 and CO
Concentration (M)
H2 will be made as a result of consuming CO and CO2
H2 O. Although all the amounts, and hence all the
concentrations, involved will now be different from
H2O
their original values, the value of the equilibrium
constant will remain unchanged (the same value as H2
before the water vapour was added).
Changes like this, where a substance has
been added or removed, can be identified from t1 t2 t3
concentration–time graphs by a sudden spike Time
or dip in only one of the substances involved. A
concentration–time graph for this situation is shown in figure 6.6.
• Time t1 represents the time when equilibrium was first reached.
• Time t2 is when the extra water vapour was added.
• Time t3 is when equilibrium is re-established. The equilibrium may be described as having been
shifted to the right (the forward reaction is favoured).
A more informative way to describe these changes is in terms of reaction rates. At the first equilibrium,
the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal. On addition of the water vapour, the forward
reaction becomes faster than the backward one for some time. However, as more products are made, the
two rates eventually become equal again and equilibrium is re-established.
When considering these reactions, the method of addition (continuous supply) or removal (ducting gas
away) may be physical, or it may be achieved by chemical means. Regardless of the method, the system
always tries to oppose us in its efforts to re-attain equilibrium. However, it should be noted that equilibrium
is only disturbed if products and/or reactants are added or removed. If an inert gas is added to the system, it
will have no effect on the reaction.
USING LE CHÂTELIER’S PRINCIPLE TO DISSOLVE AN INSOLUBLE SALT

Le Châtelier’s principle may be used to dissolve an otherwise insoluble salt. Silver chloride is only sparingly
soluble in water. In other words, the equilibrium constant for the reaction:
−
AgCl(s) ⇌ Ag+ (aq) + Cl (aq)
is very low (Ks = 1.8 × 10−10 ). This is an example of a heterogeneous equilibrium. In these cases, the
equilibrium constant is usually denoted by Ks , a special type of Kc value.
However, if a chemical is added to remove the Ag+ ions, this reaction responds by trying to replace them.
To do this, more AgCl(s) has to dissolve. If enough of the Ag+ ions are removed, it is possible that all the silver
chloride would dissolve. A suitable chemical for the removal of Ag+ ions is ammonia, NH3 . Ammonia achieves
this by forming a complex ion according to the reaction:
Ag+ (aq) + 2NH3 (aq) ⇌ Ag (NH3 )+
2
(aq)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 10
Predict the effect of adding carbon dioxide on the position of the equilibrium for the reaction:
CO(g) + H2 O(g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)
THINK WRITE
Recall that Le Châtelier’s principle predicts that Product has been added so there will
adding a substance involved in the equilibrium will be a net backward reaction until the
lead to its partial removal. reaction is once again at equilibrium.
In this case, the reaction will respond by removing Note: Other answers are possible.
some of the added CO2 . The equilibrium will
therefore shift to the left, i.e. there will be a net
backward reaction until the reaction is once again at
equilibrium
PRACTICE PROBLEM 10
Predict the effect of removing hydrogen on the position of the equilibrium for the reaction:
CO(g) + H2 O(g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)
Resources
Interactivity Le Châtelier’s principle (int-1246)
Digital document Experiment 6.2 Investigating changes to the position of an equilibrium (doc-31262)
Teacher-lead video Experiment 6.2 Investigating changes to the position of an equilibrium (tlvd-0747)
USING CHEMISTRY: HOW TO HIDE A COUPLE OF NOBEL MEDALLIONS

A Nobel Prize is one of the highest awards that a scientist can achieve.
The award consists of a pure gold medallion engraved with the winner’s FIGURE 6.7 The prestigious
name, a diploma and a considerable sum of money. While a medallion Nobel medallion
would normally be a prize possession, there was a time in the past
when it could have been a threat to one’s life. Such a situation occurred
in Europe during World War II as Nazi Germany invaded much of
Europe.
As the Nazis rose to power in the 1930s, two German Nobel
laureates and opponents of the regime, Max von Laue and James
Franck, sent their medals to the famous physicist Niels Bohr in
Copenhagen, Denmark, for safe keeping. The exporting of gold from
Germany at this time was strictly forbidden and the two would have
faced harsh penalties if they were discovered. When the Germans
invaded Denmark in 1940, the discovery of the two medallions might
have proven a death sentence for those involved. An associate of Niels
Bohr, the chemist George de Hevesy, came to the rescue with a clever
application of Le Châtelier’s principle.

Gold is a famously unreactive metal. One of the few things that it
will react with is a mixture called aqua regia, which is a mixture of FIGURE 6.8 A stamp of
concentrated hydrochloric and nitric acids. By themselves, neither of George de Hevesy (1885-1966),
these two acids reacts with gold but together they are able to slowly who co-discovered Hafnium
dissolve it. De Hevesy famously dissolved the medallions belonging to and invented the technique of
von Laue and Franck in this way, producing a beaker containing a bright using radioactive tracers, for
orange solution, which he placed on a high shelf in his laboratory among which he was awarded a Nobel
bottles of other chemicals. De Hevesy escaped to Sweden in 1943 when Prize
the Nazis moved to ransack the laboratory and looking for evidence
of wrongdoing. When he returned after the war, he found the beaker
untouched, exactly as he had left it. He was then able to precipitate
out the gold using some simple chemistry. This was then returned to
Sweden where it was cast into new medallions and re-presented to the
two original recipients.
The mechanism by which aqua regia dissolves gold is another example
involving Le Châtelier’s principle.
The first step is a redox reaction between nitrate ions and the gold. This
reaction is very slight (the value of its equilibrium constant is very low)
and would not normally be noticed.
−
Au(s) + 3NO3 (aq) + 6H+ (aq) ⇌ Au3+ (aq) + 3NO2 (g) + 3H2 O(I)
The small number of Au3+ ions formed then react almost completely
with Cl− ions according to the equation
− −
Au3+ (aq) + 4Cl (aq) → AuCl4 (aq)
This means that Au3+ ions are removed from the first equilibrium
reaction. According to Le Châtelier’s principle, there will now be a net
FIGURE 6.9 Gold dissolved in
forward reaction to replace them resulting in more gold atoms being
aqua regia produces a bright
dissolved. If an excess of aqua regia is present, this process will continue
orange solution.
until all the gold is dissolved.
Explaining Le Châtelier’s principle mathematically

Consider the reaction that is represented by the equation:
3A(aq) + 2B(aq) ⇌ C(aq) + 2D(aq)
Suppose that some extra substance A is added to the equilibrium mixture, and that we wish to predict the
effect on substance D.
For this reaction we can write two expressions:
[C][D]2 [C][D]2
Q= and Kc =
[A]3 [B]2 [A]3 [B]2

where the concentrations for the equilibrium constant, Kc , are equilibrium concentrations but the
concentrations for the reaction quotient, Q, can be at any stage during the reaction. If Q = Kc , equilibrium
has been established.
Immediately after the addition of substance A, the value of Q is decreased, making Q less than Kc .
Therefore, the reaction is no longer at equilibrium, and the value of Q must increase for equilibrium to
be re-established. There needs to be a higher concentration of products and a lower concentration of
reactants. This can be achieved by a net forward reaction — the rate of the forward reaction becomes
greater than the rate of the backward reaction, and the equilibrium therefore shifts to the right. Essentially,
[products]
Kc = . Thus, if Q < Kc , [reactants] > [products] and [products] must increase to re-establish
[reactants]
equilibrium. This means a net forward reaction.
This is exactly what is predicted by Le Châtelier’s principle. After the sudden increase in substance A,
some of it is used by the net forward reaction predicted. The effect of changing volume can be predicted in
the same way.
6.6.4 The effect of changing volume

When considering changes in volume (at constant temperature), it is important to think of the effect on
the total concentration of all the species present. Le Châtelier’s principle can then be interpreted in terms
of how the system changes the total number of particles present to produce an opposing trend in total
concentration.
Three situations present themselves:
1. The change in volume causes an increase in the total concentration of particles. To decrease this, the
system reacts in the direction that produces fewer particles. (Fewer particles means a lower overall
concentration, in line with the opposition predicted by Le Châtelier’s principle.)
2. The change in volume causes a decrease in the total concentration of particles. To increase this
concentration, the system must react in the direction that produces more particles if it is to re-establish
equilibrium.
3. Although the change in volume affects the total concentration, the system cannot change the number of
particles present. This situation occurs when the total number of moles on the left-hand side of the
equation equals the number of moles on the right-hand side. Mathematically, it can be shown that a
volume change for such a reaction does not disturb the equilibrium.
As an example of situation 1, consider the reaction represented by:
A(g) ⇌ B(g) + C(g)
It might be predicted that an increase in volume, such as by dilution, would lead to an increase in the
total number of particles as the reaction attempts to re-build the total concentration. In this case, this can
be achieved if the equilibrium shifts to the right (forward reaction).
A change in volume of an equilibrium mixture is identified on concentration–time graphs as a sudden
spike or dip involving all substances. This is shown in figure 6.10.
Resources
Video eLesson Changing the position of an equilibrium — gas pressure (eles-1672)

A special note about gases
For a change in volume at constant temperature,
FIGURE 6.10 A concentration–time graph
the universal gas equation allows a concentration illustrating the effect of increasing the volume
interpretation to be replaced by a pressure interpretation. of the reaction A(g) ⇌ B(g) + C(g)
Therefore:
PV = nRT
( )
Concentration (M)
n
P= RT
V
A
P∝c B
n
As is concentration (c), and R × T is C
V
constant, we can see that pressure is
proportional to concentration. Time
For gaseous reactions, volume changes may also be interpreted in terms of partial pressures, rather than
concentrations.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 11
a. The following gaseous system is set up and allowed to reach equilibrium.
2NOBr(g) ⇌ 2NO(g) + Br2 (g)
What would be the effect on the amount of bromine present if the volume is then increased?
b. Would a volume change affect the following reaction?
H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) ⇌ 2HCl(g)
THINK WRITE
a. A volume change requires thinking in terms of the a. The reaction will respond by making
total number of particles. Increasing volume more products (NO and Br2 ). At the
decreases the total concentration. same time, it will use up more of the
The reaction will respond in the direction that NOBr. i.e. there will be a net forward
makes a net gain in particles. This will partially reaction.
increase the total concentration in response to the
initial increase in volume.
In this case, there is a net gain in the number of
particles (from 2 moles to 3 moles) if the reaction
moves to the right.
b. This reaction has equal numbers of particles (and b. A volume change will not affect this
hence moles) on each side of the equation (2 reaction because there are the same
and 2). Hence, the equilibrium will not be affected number of moles on each side.
by a change in volume.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 11
a. Consider the reaction represented by the equation:
I2 (aq) + I− (aq) ⇌ I−
3 (aq)
What would be the effect on the amount of I−

3 caused by increasing the volume by adding
more water?
b. Would a volume change effect the following reaction?
CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
6.6.5 The effect of changing temperature

Of all the possible ways to change an equilibrium mixture, changing the temperature is the only method that
actually alters the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc , because changing the temperature also changes the
energy available to the system.
At a particular temperature, the system has a certain amount of energy, which is distributed between all
the species present. The equilibrium expression describes the concentrations of all species once they have
settled on a way to share that energy, and the value of Kc is interpreted as sharing in favour of reactants or
products.
Varying the concentration of a species (n or V) causes a redistribution of the available energy and a
different equilibrium position is reached. However, because the available energy remains the same, the
value of Kc is the same.
• The equilibrium constant, Kc , of a reaction can only be changed by changing the

temperature.
• Changing the temperature changes the energy available to the system.
Changing the temperature changes the total amount of energy in the system. Hence, Kc has a different
value. How this value responds to temperature change depends on whether the reaction is exothermic or
endothermic. Classifying an equilibrium reaction as exothermic or endothermic relates, by convention, to
the forward reaction as written in the equation. An endothermic reaction absorbs heat and has a positive ∆H
value. An exothermic reaction evolves heat and has a negative ∆H value.
If we consider an exothermic reaction, typified by the thermochemical equation:
A(g) + B(g) ⇌ C(g) ∆H is negative
an increase in temperature requires the application of heat. Le Châtelier’s principle would predict that
the system tries to absorb some of this added heat. Hence, the backward reaction is favoured as it is
endothermic. A and B are produced at the expense of C, lowering the value of the equilibrium constant.
Thinking mathematically, when the value of the denominator in Kc increases, the value of Kc decreases.
This equation can also be written as:
A(g) + B(g) ⇌ C(g) + heat
where heat can be treated as a product.

A change in temperature can be identified on concentration–time graphs by its effect on the
concentrations without an obvious sudden change to any of the substances involved. For the reaction above,
the concentration–time graph might look like figure 6.11.

In an endothermic reaction under the same conditions,
FIGURE 6.11 A concentration–time
the forward reaction would oppose the addition of heat. graph showing the effect of increasing
Upon re-establishing equilibrium, the value of the equilibrium temperature on the equilibrium
constant would, therefore, be higher. A(g) + B(g) ⇌ C(g), where ∆H is negative
In summary:
• if a reaction is exothermic, an increase in temperature
Concentration (M)
decreases the equilibrium constant because more reactants
are favoured. C
• if a reaction is endothermic, an increase in temperature A
increases the equilibrium constant because more products B
are favoured.
Time
FIGURE 6.12 The equilibrium FIGURE 6.13 The general

reaction between brown NO2 and relationship between Kc and
colourless N2 O4 is affected by temperature for (a) exothermic
temperature. These tubes initially reactions and (b) endothermic
contained equal amounts of gas; reactions
the tube on the left is being cooled.
(a)
Kc
(b)
Temperature
(a) Exothermic reactions
(b) Endothermic reactions
SAMPLE PROBLEM 12
Suppose that, in the reaction:
A(aq) + 2B(aq) ⇌ C(aq)
substance C has an easily detected red colour.

It is observed that heating the equilibrium mixture causes the red colour to fade.
a. What is the resulting effect on the Kc value?
b. Is this reaction an exothermic or an endothermic reaction?
THINK WRITE
a. The fading of the red colour implies that there has The Kc value will be lower.
been a net backward reaction. The value of Kc will,
therefore, be lower.

b. Kc has dropped as a result of an increase in It is an exothermic reaction.
temperature, which means that the reaction (as
written above) must be an exothermic reaction.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 12
NO2 reacts with itself to produce N2 O4 according to the following equation.
2NO2 (g) ⇌ N2 O4 (g)
The progress of this reaction may be monitored by noting the change in the brown colour of NO2
because N2 O4 is colourless (see figure 6.12). It is noted that as a sample of this mixture is heated, its
colour darkens. Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic?
Resources
Video eLesson Le Châtelier’s principle – change in temperature (med-0430)
Identifying a change graphically

As already established, concentration–time graphs are an informative way of summarising changes made to
an equilibrium system. The important features of such graphs are:
• changes in concentration that reflect the stoichiometric ratios of the equation
• the attainment of equilibrium as reflected by each concentration becoming a horizontal line and the
fact that each such concentration reaches a certain constant value. This occurs at the same time for
each substance.
• a sudden dip or spike in only one of the concentrations, which occurs when one substance has been
added or removed
• a sudden dip or spike in all the concentrations, which is reflective of a volume change. For a reaction in
the aqueous phase, this would represent a dilution. For a gas phase reaction, it could represent either
the compression or expansion of the sample.
• change in the equilibrium values without an obvious spike or dip, which indicates that there has been
a
a temperature change
• all the reactants either increasing or decreasing together. All the products will change together in the
opposite way, i.e. one side of the equation will go up or down and the other side will go down or up.
Open versus closed systems

All reactions can be considered either closed systems or open systems. All the examples used so far have
been assumed to be closed systems, in which none of the substances involved is lost. In an open system
this is not the case. Because of this, equilibrium reactions that occur in open systems will need to have
Le Châtelier’s principle applied to them. For example, the decomposition of calcium carbonate upon
heating in a closed system reaches an equilibrium where the gaseous CO2 is in equilibrium with the solid
CaCO3 and CaO, according to the equation
CaCO3 (s) ⇌ CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
However, if this reaction is carried out in an open container, the CO2 can escape. This is effectively
removing a product from the equilibrium mixture. Therefore, Le Châtelier’s principle predicts that more

CaCO3 will decompose in an effort to replace it. As this is a continuous process, the end result will be that
all the CaCO3 present will eventually decompose.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 6.3 Temperature and the equilibrium constant (doc-31263)
6.6.6 Le Châtelier’s principle in industry

The manufacture of some important chemicals involves allowing for the fact that, at certain desired
temperatures, the values of their equilibrium constants are low. Examples of such chemicals are ammonia
(NH3 ), nitric acid (HNO3 ), and sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ). To make these chemicals on a large scale, the
chemical engineer must have a sound knowledge of equilibrium principles and also of rate principles. In
designing a plant, the engineer will ultimately be trying to:
• maximise the yield of the desired product by applying Le Châtelier’s principle to make as much of the
chemical as possible
• produce the desired chemical at an acceptable rate — it has to be made quickly enough to satisfy
market demand if the plant is to be economical
• balance the above two requirements against other variables, such as plant operating costs, to ensure
that the whole process is as economical and safe as possible.
The final design of such a plant is often a compromise between these factors.
THE HABER PROCESS

The Haber process is a single-step process in which nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted to produce ammonia
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) ∆H is negative
This reaction is a good example of a dilemma

often faced by a chemical engineer. At normal FIGURE 6.14 Production plant for ammonia and
temperatures, the value of the equilibrium constant nitrogen fertilizer. Note the large cooling towers.
is quite high, but the rate of reaction is very slow. In
other words, the mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen
is metastable. However, if the temperature is
increased to bring about a better rate, the yield
of ammonia quickly begins to suffer. This is
because the above reaction is exothermic and, as
temperature is increased, the value of its equilibrium
constant decreases. This puts the yield and rate,
two of the most important industrial factors, in
conflict. The ultimate design of the plant and its
operating conditions must reflect a compromise
between these factors.
A closer look at these factors reveals that we can
lessen the effect of this compromise in a number of
ways. These are:
• use a suitable catalyst to help obtain the rate required. This means that the temperature needed is lower
than that needed without a catalyst. The use of a lower temperature increases the yield by increasing the
value of the equilibrium constant. A lower temperature reduces the rate, but this can be compensated for
by using a catalyst, which increases the rate.
• compress the gases so that the reaction is carried out at high pressure. Le Châtelier’s principle predicts
that, if a system is pressurised, it tries to reduce that pressure. Consequently, there should be a tendency
to reduce the number of particles present. In this case, this means that the reaction proceeds to the right,
as the forward reaction converts four molecules into two molecules, thus favouring the production of
ammonia.

• separate the ammonia from the unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen in the exit gases from the converter. This
nitrogen and hydrogen can then be recycled and may be converted into more ammonia.
In the operation of a typical plant, nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed in the 1 : 3 ratio required by the equation.
The gases are then compressed to about 250 atm and heated to about 500 °C. (These precise conditions may
vary slightly from one plant to another.) The gases then pass into the converter, which is a huge reinforced steel
cylinder containing 7 to 8 tonnes of pea-sized catalyst beads. The catalyst most often used is an iron catalyst
made from iron oxide, Fe3 O4 , with traces of aluminium oxide and potassium oxide.
When the gases leave this chamber they contain about 20% ammonia. By cooling the mixture, the ammonia
can be liquefied and separated. The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen can then be recycled so that they pass
through the converter again. This is an example of green chemistry.
The energy costs in the operation of such a plant are one of its most important overheads. With careful
planning, energy costs can be minimised. In this case, the actual formation of the ammonia from its elements
is an exothermic process. The heat generated from this reaction can be made use of elsewhere in the plant,
rather than just being allowed to go to waste so heat exchangers are used. For example, the incoming cold
nitrogen/hydrogen mixture can be passed over pipes containing the hot gases that exit from the converter. The
resultant transfer of heat helps to heat the incoming gases and cool the exit gases.
There are further compromises in operation. Better yields of ammonia might be obtained by using higher
pressures, but this necessitates the use of more powerful pumping equipment and stronger reaction vessels to
withstand the extra pressure. Economically, it is not worthwhile to do this, because the extra ammonia produced
does not offset the extra costs involved in building such a plant.
6.6.7 An important biological application of Le Châtelier’s principle

An important concept in biology is that of homeostasis. This is the ability of an organism to maintain a
fairly constant internal environment, despite changes to the external environment. Such systems in the
human body are extremely important to our wellbeing and continued survival. We have many different ways
of maintaining homeostasis, most of which include chemical processes at equilibrium. Oxygen transport is
one such example.
Transport of oxygen by the blood

Although oxygen is soluble in water, this solubility is not high enough to enable the blood to supply
adequate amounts of oxygen to our cells. Therefore, the blood transports oxygen by a different
mechanism — the red blood cells. These cells contain a special protein called haemoglobin, which can
combine with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin. This is a reversible reaction that can be represented by the
equation:
Hb4 + 4O2 ⇌ Hb4 (O2 )4
where the symbol Hb4 represents the very complex haemoglobin molecule.
The position of this equilibrium is such that
FIGURE 6.15 Red blood cells carry oxygen around
normal bodily variations in oxygen concentration our bodies.
can push it in either direction. When blood enters
the lungs, it is exposed to a high concentration of
oxygen. As oxygen is a reactant in this equation,
Le Châtelier’s principle predicts that more
oxyhaemoglobin is produced. The red blood cells
thus become loaded with oxygen. This mechanism
allows much more oxygen to be transported around
the body than by dissolving it in the plasma alone.

FIGURE 6.16 The transport of oxygen around the body relies on how the differing conditions in the lungs and in
the tissues affect the haemoglobin–oxyhaemoglobin equilibrium.
Hb4/Hb4(O2)4
equilibrium shifted to
the right
(high amount of O2
in the blood)
lungs tissues
(high O2 concentration) (respiration removes O2)
Hb4/Hb4(O2)4
equilibrium shifted to
the left
(very little O2 left

in the blood)
When the blood reaches the cells, there is a much

FIGURE 6.17 The exchange of gases in an
lower oxygen concentration because it is used in alveolus, part of the lungs. The alveoli are the
cellular respiration. In response to this removal structures in the lungs that transfer gases into
of oxygen by respiration, the reaction responds and out of the blood supply.
by moving to the left in an effort to replace this
to
oxygen. The oxyhaemoglobin decomposes back to ventilation
film of pulmonary vein
haemoglobin, its oxygen being unloaded for use by moisture
the cells, and the haemoglobin molecules return to the
lungs to start the cycle again. diffusion
epithelium capillary
of oxygen
of alveolus
Carbon monoxide poisoning
diffusion
Carbon monoxide (CO), is an odourless and very of carbon oxygen enters
poisonous gas. It is produced from the incomplete dioxide red cells
from
combustion of fossil fuels, typically in situations pulmonary
where the supply of oxygen to the combustion process artery carbon dioxide
red cell escapes into
is limited. This lack of odour makes it particularly alveolus
dangerous because it can be inhaled without a person
realising it. This can quickly lead to unconsciousness. Typical situations in which this may occur include
leaking car exhausts, improperly maintained central heating units and the use of outdoor appliances such as
camping heaters and barbeques in enclosed spaces.
Carbon monoxide is so poisonous because the reaction between carbon monoxide and haemoglobin:
Hb4 + 4CO ⇌ Hb4 (CO)4
is similar to that between oxygen and haemoglobin. This sets up a competing equilibrium with the
oxygen–haemoglobin system. An important difference is that the position of this equilibrium lies much
further to the right. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is about 20 000 times greater than that for the
oxygen–haemoglobin system. If there is carbon monoxide in the lungs, carboxyhaemoglobin will readily
form. When these blood cells reach the respiring cells, the reaction cannot be reversed. These blood cells
are thus effectively removed from the pool available to carry oxygen. If this happens to enough of them,
consequences can be fatal. A person would die of oxygen starvation, even though there might still be a
plentiful supply of oxygen in their lungs.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 13
Explain why carbon monoxide is such a dangerous gas to inhale.
THINK WRITE
Recall that oxygen transport around the body Carbon monoxide reacts to a much greater
relies on free haemoglobin molecules being extent with haemoglobin than does oxygen.
able to bind with oxygen in the lungs, and Once carboxyhaemoglobin is formed it is
then being able to reverse this reaction in the very difficult to reverse. The haemoglobin
vicinity of respiring cells. molecules are thus removed from the pool of
Recall that haemoglobin can bind with both molecules available for oxygen transport. If
oxygen (normal) and carbon monoxide too many are removed, oxygen starvation of
(abnormal). Of these possibilities, the second cells will occur and death may result.
occurs to a far greater extent (it is essentially
irreversible under normal conditions).
PRACTICE PROBLEM 13
Explain how oxygen is transported around the body.
Treating victims of carbon monoxide poisoning

The level of carbon monoxide in the blood that can cause death is surprisingly low. The reason for this is its
ability to compete much more effectively than oxygen for the available haemoglobin.
If a victim of carbon monoxide poisoning is discovered soon enough, giving them oxygen-rich air to
breathe may reverse the dangerous changes that have taken place in their red blood cells. This treatment
relies on competing equilibria and Le Châtelier’s principle.
The two equations involved are:
Hb4 + 4O2 ⇌ Hb4 (O2 )4
Hb4 + 4CO ⇌ Hb4 (CO)4
The extra oxygen has two effects. First, it pushes

FIGURE 6.18 Carbon monoxide fumes are a
the first equilibrium further to the right, thus making serious problem in traffic-congested cities.
more efficient use of the few uncombined haemoglobin
molecules that remain. The second effect follows from
the first: as haemoglobin is used up by this extra oxygen,
a reactant is effectively being removed from the second
equilibrium. Despite its higher equilibrium constant, this
reaction is forced in the backward direction to replace this
haemoglobin. Thus, the carboxyhaemoglobin complex is
encouraged to decompose and frees up the haemoglobin
for normal oxygen transport.

6.6 EXERCISE
1. Explain why a thermochemical equation is necessary to predict the effect of temperature on the extent of a
reversible reaction.
2. Describe the effect of each of the following changes on a reaction at equilibrium.
(a) Removing a product
(b) Adding a reactant
(c) Compressing a mixture being used to make ammonia according to
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g)
(d) Increasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction

(e) Adding water to double the volume in which the following reaction is occurring.
A(aq) + 2B(aq) ⇌ 3C(aq)
3. Predict the effect of the stated change on each of the systems represented by the equations below.
(a) CO(g) + 2H2 (g) ⇌ CH3 OH(g)
(adding methanol)
(b) CO(g) + H2 O(g) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)
(increasing the pressure)
(c) 4HCl(g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2H2 O(g) + 2Cl2 (g)
(increasing temperature, given that the reaction is exothermic)
(d) PCl5 (g) ⇌ PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
(removing chlorine)
4. A student was asked to explain why the use of increased pressure should favour the formation of sulfur
trioxide, SO3 , according to the equation:
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
As part of her answer, she stated that ‘. . . the increased pressure will cause the system to move to the
right. The resulting increase in the equilibrium constant means that there will be more SO3 present’.
Criticise the chemical accuracy of her answer.
5. Making methanol on a commercial scale involves pumping a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
through a reaction chamber containing a mixture of ZnO and Cr2 O3 . This reaction is best carried out at a
particular temperature and at a particular pressure. The equation for this reaction is:
CO(g) + 2H2 (g) ⇌ CH3 OH(g) ∆H = −91 kJ mol−1
(a) To maximise the rate of this reaction, should it be carried out at high or low temperatures?
(b) To maximise the yield of this reaction, should it be carried out at high or low temperatures?
(c) Describe the function of the ZnO/Cr2 O3 mixture and how it partially solves the problem posed by your
answers to (a) and (b).
(d) How could the methanol be easily separated from the exit gases? What should be done with the
unreacted CO and H2 ?
(e) Calculate the percentage atom efficiency for this reaction.
6. Haemoglobin is involved in the following two reactions:
Hb + 4O2 ⇌ Hb(O2 )4 (reaction I)
Hb + 4CO ⇌ Hb(CO)4 (reaction II)
(a) How does the value of the equilibrium constant for reaction II compare to that for reaction I?
(b) Respiring cells require oxygen. Explain how this triggers the reverse reaction in reaction I.
(c) Give two reasons why the reverse reaction for reaction II is not triggered by respiring cells.
(d) Patients suffering mildly from the effects of carbon monoxide may be given pure oxygen to breathe. In
terms of Le Châtelier’s principle, explain why this is done.
Questions 7 and 8 refer to the following reaction.
A(aq) + 2B(aq) ⇌ C(aq) ∆>0

7. (a) What change was made to the equilibrium mixture at
time t1 ? Explain.
(b) How does the rate of the forward reaction compare to
Concentration
the rate of the backward reaction in the time period
between t1 and t2 ? A
(c) What will be the effect on this graph if some substance
D is added at time t3 ? Explain. B
C
t1 t2
Time
8. In another experiment using the same reaction, the
following graph was obtained.
(a) What is the significance of the lines to the left of t1 ? A
Concentration
(b) What change was made at time t1 ? Explain.
(c) What change was made at time t3 ? Explain.
A
(d) If a catalyst is also added at t3 , what effect will this B
have on the graph? Explain.
C
(e) Between them, a group of students use B
concentration values immediately before t1 , C
immediately before t3 and immediately after t4 to
calculate Kc . How will their values compare? Explain.
9. Pure hydrogen iodide is a gas that partially t1 t2 t3 t4
decomposes when heated according to the equation: Time
2HI(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)
At 500 K, the equilibrium constant for this reaction is 6.25 × 10−3 . At 600 Kc , the equilibrium constant
is 2.04 × 10−2 .
(a) Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic?
(b) Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at 500 K for the reaction:
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
10. Methanol may be prepared commercially from carbon monoxide and hydrogen using a suitable catalyst,
(a) How could the pressure under which the reaction is performed be adjusted to maximise the yield of
methanol?
(b) How could the temperature at which the process is performed be adjusted to make more methanol?
(c) If extra carbon monoxide is added, how would this affect the amount of methanol produced?
(d) Which of the above proposals would actually change the value of the equilibrium constant?
11. The symbols of chemistry form an international language that can be read by anyone who understands it,
regardless of the language they speak. Following is one item from a Hungarian book of chemistry
questions.
Az ammónia oxidációs folyamatát az alábbi egyenlet fejezi ki:
4NH3 + 5O2 ⇌ 4NO + 6H2 O

Q = −226.5 kJ/mól
Az egyenletekben szereplö vegyületek közül a NO képzödéshöje pozitív, az NH3 és a víz kép′ ódéshöje
negatív. Ennek ismeretében magyarázzuk meg, miért kell a reakciót nagy reakciósebességgel lejátszatni,
majd a reakciótermékeket gyorsan lehüteni?
(a) Describe the reaction referred to in the question.
(b) Is this reaction an exothermic or an endothermic reaction?

(c) Would this reaction be best performed at a high or low temperature to obtain a high value for the
equilibrium constant?
(d) Would the formation of products in this reaction be favoured by high or low pressure?
6.7 Review
6.7.1 Summary
Reversible and irreversible reactions
• Many chemical reactions have lower yields than might otherwise be expected. They do not go to
completion. Such reactions are called equilibrium reactions. They can also be called reversible
reactions.
• The rate of a chemical reaction is different from its extent. Rate measures how quickly the reaction
takes place. Extent is a measure of the degree to which reactants are converted into products.
Homogenous equilibria
• Homogeneous reactions are reactions that occur in a single phase. Two common examples are aqueous
reactions and gas phase reactions.
• Equilibrium reactions always reach a point at which no further change seems to be occurring. Such
reactions have not stopped, the rate of the forward reaction has just become equal to the rate of the
backward reaction. This is referred to as the dynamic nature of the equilibrium state.
• The process of attaining equilibrium, and the equilibrium state itself, can be explained in terms of
reaction rates and collision theory.
• Equilibrium reactions may be represented by rate–time graphs and concentration–time graphs.
• Equilibrium reactions are also represented by balanced chemical and thermochemical equations. In
such equations, the single arrow is replaced by a double arrow (⇌) to highlight the reversible nature of
these reactions.
Calculations involving equilibrium systems
• At equilibrium, it is possible to write a fraction involving the equilibrium concentrations of all species
present, which is related to the stoichiometry of the reaction. This fraction always has a constant value
(at a particular temperature) and is given the symbol Kc . This is called the equilibrium law.
• It is also possible to write and evaluate this fraction at any stage of a reaction, in which case, it is
usually given the symbol Q. If the value obtained for Q is not equal to Kc , the reaction is not at
equilibrium. The changes taking place as the reaction seeks to attain equilibrium can be predicted by
comparing the values of Kc and Q.
• The magnitude of the equilibrium constant, Kc , gives us an indication of the extent of an equilibrium
reaction.
• The equilibrium constant has units that depend on the equation that it refers to. For some reactions, it
is also possible that it has no units.
• Quantitative predictions may be made by performing calculations based on the equilibrium law.

Measuring the efficiency of a reaction or process
• The yield of a chemical reaction is usually expressed as a percentage and is given by the formula
actual yield 100
% yield = ×
theoretical yield 1
• The atom efficiency of a reaction or process is usually expressed as a percentage and is given by the
formula

% atom economy = ×
Le Châtelier’s principle
• There are a number of ways that changes may be made to a reaction that is at equilibrium. These
include the addition or removal of a participating substance, dilution, pressure changes (through
compression or expansion) and temperature changes.
• Le Châtelier’s principle may be used to predict the effect of a change to a mixture that is at
equilibrium.
• Concentration–time graphs are a particularly useful way of summarising changes made to equilibrium
mixtures and the subsequent response of the system to these changes.
• Equilibrium reactions are important in many situations. Many useful chemicals are manufactured
industrially using such reactions. They are also important biologically, as illustrated by the way that
oxygen is transported around the body using haemoglobin.
• Carbon monoxide poisoning involves competing equilibrium reactions. Carbon monoxide competes
very effectively with oxygen, resulting in a drastic reduction in the amount of haemoglobin available
for oxygen transport.
Resources
6.7.2 Key terms
closed system a system in which all the reactants and products are contained in some manner with no escape
to the surrounding environment.
concentration fraction essentially, the concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the
reactants, including the coefficients of each component in the reaction
dynamic nature of equilibrium refers to the fact that at equilibrium forward and backward reactions are
occurring at the same rate.
equilibrium constant the value of the concentration fraction at equilibrium; also called the equilibrium constant, Kc
equilibrium law the relationship between the concentrations of the products and the reactants, taking into
account their stoichiometric values
equilibrium reaction a reaction in which both forward and reverse reactions are significant.
green chemistry a relatively new branch of chemistry that emphasises reducing the amounts of wastes
produced, the more efficient use of energy and the use of renewable and recyclable resources.
haemoglobin the oxygen-carrying pigment and predominant protein in red blood cells
heterogeneous reaction a reaction in which some of the substances involved are in different phases.
homogeneous reaction a reaction in which all of the substances involved are in the same phase.
immiscible does not form a homogeneous mixture when mixed with another liquid

irreversible reaction a reaction which, to all practical purposes, occurs only on the forward direction.
Le Châtelier’s principle When a change is made to an equilibrium system, the system moves to counteract the
imposed change and restore the system to equilibrium.
open system a system in which some or all the reactants or products can escape to the surrounding
environment.
percentage atom economy given by the formula

% atom economy = ×
percentage yield given by the formula
actual yield 100

% yield = ×
theoretical yield 1
reaction quotient essentially, the concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the reactants,
including the coefficients of each component in the reaction
reversible reaction a reaction in which the reformation of products into reactants occurs to a significant extent.
yield amount of product
Resources
Digital document Key terms glossary — Topic 6 (doc-31400)
Experiment 6.2
Investigating changes to the position of an equilibrium
Aim: To observe the effect of a number of changes on the position of
the equilibrium represented by the equation:
Fe3+ (aq) + SCN(aq) ⇌ Fe(SCN)2+ (aq)
Teacher-led video: tlvd-0747
Resources
Experiment 6.1 Modelling an equilibrium (doc-31261)
Experiment 6.3 Temperature and the equilibrium constant (doc-31263)

6.7 Exercises

1. A reaction has an equilibrium constant, Kc , of magnitude 2.56 × 10−7 . From this we can say that:
A. there will be minimal conversion of reactants into products
B. equilibrium will be established very quickly
C. equilibrium will be established very slowly
D. the backward reaction will have a faster rate than the forward reaction.
Use the following information to answer questions 2–4.

An equilibrium reaction is represented by the thermochemical equation:
2A(g) + 2B(g) ⇌ 3C(g) ∆H = −10 kJmol−1
2. The correct expression from which to calculate the equilibrium constant for this reaction is:
[A][B]
A.
[C]
[A]2 [B]2
B.
[C]3
[C]3
C.
[A]2 [B]2
[C]
D.
[A][B]
3. The units for the equilibrium constant for this reaction are:
A. M
−1
B. M 2
C. M–1
1
D.M2
4. If the temperature at which this reaction is carried out is lowered, the value of Kc will:
A. increase
B. decrease
C. remain the same
D. change in a manner related to the total number of particles on each side of the equation.
5. If some product is removed from a system that is at equilibrium:
A. the value of the equilibrium constant would decrease
B. a net backward reaction would result
C. the rate of the backward reaction would increase
D. extra product would be produced to re-establish the equilibrium.
Use the following information to answer questions 6–8.

The reaction represented by the equation:
CO2 (g) + H2 (g) ⇌ CO(g) + H2 O(g)
has an equilibrium constant, Kc , of 1.58 at 990 °C.

In an experiment, the concentrations of these four substances were measured at a particular time. The
values obtained were:
[CO2 ] = 0.00208 M
[H2 ] = 0.00221 M
[CO] = 0.00270 M
[H2 O] = 0.00250 M
6. Which of the following statements is true of this reaction at this time?
A. There is a net forward reaction.
B. There is a net backward reaction.
C. The rate of the backward reaction is faster than the rate of the forward reaction.
D. The reaction is at equilibrium.
7. After equilibrium was established, the volume of the container was increased. Which of the following
statements about the effect of this change is true?
A. There will be no effect on the concentrations of any of the substances.
B. There will be no effect on the amounts of any of the substances.
C. The concentration of carbon monoxide will increase.
D. The amount of carbon monoxide will increase.
8. In another experiment involving the same reaction (and at the same temperature), a mixture was
allowed to reach equilibrium. At this point, the concentrations of CO2 , H2 and CO were 0.0046 M,
0.00067 M and 0.0022 M respectively. The concentration of H2 O would therefore have been:
A. 0.0009 M
B. 0.0016 M
C. 0.0022 M
D. 0.0044 M
Use the following information to answer questions

9 and 10.
A reaction between the chemicals A, B and C is allowed to
reach equilibrium. The equation for this reaction is:
Concentration
A(g) + 2B(g) ⇌ C(g)
At a certain time, t, a change is made.

The following graph shows the concentration of each
of these substances before and after this change.
9. What type of change was made at time t?
A. The addition of one of the substances
B. The removal of one of the substances
t
C. An increase in volume
Time
D. A decrease in volume
10. From top to bottom, the graphs refer to the substances:
A. C, B, A
B. A, B, C
C. B, A, C
D. C, A, B.

1. Two students, Isla and Colin, were discussing the use of M as a unit. Colin stated that Kc can’t have
these units because M is a unit of concentration. However, Isla maintained that, although it is a unit of
concentration, Kc could also sometimes have this unit. Who is correct? Explain.

2. In a 10 L vessel, 0.20 mol of SO2 , 0.40 mol of O2 and 0.70 mol of SO3 were mixed and allowed to
come to equilibrium. Upon establishment of equilibrium, it was found that 0.30 mol of SO3 remained.
Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction, given that the equation is:
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
3. An equilibrium mixture consisting of hydrogen, iodine and hydrogen iodide was analysed. It was found
that 1.1 mol of hydrogen and 3.3 mol of hydrogen iodide were present in a 3.0 L container at a
temperature of 600 K.
a. If the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc , is 49 for the reaction:
H2 (g) + I2 (g) ⇌ 2HI(g)
calculate the concentration of iodine.

b. Why is the temperature specified in this question?
4. Both oxygen, O2 , and carbon monoxide, CO, can attach to the haemoglobin molecule. Under the
normal biological conditions within the body, O2 attaches itself to haemoglobin in the lungs and
detaches itself when the haemoglobin is in the vicinity of respiring tissues. Carbon monoxide can also
attach itself to haemoglobin while in the lungs, but is unable to detach when near respiring tissues.
a. Using the symbol Hb4 as an abbreviation for the haemoglobin molecule, write an equation for the
reaction between haemoglobin and oxygen.
b. Write an equation for the reaction between haemoglobin and carbon monoxide.
c. Write the expression for the equilibrium constant for each of the reactions.
d. From the information above, comment on the relative values of the equilibrium constants for the
reactions.
e. From your answer to (d), explain why carbon monoxide is such a poisonous gas.
5. The formation of ethyl acetate, CH3 COOCH2 CH3 , is represented by the equation:
CH3 COOH(l) + CH3 CH2 OH(l) ⇌ CH3 COOCH2 CH3 (l) + H2 O(l)
The value of Kc for this reaction is 4.

A number of experiments were conducted in which various amounts of these chemicals were mixed
and allowed to react for varying periods of time. The results are tabulated below.
Experiment [CH3 COOH] [CH3 CH2 OH] [CH3 COOCH2 CH3 ] [H2 O]
1 1 1 1 1
2 4 0.5 2 4
3 1.5 1 3 1.5
4 0.5 1 1.5 2
5 1 1.5 2 3
6 3 2 1.5 1
In which experiments had equilibrium been achieved by the time of the analysis?
a.
For those not at equilibrium, in which direction would the reaction proceed to establish equilibrium?
b.
6. The table shows the percentage formation of a product in equilibrium mixtures at different temperatures
and pressures.

Pressure (×105 Pa) Temperature (°C)
200 300 400 500
1 10 3.5 1.3 0.5
200 64 30 23 19
300 98 62 43 21
a.Is the reaction under study exothermic or endothermic?

b.If the equation for this reaction was written, how would the number of particles on the right-hand
side compare with the number on the left?
7. Ammonia may be prepared according to the equation:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) ∆H = −92 kJ mol−1
In a particular experiment using typical industrial equipment, at a particular temperature, T,

equilibrium was obtained with 4.32 mol of N2 , 2.00 mol of H2 and 4.00 mol of NH3 present in a 2.00 L
pressure vessel.
a. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant at the temperature of this experiment.
b. Calculate the pressure exerted by the mixture of gases at equilibrium in terms of T.
c. If the volume of the pressure vessel is reduced (at constant temperature), what effect would this have
on the amount of NH3 present?
8. In an experiment, the equilibrium established
between substances A, B and C was investigated. 3.0
Certain initial concentrations of each substance
were mixed and then allowed to come to
Concentration
equilibrium. 2.0
The reaction between these three substances may be
represented by the equation:
1.0
A + yB ⇌ zC
The changes in concentration are shown in the graph.
a. Identify which line belongs to which substance. 0
15 30 45 60
b. During the first 30 seconds of the experiment, how
Time (seconds)
does the rate of the forward reaction compare with
the rate of the backward reaction?
c. After 30 seconds, how does the rate of the forward reaction compare with the rate of the backward
reaction?
d. From the graph, identify the values of y and z in the equation.
e. Calculate the equilibrium constant for this reaction.
9. In an investigation of the decomposition of
hydrogen iodide, represented by the equation:
2HI(g) ⇌ H2 (g) + I2 (g)
[HI]
the following concentration–time graph was obtained.

a. Describe what happened during the first two minutes
of the experiment.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
b. Describe what was happening from the four- to
Time (minutes)
eight-minute marks.
c. Give an explanation for the cause of the dip in the
graph at the eight-minute mark.
d. What do you think might have happened at the 14-minute mark?

e. What do you think might have happened at the 16-minute mark?
f.Did the change occurring at the 16-minute mark affect the equilibrium or not? Explain.
10. Upon dissolving in water, the sugar 𝛼-d-glucose undergoes conversion into an isomer called
𝛽-d-glucose. This process is called mutarotation and reaches equilibrium when 63.6% of the original
𝛼- d-glucose has been converted. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant for this process.

A simple form of colorimetric analysis may be used to study the equilibrium represented by the
following equation.
Br2 (aq) + 2OH− (aq) ⇌ OBr− (aq) + Br− (aq) + H2 O(l) ∆H = +15 kJ mol−1
As molecular bromine, Br2 , is the only coloured species in this reaction, its red-brown colour may be
used to monitor various changes made to this equilibrium.
A student performed an experiment where 10 mL samples of reaction mixture were poured into identical
test tubes. The three changes listed below were then made to different samples of the equilibrium mixture.
The colours before and after the changes were compared.
Change 1: A small amount of solid potassium bromide was added and the mixture stirred to dissolve it.
Change 2: A small amount of solid sodium chloride was added and the mixture stirred to dissolve it.
Change 3: The solution was warmed from room temperature to 50 °C.
For each of these three changes:
a. state whether you would expect the solution to darken, lighten or stay the same 3 marks
b. use Le Châtelier’s principle to explain your answer in (a). 7 marks
Consider an equilibrium at room temperature that is represented by the following equation.
2A(g) + B(g) ⇌ 2C(g) ∆H = −100 kJ mol−1 ; Kc = 10.0 M−1
For this reaction, it is possible to calculate the value of Q at any stage of the reaction using the following
formula.
[C]2
Q=
[A]2 [B]
In one particular experiment, 1.5 mol of A, 0.50 mol of B and 2.5 mol of C are mixed in a 2.0 L container
at room temperature.
a. Calculate the value of Q at the start of this experiment. 2 marks
b. Use your answer to (a) to explain how the rate of the forward reaction compares with the rate of the
backward reaction at the start of this experiment. 1 mark
c. Some time later, the rates of the forward and backward reactions are measured and found to be equal.
What is the value of Q at this time? Explain. 2 marks
The experiment is now repeated under identical conditions, except that a catalyst is added to the initial
mixture. The rates of the forward and backward reactions are again monitored over a period of time.
d. How would the initial rate of the forward reaction in the second experiment compare with the initial rate
of the forward reaction in the first experiment? 1 mark
e. How would the initial rate of the backward reaction in the second experiment compare with the initial
rate of the backward reaction in the first experiment? 1 mark
f. After waiting the same amount of time as for (c), what would be the value of Q in the second
experiment? Explain. 2 marks

The reaction represented by the equation:
xC(g) ⇌ yA(g) + B(g)
is studied by monitoring the concentration of its three species over time. The following graph shows the
results that were obtained. Note that one of the substances is already labelled.
10
0.9
Concentration (M) 0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4 B
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
t1 t2
Time
a. Label the other two lines on the graph with their correct substances. 2 marks
b. What are the values of x and y in the equation above? 2 marks
c. Calculate the value of the equilibrium constant immediately before time t1 . 2 marks
d. What change was made to this system at time t1 ? Explain. 2 marks
e. At time t2 , the temperature was increased. Is this reaction exothermic or endothermic? Explain your
reasoning, clearly showing any necessary calculations. 3 marks
The highly toxic gas hydrogen cyanide (HCN) may be produced by the reaction of carbon monoxide with
ammonia, according to the following equation.
2CO (g) + NH3 (g) ⇌ HCN (g) + CO2 (g) + H2 (g) ∆H > 0
This reaction is being investigated in a well-equipped laboratory using a 500 mL gas syringe.
In one particular experiment a mixture of CO and NH3 , along with a suitable catalyst, was injected into
the syringe and the mixture allowed to come to equilibrium at a particular temperature. The mixture was
then analysed and the following results were obtained.
Mass of CO present = 0.035 g
Mass of NH3 present = 0.011 g
Mass of HCN present = 0.057 g
a. List two safety concerns for this experiment. Suggest how one of these could be minimised. 3 marks
b. Write the expression for the equilibrium constant for this reaction. 1 mark
c. Calculate the equilibrium concentrations of each of the substances involved. 4 marks
d. Calculate the value and units for the equilibrium constant for this reaction at the temperature of the
experiment. 2 marks
e. If the volume of the syringes is reduced from 500 mL to 400 mL
i. what will be the effect on the mass of hydrogen cyanide present? 1 mark
ii. what will be the effect on the concentration of hydrogen cyanide present? 1 mark

Nitrogen oxides are serious air pollutants and are commonly found in areas where there is a high
concentration of cars.
Nitrogen monoxide, NO, is produced from the reaction between nitrogen and oxygen at high
temperatures, typically 1500 o C. The equation for this reaction is
N2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2NO(g) ∆H = +181 kJ mol−1
a. This temperature is often reached during the combustion of petrol in a car engine. Explain how these
conditions favour NO production. 2 marks
This reaction was investigated by placing a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gas in a sealed container,
the volume of which can be increased or decreased. The temperature was held steady at 1500 o C.Using
a data logging device, the concentration of NO is monitored to produce a concentration time graph.
b. The volume is now halved. Continue the graph to show how this change would affect the reaction system
and how the system would respond to this change until equilibrium is restored.
NO 2 marks
Time
c. The volume is now returned to its original value and the temperature increased to 2000 o C.
How does the equilibrium mixture at this temperature compare to that at 1500 o C?
Explain your reasoning. 1 mark

Test maker

“c07ProductionOfChemicalsByElectrolysis_print” — 2019/9/24 — 4:02 — page 206 — #1
AREA OF STUDY 2
7 Production of chemicals by
electrolysis and rechargeable
batteries
7.1 Overview
7.1.1 Introduction
Chlorine is one of the most widely used FIGURE 7.1 Chlorine is used extensively as a disinfecting
agent in swimming pools.
chemicals in the world. It is perhaps best
known for its use as disinfectant in large
public swimming pools. Upon addition
to the pool water, chlorine reacts to form
hypochlorite ions which serve as a powerful
disinfectant. But chlorine has many more
uses — it is used in the manufacture of
organic compounds, plastics, bleach and
chlorinated lime.
Chlorine is made on a large scale by
the process of electrolysis. Electrolysis is
also used to make sodium hydroxide and
aluminium, and is central to electroplating
and the production of extremely pure copper.
This topic introduces the process of electrolysis and how the variables involved can alter the nature of
the products produced. Faraday’s Laws can be then applied to make quantitative predictions concerning
electrolytic cells.
You will use your prior knowledge of basic redox concepts. Features of galvanic cells that you learnt
about in topic 3 will be critical to your understanding of electrolytic cells. Furthermore, you will make
extensive use of the electrochemical series as a tool for predicting electrode reactions and of your skills
in stoichiometry.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
Production of chemicals by electrolysis
• electrolysis of molten liquids and aqueous solutions using different electrodes

• the general operating principles of commercial electrolytic cells, including basic structural features and
selection of suitable electrolyte (molten or aqueous) and electrode (inert or reactive) materials to obtain
desired products (no specific cell is required)
• the use of the electrochemical series to explain or predict the products of an electrolysis, including
identification of species that are preferentially discharged, balanced half-equations, a balanced ionic
equation for the overall cell reaction, and states
• the comparison of an electrolytic cell with a galvanic cell with reference to the energy transformations
involved and basic structural features and processes
• the application of stoichiometry and Faraday’s Laws to determine amounts of product, current or time for a
particular electrolytic process.
Rechargeable batteries
• the operation of rechargeable batteries (secondary cells) with reference to discharging as a galvanic cell
and recharging as an electrolytic cell, including the redox principles (redox reactions and polarity of
electrodes) and the factors affecting battery life with reference to components and temperature (no specific
battery is required).

Resources
7.2 What is electrolysis?

KEY CONCEPT
• Electrolysis of molten liquids and aqueous solutions using different electrodes
7.2.1 The process of electrolysis

In an electrochemical cell or galvanic cell, a spontaneous chemical reaction produces an electric current.
In an electrolytic cell, the reverse process takes place. The passage of an electric current through an
electrolytic solution causes a chemical reaction. This process is known as electrolysis.
In galvanic cells, chemical reactions can be used to generate a flow of electrons (an electric current). If
a zinc rod is placed in copper(II) sulfate solution, a coating of copper appears on the zinc rod. This may be
explained by considering the standard electrode potentials of each half-equation:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Zn(s) E 0 = −0.76 V
TOPIC 7 Production of chemicals by electrolysis and rechargeable batteries 207

Because the E 0 value for the Cu2+ /Cu redox pair is greater than the E 0 value for the Zn2+ /Zn redox pair,
Cu2+ ions react spontaneously with zinc metal. A galvanic cell constructed from these two half-cells would
produce electrical energy. The overall equation for such a galvanic cell would be:
Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq) + energy
However, if a copper rod is placed in a zinc sulfate solution, no reaction occurs. This reaction is the
reverse of the one that produces energy, so energy must be supplied for the reaction to occur.
Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq) + energy → Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s)
Electrolytic cells
The chemical reaction that occurs when electricity passes through a molten ionic compound or through
an electrolyte solution is called electrolysis. Solutes that form solutions that can conduct electricity are
called electrolytes. An electrolyte solution conducts electricity. Positive ions gain electrons at the cathode
and negative ions lose electrons at the anode. This transfer of electrons has the same effect as a flow of
electrons, and the solution conducts electricity. The apparatus in which electrolysis occurs is called an
electrolytic cell.
An electrolytic cell has three essential features.
1. An electrolyte solution that contains
FIGURE 7.2 An electrolytic cell
free-moving ions — these ions can donate
or accept electrons, allowing electrons to flow – +
through the external circuit. e–
2. Two electrodes at which the electrolysis
reactions occur
3. An external source of electrons, such as
a battery or power pack. This electron flow cathode anode
(reduction – + (oxidation
is in one direction only and is referred electrode) electrode)
to as DC (direct current). cations + anions
The external power source supplies the electrons. attracted attracted
Electrons flow from the external power source to the
negative electrode (the cathode), which is the site –
of reduction. Electrons are withdrawn by the power
source from the positive electrode (the anode), which electrolyte
solution
is the site of oxidation. Cations are attracted to the
cathode and anions are attracted to the anode. The cations gain electrons from the cathode and the anions
give up electrons to the anode.
Resources
Video eLesson Features of electrolytic cells (med-0439)
7.2.2 Electrolysis of molten ionic compounds

The simplest cases of electrolysis involve the electrolysis of molten ionic substances that are pure, using
inert electrodes. As an example, let us consider the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride.
Solid sodium chloride does not conduct electricity. However, when an electric current is passed through
molten sodium chloride, a chemical reaction can be clearly observed — a shiny bead of sodium is produced
at the cathode and chlorine gas is evolved at the anode.

In solid sodium chloride, the oppositely charged FIGURE 7.3 Electrolysis of molten sodium
sodium ions, Na+ , and chloride ions, Cl− , are held tightly chloride
together. Heating the solid causes the ions in the crystal to
direction of electron
separate and they are then free to move. The molten liquid
flow
is called a melt. In an electrolytic cell, the sodium ions are
attracted to the negative cathode where they are reduced.
anode + – cathode
+ −
Na (l) + e → Na(l) carbon carbon
electrode electrode
The chloride ions are attracted to the positive anode
where they undergo oxidation. metallic
Na+ sodium
Cl–
− −
2Cl (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e chlorine Cl–
gas
Na+
In a redox reaction the same number of electrons are Cl– Na+
Cl– molten sodium
consumed as are produced, so the overall equation is: chloride
2Na+ (l) + 2Cl− (l) → 2Na(l) + Cl2 (g)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
a. Write the equations for the reactions at each inert electrode when pure molten magnesium
chloride undergoes electrolysis.
b. Write the overall equation for this reaction.
THINK WRITE
a. In molten magnesium chloride there are mobile
Mg2+ and Cl− ions. These are the only
possible reactants for electrolysis.
The Mg2+ ions will move to the negative Cathode:
electrode (the cathode) where they will accept Mg2+ (l) + 2e− → Mg(l)
electrons and be reduced.
The Cl− ions will move to the positive Anode:
electrode (the anode) where they will give up 2Cl− (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
electrons and be oxidised.
b. Obtain the overall equation by adding the half Mg2+ (l) + 2Cl− (l) → Mg(l) + Cl2 (g)
equations together, making sure that the
electrons cancel out.
TIP: Make sure that you use the correct
symbols of state for magnesium. It is liquid
(not aqueous) under these conditions.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
a. Write the equations for the reactions at each electrode when pure molten potassium iodide
undergoes electrolysis.
b. Write the overall equation for this reaction.

7.2.3 Electrolysis of water

When a current is applied via two electrodes in pure water, nothing happens.
FIGURE 7.4 Electrolysis
There is no current flow and no electrolysis. But, if an electrolyte such of water using a Hofmann
as H2 SO4 or KNO3 is added in low concentration, the resulting solution voltameter — when
conducts electricity and electrolysis occurs. The products of the electrolysis an electric current is
of water, in this case, are hydrogen and oxygen. passed through water,
At the cathode, water is reduced to form hydrogen. it decomposes into
oxygen and hydrogen.
Cathode: 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
water
At the anode, water is oxidised to form oxygen.
Anode: 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− 0 0
5 5
The region around the cathode becomes basic, owing to an increase in 10 10
OH− ions, whereas the region around the anode becomes acidic, owing to 15 15
an increase in H+ ions. The overall cell reaction may be obtained by adding 20 20
the half-equations. 25 25
30 30
6H2 O(l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4OH− (aq)
+ –
However, some of the ions produced re-form into reactants.
4H+ (aq) + 4OH− (aq) → 4H2 O(l)
These do not need to be included in the final overall equation.
2H2 O(l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)

+ –
battery
7.2.4 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions

In the electrolysis of water, it is necessary to add a small
FIGURE 7.5 The electrolysis of dilute sodium
amount of electrolyte before electrical conduction can take chloride solution using inert electrodes
place. This is done at a very low concentration and, as a
result, water is effectively the only substance that can react direction of electron
flow
to the passing of the electrical current. In the electrolysis
of molten sodium chloride in section 7.2.3, there was also
only one reaction possible at each electrode. anode + – cathode
More complicated electrolysis systems involve carbon carbon
situations where more than one reaction is possible at each electrode electrode
electrode. The next two examples illustrate this. Note that
in the second example, the choice of the electrode itself Na+
H2 gas
may also be a significant factor in the reactions that take Cl–
place. O2 gas Cl–
H2O
Na+
Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution Cl– Na+ H2O
with inert electrodes H2O Cl – dilute sodium
chloride
In many electrolysis reactions, inert electrodes are used.
These are electrodes that do not affect the reactions taking place on their surfaces, and which conduct a
current but do not tend to go into solutions as ions. They are usually carbon, in the form of graphite, or
platinum, which is much more expensive. As shown in figure 7.5, there is a choice of reactants at each
electrode when dilute sodium chloride is electrolysed.

At the cathode, sodium ions are present and the cathode is in contact with water molecules from
the solvent. It is observed that a gas is produced, which proves to be hydrogen. If a few drops of
phenolphthalein indicator are added to the region around the cathode it turns pink. From these observations
we can infer that OH− ions are also produced.
The production of H2 and OH− is consistent with the water being reduced in preference to the Na+ ions,
according to:
Cathode: 2H2 O(l)2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
At the anode, a choice between water and chloride ions is possible. The observed evolution of oxygen
gas, together with a few drops of phenolphthalein remaining clear, support the conclusion that water is
once again reacting at this electrode, but this time it is being oxidised. This is due to the relative reducing
strength of water and chlorine and is discussed in section 7.3.
Anode: 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e−
Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution FIGURE 7.6 The electrolysis of dilute sodium
with copper electrodes chloride solution using copper electrodes
If the previous experiment is repeated using copper
direction of electron
electrodes instead of inert electrodes, the results change.
flow
This illustrates that the choice of electrodes has an effect
on the nature of the products of an electrolysis.
This time the equations occurring at each electrode are: anode + – cathode
copper copper
Cathode: 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) electrode electrode
Anode: Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− H2 gas

Na+
Cl–
It can be seen that Cu2+ ions are produced instead of O2
Cu2+ ions Cl–
gas at the anode. This is due to the relative reducing H2O
strength and is discussed in section 7.3. Na+
Na+ H2O
Cl–
H2O Cl– dilute sodium
chloride
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
What are the possible reactants around each electrode when a dilute copper sulfate solution is
electrolysed?
Note that under conditions of dilute electrolysis in aqueous solutions, ions such as sulfate and
nitrate are typically inert.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the constituents of the electrolyte. Cu2+ , SO4 2− and H2 O
2. Around the cathode reduction occurs and Cu2+ ions Possible reactants cathode: Cu2+ ions
and H2 O molecules can potentially be reduced. and H2 O molecules
3. Around the anode oxidation occurs and SO4 2− ions Possible reactants anode: H2 O
and H2 O molecules can potentially be oxidised.
The SO4 2− ions can be ignored.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
What are the possible reactants around each electrode when a dilute potassium nitrate solution is
electrolysed?
7.2 EXERCISE
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question go to
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.
1. Predict the products that are formed when molten potassium chloride (KCl) undergoes electrolysis.
2. Give two observations that would be noted during the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride with copper
electrodes.
3. Explain how the addition of a small amount of KNO3 allows water to conduct electricity and hence undergo
electrolysis.
4. With reference to figure 7.4, and also to the equation for the decomposition of water, predict which side of
the apparatus collects hydrogen gas and which collects oxygen gas.
5. Glass is an inert substance under virtually all conditions. Explain why glass cannot be used as an electrode
material.
6. (a) Explain why the cathode has a negative charge in an electrolysis cell.
(b) Explain why the anode has a positive charge in an electrolytic cell.
7. Explain why the reactants in a galvanic cell must be kept separated whereas the reactants in an electrolytic
cell are usually contained within a single compartment.
8. Give an example of an electrolysis reaction where the nature of the electrodes influences the products
produced.
9. During the electrolysis of molten lithium iodide, what product will form around the cathode and what will
form around the anode? Explain.
10. Answer the following questions for electrolysis of molten potassium bromide.
(a) Write the equation for the reaction occurring at the cathode.
(b) State the sign of the cathode.
(c) Write the equation for the reaction occurring at the anode.
(d) State the sign of the anode.
(e) Write the overall ionic equation for this electrolysis.

7.3 Predicting reactions that occur during electrolysis

KEY CONCEPT
• The use of the electrochemical series to explain or predict the products of an electrolysis, including
identification of species that are preferentially discharged, balanced half-equations, a balanced ionic
equation for the overall cell reaction, and states
7.3.1 Using the electrochemical series

When a molten salt is electrolysed, the products are predictable. However, as shown in subtopic 7.2, when
an aqueous solution of an ionic compound is electrolysed, water may react at one or both of the electrodes
in preference to the ions from the salt. Hydrogen sometimes appears at the cathode, rather than a metal,
and oxygen sometimes appears at the anode, rather than a metal cation or a halogen. For this reason,

we need to be able to predict the products of electrolysis when there is more than one possible reaction
around an electrode. From the examples seen so far, when there is a choice of two possible oxidising agents
or reducing agents, one of these is preferentially reacted. As explained in topic 4, oxidising agents and
reducing agents have different strengths, which can be used to produce an electrochemical series. As we
shall now see, the electrochemical series also plays an important part in the redox reactions that occur
during electrolysis. It can be used to help predict the products of electrolysis when multiple reactions
are possible.
Predicting the products of electrolysis
In aqueous solutions, there is a mixture of at least two oxidising agents and two reducing agents. If non-
inert electrodes are used, then even more possibilities may exist. Which oxidising agent and which reducing
agent react?
Although electrolytic products depend on a number of factors, the following procedure is useful.
1. List the species present, including all metals that
FIGURE 7.7 Competing reactions are like
are used as electrodes. wrestlers: the strongest challengers (strongest
2. Write half-equations involving these species in oxidising agent and strongest reducing agent)
descending order of E 0 . make it to the final round.
3. Circle the species present in the electrolytic cell
that could participate.
4. Select the oxidising agent with the highest E 0 (the
strongest oxidising agent). This will be reduced at
the cathode, because it requires less energy for
reduction than an oxidising agent with a lower E 0 .
5. Select the reducing agent with the lowest E 0 (the
strongest reducing agent). This will be oxidised at
the anode, because it requires less energy for
oxidation than a reducing agent with a higher E 0 .
6. Write the overall equation by combining the
relevant half-equations.
7. Determine the minimum voltage required to achieve the reaction by subtracting the E 0 of the reducing
agent from the E 0 of the oxidising agent.
minimum voltage required = E0oxidising agent −E0reducing agent
Consider the electrolysis of dilute potassium iodide (as shown

FIGURE 7.8 Electrolysis of dilute
in figure 7.8).
potassium iodide
1. The species present in the cell are K+ , I− and H2 O.
2. The possible half-equations for these species, in direction of electron
descending order of E 0 are listed using table 2 flow
of the VCE Chemistry Data Book. e– e–

3. The species present in the electrolytic cell that could anode + – cathode
participate are then circled. carbon carbon
electrode electrode
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = + 1.23 V
I2(s) + 2e− ⇌ 2I− (aq) E 0 = + 0.54 V H2 gas
l–
− −
2H2 O(l) + 2e ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH (aq) 0
E = − 0.83 V I2
H2O
K+ (aq) + e− ⇌ K(s) 0
E = − 2.93 V
K+
K+ l–
H2O
H2O K+ K+

4. Recall the acronym OILRIG (oxidation is loss, reduction is gain) and that reduction occurs at the
cathode, so there are two possible reactions in this cell. The oxidising agent with the highest E 0 value
(the strongest oxidising agent) requires the least energy for reduction and is reduced at the cathode. So,
water reacts in preference to potassium ions at the cathode.
Cathode: 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V
Hydrogen gas is evolved at this electrode and the solution around the cathode becomes alkaline,
owing to an increase in hydroxide ion concentration.
5. Oxidation occurs at the anode, so there are two possible reactions. The reducing agent with the lowest
E 0 value (the strongest reducing agent) requires the least energy for oxidation and is oxidised at the
anode. Thus, iodide ions react in preference to water molecules at the anode.
Anode: 2I− (aq) → I2 (s) + 2e− E 0 = + 0.54 V
The solution around the anode appears yellow-brown, owing to the formation of iodine.
6. The overall electrolytic cell reaction would be:
2H2 O(l) + 2I− (aq) → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) + I2 (s)
7. Determine the minimum voltage required to achieve this reaction. A potential difference greater than
the spontaneous reverse reaction would need to be applied, so more than +0.54 − (−0.83) = 1.37
volts should be delivered to this electrolytic cell.
The products formed from the electrolysis of some electrolytes are shown in table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1 Products of electrolysis

(a) Using inert electrodes (platinum or graphite)
Product formed
Electrolyte at cathode Product formed at anode
PbBr2 (l) — a melt Pb(s) Br2 (g)
NaCl(l) — a melt Na(s) Cl2 (g)
CuCl2 (aq) Cu(s) Cl2 (g), O2 *
NaCl(aq) H2 (g) Cl2 (g), O2 *
KNO3 (aq) H2 (g) O2 (g)
CuSO4 (aq) Cu(s) O2 (g)
H2 SO4 (aq) H2 (g) O2 (g)
NaOH(aq) H2 (g) O2 (g)
*depending on concentration
(b) When the electrodes take part in the reaction
Electrolyte Copper cathode Copper anode
CuSO4 (aq) Cu(s) deposited Cu(s) dissolves to form Cu2+ ions

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A dilute solution containing tin(II) chloride and copper sulfate is electrolysed using inert
electrodes. Predict the products that will form at each electrode and write the relevant
half-equations. Use these to write the overall equation and determine the minimum voltage
required to achieve the reaction.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the constituents of the Sn2+ , Cl− , Cu2+ , SO4 2− and H2 O molecules
solution.
2. From table 2 (Electrochemical series) Cl2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cl− (aq) E 0 = +1.36 V
of the VCE Chemistry Data Book, O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = +1.23 V
copy the half-equations for the
species in descending order of Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
standard electrode potentials. SO4 2− Sn4+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Sn2+ (aq) E 0 = +0.15 V
ions will not react. Sn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Sn(s) E 0 = −0.14 V
TIP: When using the electrochemical
series, be careful with Sn2+ because it 2H2 O(l)+2e− ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V
occurs in more than one place. (The
same applies to Fe2+ .)
3. Circle the species present in the Cl2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cl− (aq) E 0 = +1.36 V
electrolytic cell that could participate. O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = +1.23 V
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
Sn4+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Sn2+ (aq) E 0 = +0.15 V
Sn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Sn(s) E 0 = −0.14 V
2H2 O(l)+2e− ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V
4. At the cathode, the strongest oxidising Cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
agent (highest E 0 ) undergoes
reduction. Copper metal will form.
5. At the anode, the strongest reducing Anode: Sn2+ (aq) → Sn4+ (aq) + 2e− E 0 = +0.15 V
agent (lowest E 0 ) undergoes
oxidation. Sn4+ ions will form.
6. Write the overall equation by Cu2+ (aq) + Sn2+ (aq) → Cu(s) + Sn 4+
combining the relevant half-equations.
7. Determine the minimum voltage Minimum voltage required = +0.34 − 0.15
required by subtracting the E 0 of the = +0.19 V
reducing agent from the E 0 of the
oxidising agent.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A dilute solution containing silver nitrate and cobalt(II) chloride is electrolysed using inert
electrodes. Predict the products that will form at each electrode and write the relevant half-
equations. Use these to write the overall equation and determine the minimum voltage required
to achieve the reaction.

TIP: The electrochemical series is written as a series of reversible reduction reactions. Don’t
forget to reverse these equations when writing an oxidation reaction. When you have decided
whether an oxidation or reduction equation is required remember to use only a single arrow in
your equation.
7.3.2 Factors affecting electrolysis of solutions

What happens during electrolysis depends on a number of factors, including:
• the concentration of the electrolyte
• the nature of the electrolyte
• the nature of the electrodes.
In any electrolysis reaction, alteration of any of these factors can change the nature of the products. The
identity of products of an electrolysis reaction under fixed conditions is found by experiment. When the
products are known, the reactions occurring at the electrodes can be written.
The effect of concentration

The electrochemical series (see table 3.2 in section 3.4.1 or Table 2 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book) is
a useful tool for predicting the products of an electrolysis reaction. However, it must be remembered that
it is based on standard conditions, in particular, where the concentrations of dissolved species are 1 M. If
the concentrations of potential reactants are different from this, the observed results might be different from
those predicted. For example, in the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride reduction occurs at the cathode.
The possible reactions are:
Cathode: 2H2 O(l) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V

Na+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Na(l) E 0 = −2.71 V
As predicted from a table of standard redox potentials, water, rather than sodium ions, is reduced at the
cathode. At the anode, chloride ions or water molecules may be oxidised:
−
Anode: Cl2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cl (aq) E0 = +1.36V
O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = +1.23 V
As predicted from the table of standard redox potentials, oxygen gas is evolved in preference to chlorine
gas at the anode.
The overall equation is:
2H2 O(l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g)
However, at higher concentrations of chloride ions (6 M), the discharge of chlorine becomes more
favourable. The reduction of water, rather than of sodium ions, still occurs at the cathode at higher
concentrations of sodium ions. Therefore, the electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride produces hydrogen gas
at the cathode and oxygen gas at the anode, but electrolysis of 6 M sodium chloride produces hydrogen gas
at the cathode and chlorine gas at the anode.
This can be understood when the E 0 values for the following reactions are examined.
−
Cl2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cl (aq) E0 = 1.36V
O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = 1.23 V
Values change when conditions are non-standard. In fact, they change enough to swap the order around,
thus making the oxidation of chloride ions to chlorine gas the preferred reaction at the anode. Such a

reversal at the cathode does not occur because the difference between H2 O and Na+ ions is too large. Thus,
when concentrated sodium chloride (>6 M) is electrolysed, the overall reaction becomes:
2H2 O(l) + 2Cl− (aq) → H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
The nature of the electrolyte

FIGURE 7.9 Electrolysis of a concentrated copper(II) chloride
If concentrated copper(II) chloride solution produces copper (in solid form) and chlorine gas.
solution is electrolysed instead of
concentrated sodium chloride solution, DC power supply
the results are different. At the anode, – +

chlorine gas is evolved in both cells,
because the solution is concentrated
and the only species present initially – +
are chloride ions and water molecules.

At the cathode, hydrogen gas is
evolved in the sodium chloride cell,
as discussed previously. In the copper Cl –
Cu 2+ Cl –
chloride cell, two reactions are possible Positive copper ions Negative chloride ions
Cl –
at the cathode. are attracted to Cl – are attracted to
the negative electrode. Cl – the positive electrode.
2+
Cl –
Cu
Cu2+ Cl –
2+
Cu
Cu2+ Cl –
copper(II) chloride solution
Cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V

2H2 O(l) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V
As may be predicted from a consideration of the standard electrode potentials, copper is deposited in
preference to the evolution of hydrogen gas. So, the products in an electrolytic reaction depend on the
nature of the electrolyte.
The nature of the electrodes

If the anode is made of a metal such as silver, copper or iron, electrons may be removed preferentially
from the metal atoms in the electrode rather than from the ionic species in solution or the water molecules
themselves. There is no corresponding effect at the cathode because metals have no tendency to gain
electrons.
The electrolysis of copper(II) chloride solution using inert electrodes results in the production of oxygen
gas or chlorine gas (depending on the concentration of the solution; see table 7.1) at the anode. However, if
copper electrodes are used, copper(II) ions are produced at the anode because the electrode itself acts as a
stronger reducing agent than either water molecules or chloride ions. The copper anode dissolves to form
Cu2+ ions.
Cl2 (g) + 2e− ⇌ 2Cl− (aq) E 0 = +1.36

O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = +1.23 V
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A solution of copper(II) sulfate is electrolysed using nickel electrodes. Write the half-equations
for the reaction occurring at each electrode. Use these to write the overall equation and
determine the minimum voltage required to achieve the reaction.
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the constituents of the solution. Cu2+ , SO4 2− and H2 O molecules. Ni from the electrode
might react as well.
2. From table 2 (Electrochemical series) of O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− ⇌ 2H2 O(l) E 0 = +1.23 V
the VCE Chemistry Data Book, copy Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
the half-equations for the species in
descending E 0 order. Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Ni(s) E 0 = −0.25 V
2H2 O(l) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V
3. Circle the species present in the O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e−⇁ ⇀ 2H2 O (l) E 0 = +1.23 V
electrolytic cell that could participate.
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇁
⇀ Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇁
⇀ Ni (s) E 0 = –0.25 V
2H2 O (l) + 2e− ⇁
⇀ H2(g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = –0.25 V
4. At the cathode, the strongest oxidising Cathode: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V
agent (highest E 0 ) undergoes reduction.
5. Identify the strongest reducing agent Anode: Ni(s) → Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− E 0 = −0.25 V
and write the equation for the anode.
6. Write overall equation by combining the Cu2+ (aq) + Ni(s) → Cu(s) + Ni2+
relevant half-equations.
7. Determine the minimum voltage Minimum voltage required = +0.34 − (−0.25)
required by subtracting the E 0 of the = +0.59 V
0
reducing agent from the E of the
oxidising agent.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
A solution of lead(II) nitrate is electrolysed using iron electrodes. Write the half-equations for the
reaction occurring at each electrode. Use these to write the overall equation and determine the
minimum voltage required to achieve the reaction.
Resources
Video eLesson Predicting the products of electrolysis (med-0440)
Digital documents Experiment 7.1 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions (doc-31264)
Experiment 7.2 Factors affecting electrolysis (student design) (doc-31265)
Teacher-led video Experiment 7.1 Electrolysis of aqueous solutions (tlvd-0749)

7.3 EXERCISE
1. Write the equations for the reaction at each electrode when a 1 M solution of ZnBr2 undergoes electrolysis.
Use these equations to write the overall equation for this reaction.
2. (a) Write the equations for the reaction at each electrode when a 1 M solution of hydrochloric acid is
electrolysed using silver electrodes. Use these equations to write the overall equation for this reaction.
(b) Why is it not possible to electrolyse this solution with nickel electrodes?
Remember from Unit 2 that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid and a 1 M solution will therefore consist
almost entirely of H+ ions and Cl− ions.)
3. Write the half-equation that occurs at the cathode and the anode when a dilute solution of Na2 SO4 is
electrolysed using inert electrodes.
4. Predict the products and the minimum cell voltage required for the electrolysis of a 1 M solution of
aluminium chloride.
5. Using inert electrodes, predict the products formed from the electrolysis of:
(a) molten lead (II) chloride
(b) 1 M solution of lead (II) chloride.
6. A solution containing lead, magnesium and copper ions is electrolysed for a long time.
(a) What will be the first product formed at the cathode?
(b) If the electrolysis is continued until all the ions responsible for the product in question 6a are used up,
what will be the next product observed at the cathode?
(c) If the electrolysis is continued further until the product from question 6b is observed to stop forming,
what will be the third product formed at the cathode?
7. Write the half-equations and overall ionic equations for the electrolysis of:
(a) molten nickel iodide (NiI2 )
(b) 1 M nickel iodide solution.
8. Magnesium can be obtained commercially from sea water. During the last stage of this process, molten
magnesium chloride undergoes electrolysis in a cell that contains an iron cathode and a graphite anode.
(a) Why can iron be used to form the cathode but not the anode?
(b) Draw a fully labelled diagram of an electrolytic cell that could be used to produce magnesium. Include
equations.
9. A solution containing both Zn(NO3 )2 and AgNO3 , with both at 1 M concentration, undergoes electrolysis
using platinum electrodes. If this electrolysis is allowed to proceed for a long time, in what order will the
products at the cathode appear?
10. A dilute solution of copper sulfate is electrolysed using platinum electrodes.
(a) Write the half-equations for the reactions at each electrode.
(b) How will the concentration of Cu2+ ions change during this process?
If the platinum electrodes are replaced by copper electrodes:
(c) Write the half-equations for the reactions that now occur at each electrode.
(d) How will the concentration of Cu2+ ions change during this time?
11. Sometimes reaction products from an electrolysis reaction may be different to those predicted. How might
this happen?
12. Why is it not possible to electrolyse a solution containing tin(II) chloride and iron(III) chloride?

7.4 Commercial applications of electrolysis

KEY CONCEPT
• The general operating principles of commercial electrolytic cells, including basic structural features and
selection of suitable electrolyte (molten or aqueous) and electrode (inert or reactive) materials to obtain
desired products (no specific cell is required)
TIP: Some examples of commercial electrolytic cells are provided in this subtopic. Although you
are not required to know the details of any specific cell, you should examine these examples and
make sure that you understand the principles behind their operation. It is expected that you
should be able to apply these principles in an examination, rather than just restating facts that
you have learnt.
7.4.1 Producing aluminium

FIGURE 7.10 Today,
Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the
aluminium products, such
Earth’s crust, it was difficult to extract before 1886. The most common as this aluminium scooter, are
process involved its extraction from the ore and conversion into common.
AlCl3 . This was then chemically reduced using either sodium or
potassium, metals that were also difficult to produce. Compared with
today’s methods, this process was on a small scale and very expensive.
One hundred and thirty years ago, only the wealthy could afford
aluminium. Napoleon III of France was famous for serving food to
special guests at banquets on aluminium plates, while ordinary guests
were served food on plates made from gold! The aluminium extraction
breakthrough came in 1886 with the development of what we now call
the Hall–Héroult cell.
The Hall–Héroult cell

Paul Héroult, a French scientist, and Charles Hall, an American
inventor and chemist, almost simultaneously filed patent applications
for the industrial electrolytic production of aluminium, despite working
completely independently of each other. Today, the Hall–Héroult
method of aluminium production is used in primary aluminium
smelters throughout the world. It has resulted in an enormous growth
in aluminium production, from 13 tonnes per year in 1885 to more than
64 million tonnes per year today.
The industrial production of aluminium occurs in a Hall–Héroult cell
(see figure 7.11) and involves electrolysis of alumina that is dissolved
in molten cryolite (Na3 AlF6 ). The electrolysis takes place in a steel
vessel called a cell. The cell is lined with carbon, and contains the molten cryolite and dissolved alumina
mixture maintained at a temperature of about 980 °C. Carbon blocks suspended above the cell and partially
immersed in the electrolyte act as anodes, while the carbon lining of the cell acts as the cathode.
Aluminium cannot be reduced by electrolysis of an aqueous solution of a soluble aluminium salt because
water, a stronger oxidising agent than aluminium ions, is preferentially reduced.
2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V

Al3+ (aq) + 3e− → Al(s) E 0 = −1.67 V

Cryolite, Na3 AlF6 , acts as a solvent and an electrolyte due to its unique combination of properties. It has
a melting point less than half that of alumina (960 °C compared with aluminas 2020 °C), a low vapour
pressure and a density lower than molten aluminiums (2.05 g cm−3 compared with aluminiums 2.30 g
cm−3 ). Cryolite can dissolve sufficient alumina to allow deposition of aluminium at about 980 °C. Less
energy is used, saving the industry fuel costs.
FIGURE 7.11 Schematic diagram of a cross-section of a Hall–Héroult cell for the electrolytic production of
aluminium
carbon rods
+
–
(anode) molten cryolite
and
aluminium oxide
–
molten
aluminium
steel carbon block molten aluminium
shell lining can be drawn off here
The carbon anode and cathode are both made from petroleum coke with pitch as a binder. The anode
takes part in the chemical reactions in the cell.
Alumina, Al2 O3 , is fed into the electrolyte at regular intervals where it dissolves, forming aluminium
ions, Al3+ , and oxide ions, O2− . The direct current applied across each cell moves the ions in opposite
directions.
At the anode, the oxide ions are oxidised to form oxygen gas. The oxygen then immediately reacts with
the carbon anode to form carbon dioxide.
Anode: 2O2− (l) → O2 (g) + 4e−

O2 (g) + C(s) → CO2 (g)
The overall reaction at the anode can therefore be written as:
Anode: C(s) + 2O2− (l) → CO2 (g) + 4e−
As the carbon anodes are gradually consumed during the process, they are lowered to maintain the
optimum distance between the anode and cathode surfaces, until they are burned away and replaced. The
anodes are generally replaced every three weeks so that the process is continuous.
The positively charged aluminium ions that are dissolved in the cryolite are drawn to the negatively
charged cathode where they form aluminium.
Cathode: Al3+ (l) + 3e− → Al(l)
The density difference between cryolite and the newly formed molten aluminium allows the aluminium
to settle at the bottom of the cell where it is regularly drained out. After draining, the molten aluminium can
be cast.
The overall reaction for the electrolytic production of aluminium by electrolysis can be represented as:
2Al2 O3 (l) + 3C(s) → 4Al(l) + 3CO2 (g)
Carbon dioxide is the main gas produced in this process. Other gases produced include fluorides that are
initially confined by gas hoods, then continuously removed and treated.

The amount of alumina added to a cell must be strictly controlled. If too little alumina is added,
maximum yields and productivity rates of aluminium production become economically unfavourable. If
too much alumina is added, it falls to the bottom of the cell instead of dissolving (because it is denser than
molten aluminium). There, it settles below the aluminium and interferes with the flow of current.
Hall–Héroult cells operate continuously at low voltage of about 4–5 V but require a high current of
50 000–280 000 A. The electrical resistance to the flow of this current generates enough heat to keep the
electrolyte in a liquid state.
7.4.2 The industrial electrolysis of brine

Chlorine gas, hydrogen gas and
FIGURE 7.12 In the manufacture of paper, wood pulp is broken
sodium hydroxide are three important down by soaking it in concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.
industrial chemicals. They can Sodium hydroxide has many other industrial applications and may
be produced simultaneously by be produced in large quantities by electrolysis.
electrolysis of a concentrated aqueous
sodium chloride solution (brine).
Recently, a new type of electrolytic
cell, the membrane cell, was
developed for this reaction.
Although chloride ions are
weaker reducing agents than water
molecules, chlorine may be produced
electrolytically from aqueous solutions
of sodium chloride. This is done by
altering the operating conditions
of electrolytic cells to favour the
reduction of chloride ions rather than
water molecules.
Membrane cells
Early cells for the electrolysis of brine used either mercury or asbestos in their design. Membrane cells were
developed in response to the potential health hazards involved with such cells. Industrial membrane cells
can be very large.
A membrane cell is characterised by its plastic, semipermeable membrane that separates the anode half-
cell from the cathode half-cell of the electrolytic cell. This semipermeable membrane allows sodium ions
and hydroxide ions to pass from one electrode half-cell to the other but does not allow chloride ions or
water to pass through. As a result, sodium ions and hydroxide ions are trapped in the cathode compartment,
thus producing pure sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas, which is evolved at the cathode. Chlorine gas is
produced at the anode. The relevant equations are:
Cathode: 2Na+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → 2Na+ (aq) + 2OH− (aq) + H2 (g)
Anode: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
As with all electrolytic cells, the products are prevented from coming into contact with each other. The
overall reaction for the production of chlorine via the membrane cell process is:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2 O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)

FIGURE 7.13 A membrane cell
inert electrode inert electrode

+ –
CI2 evolved H2 evolved
brine inlet water inlet

Na+
Na+
Na+
pure
anode cathode
unreacted sodium
compartment compartment
brine hydroxide
semipermeable
plastic membrane
Resources
Video eLesson Using the membrane cell to manufacture sodium hydroxide (med-0569)
7.4.3 Electroplating
Electroplating is the process of coating an object in a metal. Inexpensive silver-plated jewellery can be
produced through electroplating. ‘Gold’ rings that turn fingers green are actually copper rings that have
been electroplated with gold.
In the electroplating process, the article to be plated is used as the cathode and the metal being plated
onto the article is used as the anode. The electrolytic solution or ‘bath’ contains a salt of the metal being
plated. A low-voltage electric current causes metal ions from the bath to gain electrons at the cathode
and to deposit as a metal coating on the cathode (the object). It also causes metal atoms in the anode to
lose electrons and go into the bath as ions. As the plating proceeds, the anode gradually disappears and
maintains the metal ion’s concentration in the bath.
Electroplating operations involve the use of many toxic solutions. Objects to be plated are thoroughly
cleaned of all grease and dirt using concentrated acidic or basic solutions. The cleaning solutions eventually
become ineffective, owing to contamination, and must be disposed of.
A number of factors contribute to the quality of the metal coating formed in electroplating. These
include:
• the carefully controlled concentration of the cations to be reduced in the plating solution. Unwanted
side reactions must be avoided.
• the careful consideration of the type and concentration of electrolyte
• the solution, which must contain compounds to control the acidity and increase the conductivity
• the compounds, some of which make the metal coating brighter or smoother
• the shape of the anode, which must often be shaped like the object at the cathode to achieve an even
metal coating.
Silver-plating
In silver-plating, objects such as cutlery are coated at the cathode. The plating solution contains silver ions,
Ag+ (aq). The anode is pure silver. When current flows, silver is deposited on the metal object.
Cathode: Ag+ (aq) + e− → Ag(s)

At the same time, silver atoms at the anode form FIGURE 7.14 Silver-plating mechanism for cutlery
silver ions.
power source
Anode: Ag(s) → Ag+ (aq) + e−
e– e–
The above reactions are possible due to their
positions on the electrochemical series relative to
water. At the cathode, silver ions are a stronger
oxidising agent than water and so they are
preferentially reduced. At the anode, silver metal
is a stronger reducing agent than water. Therefore,
the silver metal reacts in preference to water and is silver (anode)
Ag+
oxidised to silver ions.
Ag+
The plating is only a few hundredths of a spoon (cathode)
centimetre thick. If the experimental conditions are

right, the metal coating adheres strongly and may be silver cyanide
solution
polished. However, if conditions are not satisfactory,
the metal becomes powder-like and drops off.
Resources
Interactivity Electroplating simulation (int-1258)
Digital documents Experiment 7.3 Electroplating (doc-31266)
Teacher-led video Experiment 7.3 Electroplating (tlvd-0751)
7.4 EXERCISE
1. List all the products produced from the commercial electrolysis of a brine solution using a membrane cell.
2. Why is it important that the membrane used in a membrane cell be impervious to OH– ions?
3. Aluminium metal cannot be produced by the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of its ions. List two other
metals that also cannot be produced this way.
4. (a) What is the main advantage of the electrolytic production of aluminium from alumina, Al2 O3 , dissolved
in cryolite rather than from straight molten alumina?
(b) Why can’t a solution of alumina dissolved in water at normal temperatures be used instead?
5. Membrane cells operate using a concentrated solution of sodium chloride. Explain what would happen if
this solution was allowed to become diluted.
6. The addition of cryolite, Na3 AlF6 , in the Hall–Héroult process introduces Na+ (l) and F− (l) into the mixture.
Why is there no issue with contamination?
7. In the production of aluminium in a Hall–Héroult cell, the cathode and anode are made of carbon. The
anode needs to be replaced every three weeks whereas the cathode can last up to five years. Explain this
difference using an appropriate equation.
8. Using a fully labelled diagram, explain how you would plate a piece of lead with nickel by electroplating.
9. In electroplating, why is the object being electroplated made the cathode?
10. In nickel-plating, what substance would you choose for:
(a) the anode?
(b) the electrolyte?


7.5 Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells

KEY CONCEPT
• The comparison of an electrolytic cell with a galvanic cell with reference to the energy transformations
involved and basic structural features and processes
7.5.1 Similarities and differences between galvanic and

electrolytic cells
Consider the following redox half-equations:
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) E 0 = +0.34 V

Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s) E 0 = −0.76 V
Electrical energy can be obtained from the spontaneous reaction between copper(II) ions and zinc metal
in a galvanic cell.
Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)
When standard half-cells are used, 1.1 volts may be generated by the cell. However, if an external DC
power source is placed in the external circuit and connected so that the applied voltage is opposite to that
generated by the galvanic cell, the reverse reaction proceeds.
Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s)
When standard half-cells are used, more than 1.1 volts are needed to force this non-spontaneous reaction
to occur.
In both galvanic and electrolytic cells, oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode.
However, in an electrolytic cell, the cathode is negative because the external DC source forces electrons
onto it. Therefore, zinc ions, Zn2+ , are attracted to the cathode where they pick up electrons to form
zinc atoms.
The anode in an electrolytic cell is positive because the DC source withdraws electrons from it. Electrons
are supplied to the positive anode by the oxidation of the copper electrode itself.
In an electrolytic cell, the polarity of the electrodes is determined by the external DC source. In contrast,
the polarity of the electrodes in a galvanic cell develops due to the spontaneous redox reaction occurring
within the cell itself. Table 7.2 summarises the major similarities and differences between galvanic and
electrolytic cells.

TABLE 7.2 Comparison of galvanic and electrolytic cells
Feature Galvanic cell Electrolytic cell
Type of redox reaction Spontaneous Non-spontaneous
Energy produced or required Produced Required
Where oxidation occurs Anode Anode
Where reduction occurs Cathode Cathode
Anode polarity Negative Positive
Cathode polarity Positive Negative
How cell polarity is determined Depends on reactions occurring within cell External power source
FIGURE 7.15 Comparison of zinc–copper half-cells in electrochemical and electrolytic reactions

(a) Galvanic cell showing fully labelled components, half-equations and overall equation (b) Electrolytic cell
showing fully labelled components, half-equations and overall equation.
(a) energy out (b) energy in
e– e–
e– – +
e–
salt bridge
salt bridge Cu
Cu K+ NO3– anode
NO3– K+ cathode – +
– + Zn cathode
Zn anode
ZnSO4
ZnSO4 solution CuSO4
solution CuSO4 solution
Zn2+
solution 2– Cu2+ SO 2–
Zn2+ SO4 4
2– Cu2+ 2–
SO4 SO4
movement of cations in salt bridge movement of anions in salt bridge

movement of anions in salt bridge movement of cations in salt bridge
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e– Cu2+(aq) + 2e– Cu(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e– Zn(s) Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
oxidation reduction reduction oxidation
anode cathode cathode anode
(–) (+) (–) (+)
overall equation: overall equation:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq)
Electrolysis is most often carried out in a single container (see figure 7.16) and almost never in double
containers connected with a salt bridge (see figure 7.15). This is possible because the reactants in an
electrolytic cell do not react spontaneously and can be mixed. Reaction only occurs once electrical energy is
supplied to bring about the non-spontaneous reactions of the electrolysis process.

FIGURE 7.16 In an electrolytic cell, the two electrodes are usually immersed in a common electrolyte. In this
example, the same reactions would occur if the electrolysis was carried out with copper and zinc electrodes
immersed in a zinc sulfate solution.
e– – + e–
battery
Zn cathode Zn2+ Cu2+ Cu anode
ZnSO4 solution
Zn2+2–
SO4
movement of anions
movement of cations
Zn2+(aq) + 2e– Zn(s) Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e–

reduction oxidation
cathode anode
(–) (+)
Resources
Interactivity Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells (int-1257)
Weblink Introduction to electrolysis
7.5 EXERCISE
1. What are the main energy transformations occurring in:
(a) a galvanic cell?
(b) an electrolytic cell?
2. Explain why the cathode is positive in a galvanic cell but negative in an electrolytic cell.
3. Explain why the anode is negative in a galvanic cell but positive in an electrolytic cell.
To answer past VCAA exam questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for
every question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au.

7.6 Calculations in electrolysis using Faraday’s Laws

KEY CONCEPT
• The application of stoichiometry and Faraday’s Laws to determine amounts of product, current or time for a
particular electrolytic process

MICHAEL FARADAY
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) was a bookbinder who became an
assistant to the English chemist Sir Humphrey Davy. Although FIGURE 7.17 Michael Faraday
the job was menial, he advanced quickly, gaining a reputation for
dedication and thoroughness.
Faraday first learned about the phenomenon of electricity from
an article in an encyclopedia that was brought to his employer for
rebinding. His interest in science was kindled and he became an
avid reader of scientific papers, in addition to attending lectures on
science. Furthermore, he wrote complete notes on every book he
read and every lecture he attended.
Faraday began working as an assistant at the Royal Institution in
London, which is dedicated to scientific education and research.
After 10 years of hard work, Faraday began his own research in
analytical chemistry. He discovered benzene in 1825 and was the
first person to produce compounds of carbon and chlorine in the
laboratory, but he is most famous for his work on electricity. In 1833,
he published the results of his studies of electrolysis. Faraday had
made careful measurements of the amount of electricity involved
during electrolysis and related it to the amount of substances
produced. His work established two ‘laws’ of electrochemistry. The amount of charge carried by 1 mole of
electrons is called a faraday in honour of Michael Faradays contribution to science.
7.6.1 Faraday’s first law of electrolysis

Faraday’s first law of electrolysis describes the relationship between the mass of a substance deposited
or liberated during electrolysis and the quantity of electric charge passed through the cell. That is, mass is
proportional to charge.
Faraday’s first law of electrolysis:

The amount of any substance deposited, evolved or dissolved at an electrode during
electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electric charge passed through
the cell.
The quantity of electric charge transferred by an electric current depends on the magnitude of the current
used and the time for which it flows.
The electric charge can be calculated using the formula:

Q = It
where:
Q is the electrical charge in coulombs (C)
I is the current in amperes (A)
t is the time in seconds (s).
In an experimental circuit, there is no meter that measures the charge in coulombs. However, an
ammeter could be used to measure the rate at which charge flows in a circuit. A current of 1 ampere (1 A)
indicates that 1 coulomb (6.24 × 1018 electrons) of charge flows every second. For example, if a current
of 3.00 amperes flows for 10.0 minutes, the quantity of electricity is (3.00 × 10.0 × 60) = 1.80 × 103
coulombs. The charge flowing through an electrolytic cell can be increased by either increasing the
magnitude of the current or by increasing the time.

In an experiment to investigate the relationship between the quantity of electricity and the mass of
electrolytic products, copper(II) sulfate was electrolysed using copper electrodes. The copper cathode
was weighed before the electrolysis. After 10.0 minutes of electrolysis with a current of 3.00 amperes,
the experiment was stopped and the cathode reweighed. The mass of copper deposited was calculated,
the cathode was replaced, and the experiment continued for another 10.0 minutes. The mass of copper
deposited in 20.0 minutes was then found. This procedure was repeated several times and the results
obtained are shown in table 7.3.
TABLE 7.3 Experimental results between quantity of electricity in

electrolysis and mass of copper deposited
Current (A) Time (s) Quantity of electricity (C) Mass of copper (g)
3.00 600 1800 0.59
3.00 1200 3600 1.19
3.00 1800 5400 1.78
3.00 2400 7200 2.38
The graph of these results (see figure 7.18) yields a straight

FIGURE 7.18 Graph of copper
line passing through the origin. This shows that the mass of the deposited versus quantity of electricity
product is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity. The in electrolysis
mass of copper deposited on the cathode during electrolysis
is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity used.
Mass of copper deposited (grams)

The charge on one electron is 1.602 × 10−19 C. 3.0
Therefore, one mole of electrons has a charge of
(6.023 × 1023 × 1.602 × 10−19 ) = 9.649 × 104 C. This quantity
of charge carried by a mole of electrons is referred to as the 2.0
faraday (F), or Faraday constant, and is usually given the
value of 96 500 C mol−1 .
1.0
−1
TIP: The Faraday constant, 96 500 C mol can be
found in table 4 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
0
1800 3600 5400 7200
Quantity of electricity (coulombs)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
When a current of 3.2 A is passed through a solution for 10.0 minutes, 0.010 mol of gas B
is evolved.
What amount of B will be evolved if a current of 2.0 A is used for 15 minutes?
THINK WRITE
1. Charge used is calculated from the formula Q = It
Q = It. The formula can be found in Table 3 Q = 3.2 × 10.0 × 60
of the VCE Chemistry Data Book. = 1920 C (original)
TIP: When using Q = It, remember that units Q = 2.0 × 15 × 60
must be considered. While t should be in = 1800 C (new)
seconds because we are using a ratio to
determine the amount of B evolved, as long as
the same units for time are used, they do not
need to be converted to seconds.

1800
2. Recall that amount evolved is proportional to Amount B = 0.010 ×
charge flowing through the cell (Faraday’s first 1920
law). Give answer to two significant figures. = 0.0094 mol (2 sig.figs)
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
When a current of 3.4 A is passed through a solution for 7.0 minutes, 0.015 mol of metal X is
deposited.
What amount of X will be deposited if a current of 2.5 A is used for 20 minutes?
7.6.2 Faraday’s second law of electrolysis

Faraday’s second law of electrolysis describes the stoichiometric relationship between the moles of
substance produced by electrolysis and the moles of electrons required.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis:

To produce 1 mole of a substance by electrolysis, 1, 2, 3 or another whole number of moles
of electrons (faradays) must be consumed, according to the relevant half-cell equation.
In the half-cell equation:
Ag+ (aq) + e− → Ag(s)

1 mole of silver ions 1 mole of electrons 1 mole of silver atoms
1 mole of electrons is needed to discharge 1 mole of Ag+ (aq) ions. This liberates 1 mole of silver atoms.
Thus, 1 faraday, or 96 500 coulombs, is needed to discharge 1 mole of silver atoms.
The number of faradays needed to liberate 1 mole of an element during electrolysis is found from the
equation for the electrode reaction. Some examples are given below.
Sodium: Na+ + e− → Na 1 faraday must be passed to liberate 1 mole of sodium
atoms (23.0 g).
Copper: Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu 2 faradays must be passed to liberate 1 mole of copper
atoms (63.5 g).
Magnesium: Mg2+ + 2e− → Mg 2 faradays must be passed to liberate 1 mole of magnesium
atoms (24.3 g).
Aluminium: Al3+ + 3e− → Al 3 faradays must be passed to liberate 1 mole of aluminium
atoms (27.0 g).
Chlorine: 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e− 2 faradays must be passed to liberate 1 mole of chlorine
molecules (71.0 g).
The number of moles of electrons, n(e− ) (the number of faradays), corresponding to a given
charge (in coloumbs) can be determined by the equation:
Q
n(e− ) =
F
where:
n is the number of moles of electrons
Q is the electrical charge in coulombs (C)
F is the Faraday constant, 96 500 C mol−1 .

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
When 7720 C is passed through a copper(II) sulfate solution, 0.040 mol of copper is produced. If
the same amount of charge is passed through a solution containing Ag+ ions, how many moles of
Ag will be produced?
THINK WRITE
1. Write the equation for the electrode reaction for Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu(s)
both Cu and Ag deposition. Ag+ (aq) + e− → Ag(s)
2. The reaction in step 1 shows that 2 F of charge is n(Ag) = 2 × n(Cu)
required to deposit 1 mol of Cu. The same 2 F will = 2 × 0.040
deposit 2 mol of Ag because it only has a single = 0.080 mol
charge on its ion. Hence, there is a 2:1 ratio when
equal amounts of charge are used. Give your
answer to two significant figures.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
When 7720 C is passed through a copper(II) sulfate solution, 0.040 mol of copper is produced. If the
same amount of charge is passed through a solution containing W3+ ions, how many moles of W will
be produced?
7.6.3 Applying Faraday’s Laws of electrolysis

Most calculations in electrolysis involve finding the mass of a metal deposited on an electrode, the mass or
volume of a gas produced, or the charge of an ion in the electrolytic reaction. Such problems can be solved
by using the formulas:
Q = It
Q
n (e− ) =
F
where:
Q = the electrical charge (C)
I = the current (A)
t = the time (s)
F = 96500 C mol−1 .
Together these relationships summarise Faraday’s two laws of electrolysis.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
A solution of copper(II) sulfate is electrolysed for 30.0 minutes using a current of 0.500 A.
Calculate:
a. the mass of copper deposited on the cathode
b. the volume (at SLC) of oxygen gas evolved at the anode.

THINK WRITE
a. 1. To determine the mass of copper deposited, first Q = It
calculate the amount of charge and convert it to = 0.500 × (30.0 × 60)
faradays (same as moles of charge). Remember to = 900 C
convert time to seconds.
2. Determine the equation at the cathode and the Cu2+ + 2e− → Cu(s)
number of moles of electrons. Q
n(e− ) =
F
900
=
96500
= 9.33 × 10−3 mol
n(e− )
3. Use stoichiometry involving electrons to calculate n(Cu) =
moles of copper produced. One mole of copper 2
requires two moles of electrons. (9.33 × 10−3 )
=
2
= 4.67 × 10−3 mol
m
4. Determine the mass of the copper produced using n=
the molar mass formula. M
TIP: Formulas and the value of the Faraday ∴ m(Cu) = n × M
constant can be found in Tables 3 and 4 of the VCE = (4.67 × 10−3 ) × 63.5
Chemistry Data Book. = 0.296 g
b. 1. Determine the equation at the anode. 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e−
n(e− )
2. Using the number of electrons determined in n(O2 ) =
step a. 1., use stoichiometry involving electrons to 4
calculate moles of oxygen produced. There is one (9.33 × 10−3 )
=
mole of oxygen to four moles of electrons. 4
= 2.33 × 10−3 mol
V
3. Determine the volume of oxygen produced using n=
the molar volume formula. Vm
V(O2 )SLC = n × Vm
= (2.33 × 10−3 ) × 24.8
= 0.0578 L or 57.8 mL
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
A solution of copper(II) sulfate is electrolysed for 17.5 minutes using a current of 0.500 A. Calculate:
a. the mass of copper deposited on the cathode
b. the volume (at SLC) of oxygen gas evolved at the anode.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 8
When molten calcium chloride is electrolysed by a current of 0.200 A flowing for 965 seconds,
0.0401 g of calcium is formed. What is the charge on a calcium ion?

THINK WRITE
m
1. To determine the charge on the calcium ion, n(Ca) =
first determine the number of moles of M
0.0401
calcium. =
40.1
= 0.00100 mol
2. Determine the amount of electricity used and Q = It
the number of moles of electrons. Compare the = 0.200 × 965
units given to those required. Time must be in = 193 C
seconds. Q
n(e− ) =
F
193
=
96500
= 0.00200 mol
3. According to step 2, 0.00200 moles of Cax+ (l) + xe− → Ca(s)
electrons are needed to produce 0.00100 moles n(e− )
= n(Ca)
of calcium. Let the charge on ions will be x+. x
Use stoichiometry to calculate x. n(e− )
x=
n(Ca)
0.00200
=
0.00100
=2
The charge on the calcium ion is 2+ (Ca2+ ).
PRACTICE PROBLEM 8
When a molten aluminium chloride solution is electrolysed by a current of 0.300 A flowing for
965 seconds, 0.0270 g of aluminium is formed. What is the charge on the aluminium ion?
Faraday’s Laws in industry

Calculations based on Faraday’s Laws are critical to industrial electrolytic processes. Due to the large scale
of these processes, small variations and inefficiencies can result in the loss of many thousands of dollars. In
order to determine the efficiency of a particular process, knowledge of the theoretical maximum amount is
required.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 9
A typical Hall–Héroult cell in an aluminium plant operates at an average current of 1.70 × 104 A.
Calculate the theoretical mass of aluminium produced in a Hall–Héroult cell over 24 hours.
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the equation at the cathode. Al3+ (l) + 3e− → Al(l)

2. Calculate the amount of charge used by applying Q = It

the formula Q = It. = 1.70 × 104 × (24 × 60 × 60)
Compare the units given to those required. Time
= 1.47 × 109 C
must be in seconds.
Q
Calculate the number of moles of electrons. n(electrons) =
F
1.47 × 109
=
96 500
= 1.52 × 104 mol
1.52 × 104
3. Using the number of moles of electrons determined n(Al) =
in step 2, use stoichiometry involving electrons to 3
calculate the moles of aluminium produced. There = 5.07 × 103 moles of Al
is one mole of aluminium to three moles of
electrons.
4. Convert moles to mass of aluminium using the m(Al) = n(Al) × M(Al)
m
molar mass formula, n = = 5.07 × 103 × 27.0
M
= 1.37 × 105 g
= 1.37 × 102 kg
PRACTICE PROBLEM 9
Calculate the mass of magnesium produced over 24 hours when a current of 10000 A is used.
7.6 EXERCISE
1. When 2200 C is passed through a copper(II) sulfate solution, 0.011 mol of copper is produced. If the same
amount of charge is passed through a solution containing Cr3+ ions, how many moles of Cr will be
produced?
2. A solution of silver nitrate is electrolysed for 20.0 minutes using a current of 0.600 A. Calculate:
(a) the mass of silver deposited at the cathode
(b) the volume (at SLC) of oxygen gas evolved at the anode.
3. When a solution containing gold ions is electrolysed by a current of 0.100 A flowing for 965 seconds, 0.197
g of gold is formed. What is the charge on the gold ion?
4. How long will it take to deposit 1.00 g of cobalt in an electrolytic cell that uses a current of 3.50 A? The
equation for the reduction is Co2+ (aq) + 2e− → Co(s).
5. A current of 4.25 A is passed through molten Al2 O3 for 13.5 hours.
(a) How many grams of aluminium would be produced?
(b) What volume of oxygen, at 152 kPa (1.50 atm) and 29.0 °C, would be evolved?
6. When a current of 10.0 A was passed through a concentrated solution of sodium chloride using carbon
electrodes, 2.80 L of chlorine (at SLC) was collected. How long (in minutes) did the electrolysis take?
7. A given quantity of electricity is passed through two aqueous cells connected in series. The first contains
silver chloride and the second contains calcium chloride. What mass of calcium is deposited in one cell if
2.00 g of silver is deposited in the other cell?

8. Calculate the amount of time (in days) required to produce 2.00 kg of magnesium metal by the electrolysis
of molten magnesium chloride, MgCl2 , using a current of 45.0 A.
9. For the following scenarios:
(i) a current of 1.2 A flows for 8.0 minutes
(ii) a current of 0.75 A flows for 3.0 hours
(iii) a current of 3.5 A flows for 2.0 hours and 25 minutes
(iv) a current of 2.4 A flows for 1.0 day.
Calculate:
(a) the mass of copper deposited during the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate using carbon
electrodes
(b) the volume of oxygen formed at SLC during the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate using carbon
electrodes.
10. Calculate the time taken to deposit gold from a solution of gold(I) cyanide to a thickness of 0.0100 mm
onto a copper disc that has a diameter of 10.0 mm and a thickness of 5.00 mm if a current of 0.750 A is
used. (The density of gold is 19.3 g cm−3 .)

7.7 Rechargeable batteries (secondary cells)

KEY CONCEPT
• The operation of rechargeable batteries (secondary cells) with reference to discharging as a galvanic cell
and recharging as an electrolytic cell, including the redox principles (redox reactions and polarity of
electrodes) and the factors affecting battery life with reference to components and temperature (no specific
battery is required).
TIP: Some examples of secondary cells are provided in this subtopic. Although you are not
required to know the details of any specific cell, you should examine these examples and make
sure that you understand the principles behind their operation. It is expected that you should be
able to apply these principles in an examination, rather than just restating facts that you have
learnt.
7.7.1 What is a secondary cell?

A secondary cell is essentially a galvanic cell combined with an electrolytic cell.
Secondary cells, often referred to as rechargeable batteries, are devices that can be recharged when
they become ‘flat’. They are galvanic cells using spontaneous redox reactions to produce electricity during
discharge, but they become electrolytic cells converting electrical energy back into chemical energy when
they are recharged. To enable this to happen, they are designed so that the discharge products remain in
contact with the electrodes at which they are produced. The process of recharging involves connecting the
negative terminal of the charger to the negative terminal of the battery or cell, and the positive to the
positive. This forces the electrons to travel in the reverse direction and, because the discharge products
are still in contact with the electrodes, the original reactions are reversed. The cell or battery is, therefore,
recharged.

The lead–acid accumulator is a common example of a secondary cell that has been widely used for many
years. Other smaller more portable designs are now familiar to us. Although initially more expensive, their
ability to be recharged many hundreds of times makes them a cheaper alternative in the long-term.
7.7.2 Lead–acid accumulator

Developed in the late-nineteenth century, the lead–acid accumulator has remained the most common and
durable of battery technologies. Lead–acid accumulators are secondary cells. They have a relatively long
life and high current, and they are cheap to produce. Largely used in transport applications, they rely on
a direct current generator or alternator in the vehicle to apply enough voltage to reverse the spontaneous
electrochemical reaction that provides electricity for the car.
A 12-volt lead–acid storage battery consists of six 2-volt cells connected in series. The cells do not need
to be in separate compartments, although this improves performance (see figure 7.19).
FIGURE 7.19 (a) A motor vehicle battery (b) A lead–acid storage cell (c) A simplified cross-section of a lead–acid
battery
(a) (b) Pb anode cathode (c)

– + Pb/Sn grid
+ –
PbO2
H2SO4
porous
separator
H2SO4 PbO2 Pb
solution cathode anode
Each cell consists of two lead electrodes or grids. The grid structure provides a larger surface area for
electrode reactions. The grid that forms the anode (the negative terminal) of the cell is packed with spongy
lead. The grid that form the cathode (the positive terminal), is packed with lead(IV) oxide, PbO2 . The
electrodes are both immersed in approximately 4 M sulfuric acid and are separated by a porous plate.
The discharging process in a lead–acid accumulator

When a lead–acid accumulator discharges, it produces electric power to start the car. Discharge results from
a spontaneous redox reaction.
The half-equations at each electrode may be written as follows.
Anode (oxidation): Pb(s) + SO2−4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e

−
+ 2−
Cathode (reduction): PbO2 (s) + 4H (aq) + SO4 (aq) + 2e− → PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l)
At the anode, lead is oxidised to Pb2+ ions. These react immediately with the sulfuric acid solution to
produce insoluble lead(II) sulfate, which deposits on the grid.
At the cathode, lead(IV) oxide is reduced to Pb2+ ions, which again react with the sulfuric acid to form a
lead(II) sulfate deposit on the grid. The overall equation for the discharging reaction is:
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + Pb(s) + 2SO2−

4 (aq) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l)
Note that the pH of the cell increases during the discharge cycle.

The recharging process in a lead–acid accumulator

The products of the discharge process remain as a deposit on the electrodes. This means that the reactions
at these electrodes can be reversed by passing a current through the cell in the opposite direction. The
battery is then said to be recharging. When the battery is recharged, the electrode reactions are reversed
by connecting the terminals to another electrical source of higher voltage and reversing the direction of the
electric current through the circuit. Recharging occurs while the car is in motion.
While recharging, the flow of e− is reversed and the electrode forming the negatively-charged anode in
the discharging process becomes the negatively-charged cathode, where reduction occurs.
Cathode (reduction): PbSO4 (s) + 2e− → Pb(s) + SO2−

4 (aq)
The electrode previously forming the positively-charged cathode in the discharging process now becomes
the positively-charged anode, where oxidation occurs, in the recharging process.
+
Anode (oxidation): PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l) → PbO2 (s) + SO2−
4 (aq) + 4H (aq) + 2e
−
The overall reaction for the recharging process is therefore the reverse of the discharging process.
2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l) → PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + Pb(s) + 2SO2−
4 (aq)
FIGURE 7.20 Discharge/recharge effect on electrodes
lead lead(IV) oxide pH rises

anode cathode
– +
DISCHARGE
energy produced
4 M sulfuric acid coating of lead(II) sulfate

solution
– +
pH falls
(H2SO4
regenerated)
– +
cathode anode
RECHARGE
energy required from

external source
coating of lead(II) sulfate lead lead(IV) oxide
Note that the pH of the cell decreases during the recharge cycle.
This reaction is not spontaneous so a direct current must be applied in order for it to proceed. This is
achieved by the alternator (a motor-driven electrical source of higher voltage than the battery), which has
a potential difference of 14 V. The recharging process converts electrical energy into chemical energy and is
an example of an electrolytic reaction.
In theory, a lead storage battery can be recharged indefinitely, but in practice it may only last for about
four years. This is because small amounts of lead(II) sulfate continually fall from the electrodes and drop to
the bottom of the cell. Eventually, the electrodes lose so much lead(II) sulfate that the recharging process is
ineffective.

7.7.3 Nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) rechargeable cell

Although the nickel–cadmium (NiCd) cell was the first rechargeable cell to find widespread use in many
common household devices, it has largely been replaced today by the nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) cell.
This shares a number of features with the NiCd cell but is environmentally safer due to the absence of
cadmium. An additional problem with NiCd cells was the so-called memory effect. If the cell was only
partially discharged before recharging occurred, it would not receive a full charge. NiMH cells show much
less of this effect. They also have nearly 50% more charge per gram, can recharge faster and can run longer
on each charge.
The reactions involved during discharge to produce an electric current are:
Oxidation takes place at the (anode):
Anode: MH(s) + OH− (aq) → M(s) + H2 O(l) + e− (note the M here refers to a metal)
Reduction takes place at the positive electrode (cathode):
Cathode: NiO(OH)(s) + H2 O(l) + e− → Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH− (aq)
Overall equation for the discharging reaction is:

NiO(OH)(s) + MH(s) → Ni(OH)2 (s) + M(s)
Nickel–metal hydride batteries are similar to

FIGURE 7.21 A nickel–metal hydride cell for a digital
nickel–cadmium batteries except that a hydrogen- camera
absorbing metal is used as the anode. These metals
(M) can be alloys of lanthanum and rare earths. Key + top cover
The electrolyte is potassium hydroxide and the metal hydride anode
nickel cathode
voltage produced is 1.2 volts.
separator
Nickel–metal hydride batteries have many cathode lead
safety insulator
advantages but also some disadvantages. They
suffer from self–discharge — a problem that
is worse at higher temperatures — and require
more complicated charging devices to prevent
can
over–charging. They are used in laptops, electric
shavers and toothbrushes, cameras, camcorders,
mobile phones and medical instruments, and are
being developed for car batteries.
LITHIUM–ION BATTERIES
A new type of cell rapidly gaining popularity in portable devices
such as digital cameras, phones and computers is the lithium–ion FIGURE 7.22 The Mars Exploration
battery. These cells have a good shelf life and a very high Rovers Spirit and Opportunity were
energy density; they supply a voltage of about 3.7 volts, which powered by lithium–ion batteries,
is more than double that of most other cells. However, their which are light and reliable.
state of charge needs to be monitored carefully. If they are
over–discharged, they cannot be recharged. On the other hand,
if they are over–charged, serious safety concerns may arise. To
prevent both of these extremes, they are nearly always produced
with a protection circuit that prevents both of these situations from
arising, but this adds to their cost.

Find out more about this type of cell, specifically:

• The voltage they produce
• The reactions that produce the electricity
• The operating conditions that they are designed for
• Safety concerns, especially ‘thermal runaway’.
7.7.4 Factors affecting battery life

While there are specialist batteries designed to operate at extreme temperatures, the majority of batteries
used today are designed to operate over an optimum range of temperatures that encompass normal room
temperature. If they are used outside this range, breakdowns in both the electrochemistry and their physical
components may occur, rendering the battery inoperative and even dangerous.
Each battery type also has its own specific problems related to temperature and componentry. In a
lead–acid accumulator over-discharge thickens the layers of lead sulfate that build up on the electrodes.
Particles can break off and fall to the base of the cell, thereby lowering the amount remaining for recharge.
In extreme cases, due to the closeness of the electrodes, internal short circuits may also occur if the
insulation is damaged and the electrodes touch. At low temperatures, especially if the sulfuric acid content
is low (because of a low state of charge), the electrolyte may even freeze and cause damage to the battery
on expansion. If temperatures are too high, due to over-charging or the operating environment, the plates
(electrodes) may buckle, damaging the insulation between them and possibly leading to internal short
circuits. Unwanted side reactions are more likely to occur.
7.7 EXERCISE
1. During the recharging process for the lead–acid accumulator, will the pH of the contents rise or fall? Explain.
2. Explain why the positive terminal of the charging device must be connected to the positive terminal of the
battery, and the negative to the negative, when a rechargeable battery is to be recharged.
3. The nickel-cadmium rechargeable cell was a widely-used predecessor to today’s nickel–metal hydride cells
and lithium–ion cells. The figure shows some of the components of this type of cell.
+ electrode
(+): NiO(OH)
separator
(–): cadmium
separator
– electrode
The cell contains cadmium and NiO(OH) as its reactants. These are kept apart by a porous separator that
has been soaked in KOH. During discharge, the reaction at the anode is:
Cd(s) + 2OH− (aq) → Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e−
Cd(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2 O(l) → Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s)

(a) Write the equation that occurs at the cathode during recharging.
(b) During recharging, what terminal of the recharging device should the anode be connected to?
(c) Write the equation for the overall cell reaction during the recharging process.
(d) Write the equation for the reaction that occurs at the anode during recharging.
4. Batteries based on vanadium chemistry are increasingly being used to store energy from solar panels.
During the day, solar cells store energy in the battery as it is charged. At night, the battery functions as a
galvanic cell, producing electricity to power the household.
The two relevant half-equations for the functioning of this battery are:
2+
VO+
2
(aq) + 2H+ (aq) + e− → VO (aq) + H2 O(l) E 0 = +1.00 V
2+
V3+ (aq) + e− → V (aq) E 0 = −0.26 V
(a) Write the overall equation for this battery as it is discharging.

(b) Write the overall equation for this battery as it is recharging.
(c) Write the half-equations for the reactions occurring at each electrode as the cell recharges.
5. The Edison cell is a 1.3-volt storage battery that can be recharged, even after long periods of being left
uncharged. Its electrolyte is 21% potassium hydroxide solution and the reaction on discharge is:
Fe(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2 O(l) → Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s)
(a) Give electrode reactions during:

i. discharging
ii. recharging.
(b) What materials would be used for the electrodes?
(c) In the discharge process, which electrode is the anode and which is the cathode?
(d) In the recharge process, which electrode is the anode and which is the cathode?

7.8 Review
7.8.1 Summary
What is electrolysis?
• Electrolysis is the process by which electricity passes through a molten ionic compound or through an
electrolyte solution to produce new substances.
• The apparatus in which electrolysis occurs is called an electrolytic cell.
• Solutes that form solutions that can conduct electricity are called electrolytes.
• The electrolysis of a single molten salt forms products that are easily predicted.
• The electrolysis of water to which a tiny amount of electrolyte has been added forms hydrogen gas and
oxygen gas.
Predicting reactions that occur during electrolysis
• The products of the electrolysis of molten ionic compounds are predictable whereas the products of the
electrolysis of an aqueous solution may be affected by factors including concentration, the nature of
the electrolyte and the nature of the electrodes.
• The electrochemical series can be used to predict reactions where more than one species is available
for reaction at an electrode.
• Cations of reactive metals, including aluminium, cannot be reduced from aqueous solutions because
water is a stronger oxidising agent and is preferentially reduced.

Commercial applications of electrolysis

• Electrolysis can be used to produce highly reactive elements such as the strong reducing agent metals
in groups 1 and 2 in the periodic table, as well as chlorine and fluorine, because production by
chemical reduction is not practical.
• Chlorine, sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas can be produced industrially in the membrane cell
according to the overall reaction:
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2 O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
• Aluminium can be produced industrially by the Hall–Héroult process according to the overall
equation:
2Al2 O3 (l) + 3C(s) → 4Al(l) + 3CO2 (g)
•Electroplating is the process of coating an object with a thin film of metal deposited from an
electrolytic solution by electrolysis.
• In electroplating, the object to be plated is always connected to the cathode.
Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells
• Electrolytic cells differ from galvanic cells in a number of ways, which are summarised in the
following table.
Factor Galvanic cell Electrolytic cell

Type of
reaction Spontaneous redox reaction Non-spontaneous redox reaction
Energy Produce electricity Require energy
Two half-cells connected by a wire One cell, connecting wires and an
(external circuit) and a salt bridge external power supply (e.g. battery,
Structure (internal circuit) DC power supply)
Anode Negatively charged, oxidation Positively charged, oxidation
Cathode Positively charged, reduction Negatively charged, reduction
Source of
electrons Reducing agent External power supply
Calculations in electrolysis using Faraday’s Laws

• Faraday’s Laws can be applied to a range of problems involving quantitative calculations in
electrolysis.
• Faraday’s first law of electrolysis can be summarised as:
Q = It,
where:
Q is the electric charge in coulombs
I is the current in amperes
t is the time in seconds.

• Faraday’s second law of electrolysis can be summarised as:
Q
number of moles of electrons, n(e− ) =
F
where F is the Faraday constant representing the quantity of charge carried by 1 mole of electrons (96
500 coulombs).
Rechargeable batteries (secondary cells)
• Secondary cells are electrochemical cells that can be recharged by reversing the spontaneous forward
reaction through the application of a DC power source.
• The lead–acid accumulator is a secondary cell that is rechargeable; its largest use is to power transport
vehicles. The discharging reaction for the operation of a lead–acid accumulator produces 12 volts and
is represented by the overall equation:
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + Pb(s) + 2SO2−

4 (aq) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l)
The recharging process is the reverse of the discharging process and requires approximately 14 volts of
DC power to occur according to the reaction:
2PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l) → PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + Pb(s) + 2SO2−
4 (aq)
• The nickel–metal hydride cell takes advantage of the property that some metal alloys have of storing
hydrogen atoms. The overall equation representing discharge is:
NiO(OH)(s) + MH(s) → Ni(OH)2 (s) + M(s)
• Battery life can be affected by temperature, depth of discharge and operating voltage. These can
reduce its ability to be fully recharged and affect its safe operation.
• Physical factors that affect the integrity of a battery’s construction will also affect its life.
Resources
7.8.2 Key terms
anode the electrode at which oxidation occurs. In a galvanic cell, it is the negative electrode, because it is the
source of negative electrons for the circuit. If the reducing agent is a metal, it is used as the electrode material.
cathode the electrode at which reduction occurs. In a galvanic cell, it is the positive electrode, because the
negative electrons are drawn towards it and then consumed by the oxidising agent, which is present in the
electrolyte.
electrolysis the decomposition of a chemical substance (in solution or the molten state) by the application of
electrical energy
electrolytic cell an electric cell in which a non-spontaneous redox reaction is made to occur by the application of
an external potential difference across the electrodes
electroplating adding a thin metal coating by electrolysis
Faraday constant a constant that represents the amount of electric charge carried by 1 mole of electrons

Faradays first law of electrolysis The amount of current passed through an electrode is directly proportional to
the amount of material released from it.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis When the same quantity of electricity is passed through several
electrolytes, the mass of the substances deposited are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent
or equivalent weight.
Hall–Héroult the method of aluminium production used in primary aluminium smelters throughout the world
lead–acid accumulator a battery with lead electrodes using dilute sulfuric acid as the electrolyte; each cell
generates about 2 volts
membrane cell used for the electrolysis of brine
recharging forcing electrons to travel in the reverse direction and, because the discharge products are still in
contact with the electrodes, the original reactions are reversed
secondary cell a cell that can be recharged once its production of electric current drops; often called a
rechargeable battery
Resources
Digital documents Key terms glossary - Topic 7 (doc-31409)
Experiment 7.1
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions
Aim: To conduct electrolysis on aqueous solutions and test for the products at
each electrode
Experiment 7.3
Electroplating
Aim: To plate a piece of copper with nickel metal
Resources
Experiment 7.2 Factors affecting electrolysis (student design) (doc-31265)

7.8 Exercises
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question

1. In an electrolytic cell:
A. the cathode is positive and it is the site of reduction
B. the cathode is negative and it is the site of oxidation
C. the anode is positive and it is the site of reduction
D. the cathode receives electrons from the external power source.
2. During the operation of an electrolytic cell:
A. there is a flow of electrons through the solution between the cathode and anode
B. inert electrodes must always be used
C. a salt bridge is required to complete the circuit
D. electrical energy is converted into chemical energy.
3. Which of the following statements about reactions in electrochemical cells and electrolytic cells is
correct?
A. Oxidation occurs at the anode of electrochemical cells and at the cathode of electrolytic cells.
B. Electrochemical cell reactions are spontaneous whereas electrolytic cell reactions are driven by
external power supplies.
C. Electrochemical cell reactions are redox reactions whereas electrolytic cell reactions are deposition
reactions.
D. Oxidation occurs at the positive electrode in both electrochemical and electrolytic cells.
4. Which of the following occurs in the electrolysis of molten potassium bromide?
A. Potassium is produced at the anode.
B. Potassium ions are oxidised at the cathode.
C. Bromine gas is produced at the cathode.
D. Bromide ions are oxidised at the anode.
5. In the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using inert electrodes, which of the following occurs?
A. Chlorine gas is produced at the cathode and oxygen gas is produced at the anode.
B. Chlorine gas is produced at the anode and oxygen gas is produced at the cathode.
C. Chlorine gas is produced at the cathode and sodium metal is produced at the anode.
D. Chlorine gas is produced at the anode and sodium metal is produced at the cathode.
6. An electrolytic cell consists of two carbon electrodes and an electrolyte of aqueous sodium chloride to
which phenolphthalein has been added. When an electric current is passed through the cell:
A. bubbles of chlorine appear at the cathode
B. bubbles of hydrogen appear at the anode
C. a pink colour surrounds the cathode
D. sodium metal collects at the cathode.
7. Consider the following standard reduction potentials.
Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Zn(s) E 0 = −0.76 V

2H+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) E 0 = 0.00 V
Ag+ (aq) + e− ⇌ Ag(s) E 0 = +0.80 V
2H2 O(l) + 2e− ⇌ H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) E 0 = −0.83 V
Which product would be liberated first at the cathode if a solution containing Zn(NO3 )2 and AgNO3
is electrolysed with platinum electrodes?

A. H2 (g)
B. Ag(s)
C. Zn(s)
D. OH− (aq)
8. Which of the following groups of substances would normally be extracted by electrolysis in a
non-aqueous environment?
A. Iron, nickel and chromium
B. Gold, copper, silver and platinum
C. Magnesium, aluminium, sodium and chlorine
D. Oxygen, neon, argon and nitrogen.
9. When concentrated brine solution is electrolysed in the membrane cell, the electrode products are:
A. Na(l) and Cl2 (g)
B. H2 (g) and O2 (g)
C. Na(l) and O2 (g)
D. H2 (g), Cl2 (g) and NaOH(aq).
10. A solution contains CuCl2 , NiCl2 and ZnCl2 , with each solute being at 1 M concentration. The solution
is electrolysed using graphite electrodes. Which of the following reactions takes place first at the
cathode?
A. Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
B. Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− → Ni(s)
C. Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s)
D. 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e−
11. In the electrolytic extraction of aluminium from its oxide, a substance called cryolite is used. Which of
the following best describes the function of cryolite in this process?
A. It oxidises alumina.
B. It reduces alumina.
C. It acts to absorb ore impurities from the alumina.
D. It acts as a solvent for alumina.
12. In a rechargeable battery:
A. the negatively charged cathode in the discharging reaction becomes the positively charged anode in
the recharging process
B. the negatively charged cathode in the discharging reaction becomes the negatively charged anode in
C. the positively charged cathode in the discharging reaction becomes the positively charged anode in
D. the positively charged cathode in the discharging reaction becomes the negatively charged anode in
the recharging process.
13. During the discharging process in a lead–acid accumulator:
A. the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ , increases, resulting in an increase in pH
B. the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ , decreases, resulting in a decrease in pH
C. the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ , increases, resulting in a decrease in pH
D. the concentration of hydrogen ions, H+ , decreases, resulting in an increase in pH.
14. The cathode reaction during discharge in a nickel–metal hydride cell is:
NiO(OH)(s) + H2 O(l) + e− → Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH− (aq)
During recharging, which of the following statements is correct?

A. Nickel is reduced from the +3 to +2 oxidation state.
B. Oxidation of nickel occurs from the +2 to the +3 oxidation state.
C. The reverse of the reaction occurs at the negative electrode.
D. Oxidation occurs at the surface of the negative electrode.

15. Consider two electrolytic cells connected in series. Cell 1 contained copper(II) sulfate solution with
copper electrodes and cell 2 contained copper(II) chloride solution with platinum electrodes. Current
was passed for a fixed time, after which the electrodes and electrolytes in each cell were examined. The
mass of the cathode in cell 2 was found to have increased by 1.6 g.
The anode of cell 1 would have:
A. increased by 1.6 g
B. remained unchanged in mass
C. given off oxygen gas
D. decreased in mass by 1.6 g.

1. Complete the following table to summarise what happens at each electrode during electrolysis of NaCl
in different forms.
Reaction at
Electrolyte type Electrodes Anode(+) Cathode(−)
Molten salt Inert
1 M aqueous salt solution Inert
6 M aqueous salt solution Inert
2. In the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, explain:

a. why electricity is conducted in the molten state but not in the solid state
b. why the products are formed only around the electrodes and not throughout the liquid
c. what causes the electric current to flow in the liquid and in the connecting wires.
3. For each of the following molten components, predict the products at the anode and cathode, determine
the minimum cell voltage required for the electrolysis (using carbon electrodes) and write an overall
equation.
a. sodium bromide
b. aluminium hydroxide
c. lead(II) chloride
d. magnesium chloride
4. For each of the following, predict the products at the anode and cathode, determine the minimum cell
voltage required for the electrolysis (using carbon electrodes) of 1.0 M aqueous solutions and write an
overall equation.
a. potassium hydroxide
b. potassium sulfate
c. magnesium chloride
d. zinc bromide
e. sodium iodide
f. hydrochloric acid
g. sulfuric acid
5. For each of the following, predict the products at the anode and cathode, determine the minimum cell
voltage required for the electrolysis of 1.0 M aqueous solutions and write an overall equation
a. copper(II) chloride
b. copper(II) sulfate
using:
i. carbon electrodes
ii. copper electrodes.

6. In what ways are galvanic and electrolytic cells:

a. similar?
b. different?
7. Why are lead–acid accumulators often referred to as storage batteries?
8. Which of the following temperature ranges would be expected to result in the greatest number of
recharge cycles for most rechargeable batteries? Explain.
a. 30 °C to 45 °C
b. 25 °C to 35 °C
c. 5 °C to 25 °C
d. −10 °C to 10 °C
9. Sketch an electrolytic cell that could be used to plate copper onto a tin keyring. On your sketch,
label the:
a. anode and cathode
b. direction of electron flow
c. nature of each electrode
d. electrode polarity
e. equations occurring at each electron.
10. How many faradays are needed to produce:
a. 1.0 mole of copper
b. 2.5 moles of hydrogen gas from water
c. 15 g of aluminium
d. 5.3 g of sodium
e. 87 mL of oxygen gas from water at SLC?
11. Chromium chloride is electrolysed using chromium electrodes. A current of 0.200 A flows for 1447
seconds. The increase in the mass of the cathode is 0.0520 g.
a. How many coulombs of electricity are used?
b. How many moles of electrons are transferred?
c. How many moles of chromium are liberated?
d. What is the charge on the chromium ion?
12. a. What volumes of hydrogen gas, H2 , and oxygen gas, O2 , are produced from the electrolysis of water
by a current of 2.50 A in 15.0 minutes at SLC?
b. Identify the reactions occurring at the electrodes in the reaction in question 12a.
13. Sir Humphry Davy discovered sodium by electrolysing molten sodium hydroxide. How long must a
current of 1.5 A flow to produce 1 g of sodium? Give your answer in minutes.
14. A given quantity of electricity is passed through three cells connected in series. These cells contain
solutions of silver nitrate, tin (II) chloride and magnesium chloride respectively, all at 1 M
concentration. All cells have inert electrodes. After a period of time it is observed that 2 g of silver has
been deposited in the first cell.
a. What mass of tin would have been deposited in the second cell?
b. What mass of magnesium would have been deposited in the third cell?
15. A home renovator wants to chrome-plate her kitchen tap so that a layer of chromium 0.150 mm thick is
evenly plated over the tap. The total surface area of the tap is 35.0 cm2 . Given that the density of
chromium is 7.20 g cm−3 , calculate the time (in hours) that the tap should be left in the electrolytic bath
of chromium(III) nitrate if the bath has a current of 4.55 A passing through it.

An aqueous solution of NiBr2 is electrolysed using inert electrodes.
a. Sketch the cell showing:
i. the direction of current flow in the external circuit and through the electrolyte
ii. the cathode and anode, and their polarity. 2 marks
b. Write half-equations for the expected reactions at each electrode, and then write the overall
equation. 3 marks
c. Calculate the minimum voltage needed to electrolyse the solution under standard conditions
(SLC). 1 mark
d. Explain how the products of electrolysis would differ if nickel electrodes were used. 3 marks
After Millikan showed that the charge on an electron was 1.6 × 10−19 coulomb, electrolytic reactions were
used to obtain accurate estimates of the Avogadro constant. Consider a current of 0.10 A flowing through an
electrolytic solution to produce a deposit of 0.10 g of copper.
a. Find the charge passing through the cell if the time taken for the deposit was 50 minutes and
40 seconds. 1 mark
b. Calculate the amount of copper produced. 1 mark
c. Write the equation for the reaction and calculate the number of moles of electrons
consumed. 2 marks
d. Calculate the charge on 1 mole of electrons. 1 mark
e. Calculate the Avogadro constant, given that the charge on an electron is 1.6 × 10−19
coulombs. 1 mark
What mass (in kg) of chlorine gas is produced in 1 hour in an electrolytic cell using a concentrated NaCl
electrolyte, given that the current is 1.40 × 103 A and the cell’s efficiency is 90%? 5 marks
Sodium is made commercially by the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride in a Downs cell. This
cell contains an iron cathode and a carbon anode, and design features to collect and keep the products
of electrolysis separate. A number of methods can be used to reduce the melting temperature of the
sodium chloride and save on energy costs. A common method is to add an amount of calcium chloride to
the melt.
The following diagram shows the essential features of this cell.
recharge
Cl2(g)
of NaCl
carbon electrode
molten NaCl
Na
(liquid)
cathode
perforated
iron plate anode

a. Which electrode forms the positive electrode and which electrode forms the negative electrode? 1 mark
b. Write the equation for the half-reaction occurring at the anode. 1 mark
c. Write the equation for the half reaction occurring at the cathode. 1 mark
d. Suggest why the perforated iron plate, shown in the diagram, is important for the safe operation of
this cell. 1 mark
e. Explain why the carbon electrode cannot be replaced with an iron electrode. 3 marks
f. Explain why the addition of calcium chloride does not interfere with the production
of sodium. 2 marks
g. Calculate the volume of Cl2 gas, measured at SLC, that would be produced when this cell operates with a
current of 2.50 A for 12.00 hours. 3 marks
Both silver and gold may be electroplated onto an object to make it more attractive or resistant to corrosion.
The electroplating of silver uses a silver anode and an aqueous solution that contains silver cyanide
(AgCN). The electroplating of gold uses an inert anode and an aqueous solution containing potassium gold
(I) cyanide (KAu(CN2 ).
a. To which electrode does the object to be electroplated need to be attached? 1 mark
b. Write the equation for the reaction occurring at the cathode
i. during silver plating
ii. during gold plating 2 marks
c. Write the equation for the reaction occurring at the anode
i. during silver plating
ii. during gold plating 2 marks
d. Explain why a silver anode can be used for silver plating but a gold anode cannot be used for gold
plating. 1 mark
e. The concentration of the relevant ion in the electrolyte is one of the factors that determines the
quality of the coating. Why does this have to be monitored more closely in gold plating than in silver
plating? 1 mark
f. Calculate the mass of gold deposited when a current of 3.00 A flows for 100 seconds. 3 marks

Access Course Content and select ‘Past VCAA examinations to sit the examination online or offline.
Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2 How can yield of processes be

optimised?
OUTCOME 2
Apply rate and equilibrium principles to predict how the rate and extent of reactions can be optimised, and explain how
electrolysis is involved in the production of chemicals and in the recharging of batteries.
A 20 20
B 5 30
Total 50
Information:
Resources
SECTION A − Multiple choice questions

1. Select the correct statement about electrolysis.

A. A spontaneous chemical reaction produces an electric current.
B. Chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.
C. Electrons flow in the internal circuit.
D. The passage of an electric current through an electrolyte causes a chemical reaction.
2. Select the incorrect statement about electrolytic cells.
A. Oxidation occurs at the anode.
B. The cathode is positive.
C. Anions travel to the anode.
D. Electrons travel from anode to cathode.
3. In the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride:
A. sodium is produced at the cathode
B. sodium is produced at the anode
C. chlorine is reduced
D. sodium is the reducing agent.

4. Electrolysis of water can be carried out using an acidic or alkaline electrolyte in low concentration. As
electrolysis occurs, the overall pH of the electrolyte will:
A. increase
B. decrease
C. remain the same because the electrolyte is not a reactant
D. remain the same due to the products formed.
5. Using inert electrodes, what will the product at the anode be when CuSO4 (aq) is electrolysed?
A. Cu(s)
B. SO2 (g)
C. Cu2+ (aq)
D. O2 (g)
6. Using copper electrodes, what will the product at the anode be when CuSO4 (aq) is electrolysed?
A. Cu(s)
B. SO2 (g)
C. Cu2+ (aq)
D. O2 (g)
7. When a spoon is electroplated with silver, the spoon:
A. is the cathode and accepts electrons
B. is the cathode and donates electrons
C. is the anode and accepts electrons
D. is the anode and donates electrons.
8. Consider the following equations for when a lead-acid accumulator is discharging.
2−
Pb(s) + SO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e−
2−
PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + SO4 (aq) + 2e− → PbSO4 (s) + 2H 2O (l)
The correct equation for the reaction at the anode when the cell is recharging is:
2−
A. PbO2 (s) + 4H+ (aq) + SO4 (aq) + 2e− → PbSO4 (s) + 2H 2O (l)
2−
B. Pb(s) + SO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + 2e−
2−
C. PbSO4 (s) + 2e− → Pb(s) + SO4 (aq)
2−
D. PbSO4 (s) + 2H2 O(l) → PbO2 (s) + SO4 (aq) + 4H+ (aq) + 2e−
9. A solution of iron(II)sulfate is electrolysed by a current of 6.0 A for 5.0 minutes. What is the mass of iron
deposited?
A. 1.04 g
B. 0.35 g
C. 0.52 g
D. 0.017 g
10. Which of the following is required for a battery to be rechargeable?
A. The products of discharge must be solid.
B. The products of discharge must remain in contact with the electrodes.
C. The electrolyte must be acidic.
D. Water must not be present in the battery.
11. At a particle level, reactions occur when:
A. particles collide at a certain angle
B. particles collide with high energy
C. particles collide with sufficient energy and at the correct orientation
D. a catalyst is used.

12. Which of the following is not a suitable method for determining changes in the rate of a reaction?
A. Measuring the volume of a gas evolved every 10 seconds for one minute
B. Measuring the change in intensity of the colour of a solution using colorimetry every 30 seconds for five
minutes
C. Measuring the change in pH every second using a pH probe until a colour change is observed
D. Measuring the time it takes for a gas to stop forming in a reaction.
13. When a sample of gas is heated:
A. the area under the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve increases
B. the average speed of the molecules increases
C. the molecules are more able to collide with the correct orientation
D. the activation energy for the reaction decreases.
14. What are the expression for the equilibrium constant and the units, respectively, for the reaction:
2HI(g) → H2 (g) + I2 (g)?
[H2 ][I2 ]
A. ,M
[HI]2
[H2 ][I2 ]
B. , no units
[HI]2
[HI]2
C. ,M
[H2 ][I2 ]
[HI]2
D. , no units
[H2 ][I2 ]
15. When a system is at equilibrium, it can be said that:
A. The forward and backward reaction are occurring at the same rate
B. The forward and backward reaction have stopped
C. The forward and backward reaction are both occurring to the same extent
D. The concentration of reactants and products is equal.
16.
CO
Concentration (M)
CO2
H2O
H2
t1 t2 t3
Time
What is the correct equation for the reaction illustrated?

A. CO2 (g) + H2 (g) ⇌ CO(g) + H2 O(l)
B. CO2 (g) + 2H2 (g) ⇌ 2H2 O(l) + CO(g)
C. CO(g) + H2 O(l) ⇌ CO2 (g) + H2 (g)
D. CO(g) + H2 O(g) → CO2 (g) + H2 (g)

17. Consider the following reaction.
2NO(g) + Br2 (g) ⇌ 2NOBr(g)
If an inert gas is injected into the system when it is at equilibrium, what will happen?
A. The rate of the reaction will increase.
B. The position of equilibrium will shift to the right.
C. The position of equilibrium will shift to the left.
D. The position of equilibrium will remain the same.
18. Which of the following can change the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc?
A. Changing pressure
B. Changing temperature
C. Changing volume
D. Adding or removing a substance
19. The equilibrium constant, Kc, for the following reaction at 25 °C is 4.2 M−1 .
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) ⇌ 2SO3 (g)
What is the numerical value of Kc for:
2SO3 (g) ⇌ 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g)
A. −4.2 M
B. 4.2 M
C. 2.1 M
D. 0.24 M
20. Making methanol on a commercial scale involves the following reaction.
The ideal conditions for maximum yield of product for this reaction would be:
A. High temperature, high pressure
B. High temperature, low pressure
C. Low temperature, high pressure
D. Low temperature, low pressure

Explain how using a catalyst affects:

a. The rate of a reaction 2 marks
b. The extent of a reaction. 1 mark
Consider the following reaction.
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) ⇌ 4NO(g) + 6H2 O(g)∆H = −900 kJ mol−1
An initial mixture where all concentrations were 2.0 M was allowed to reach equilibrium. At equilibrium, the
concentration of NO(g) was found to be 1.4 M.
a. Calculate the equilibrium constant, Kc, for the equation. 4 marks
b. What can be said about the position of equilibrium? 1 mark
c. Predict the effect of an increase in temperature, with reasoning, on:
i. The rate of reaction 1 mark
ii. The position of equilibrium. 2 marks
d. Predict the effect of a decrease in pressure, with reasoning, on:
i. The rate of reaction 1 mark
ii. The position of equilibrium. 2 marks
Using graphite electrodes, 1.0 M MgCl2 (aq) undergoes electrolysis.

a. Write the oxidation and reduction half-equations when electrolysis is occurring. 2 marks
b. Determine the overall equation for the reaction. 1 mark
c. Determine minimum cell voltage required. 1 mark
d. How would the products differ if concentrated MgCl2 (aq) was electrolysed? 1 mark
e. Write the half-equation for the negative electrode if the magnesium chloride was molten. 2 marks
Chromium chloride undergoes electrolysis using chromium electrodes. A current of 0.400 A flows for 1.00 hour.
The increase in mass of the cathode is 0.259 g.
What is the charge on the chromium ion?
In a zinc–cerium secondary cell, the following reactions occur during discharge.

Electrode 1: Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s)
3+
Electrode 2: Ce4+ (aq) → Ce (aq) + e−
a. When recharging:
i. Which electrode do electrons flow towards? 1 mark
ii. Which electrode is negative? 1 mark
iii. What will happen to the mass of electrode 1? 1 mark
b. Write the overall reaction when the cell is recharging. 1 mark

ASSESSMENT task − Media analysis

In this task you will analyse three articles related to aluminium production and industry.
Total time: 55 minutes (5 minutes reading time, 50 minutes writing time)
The aluminium industry

For this practice SAC, you will analyse the three articles related to aluminium production and industry in the
Resources tab. Answer the following questions by referring to what you have learnt in class and interpreting the
three articles in the Resources tab. Remember to answer each question fully and refer to relevant data to show
evidence of understanding.
1. What are the three stages of producing aluminium? Explain each stage of production in detail.
2. What factors must be considered when setting up a refinery?
3. Based on the articles, summarise the impact of aluminium, alumina and bauxite commodities in Australia.
4. How does the aluminium industry contribute to environmental damage?
5. In October 2017, the Chinese government pledged a commitment to carry out further air pollution
crackdowns at the 19th National Congress. State if and how you think this will impact the aluminium
production industry in Australia by referring to relevant data.
6. Why does the general trend in bauxite exports continue to increase?
7. (a) What is the main region in Australia for bauxite production? How much does it produce per year and
why is this so?
(b) Based on the data, how many refineries, smelters and operating mines are in Australia?
8. The United States Administration has imposed a 10 per cent tariff on aluminium imports into the United
States following the US Department of Commerce’s release of investigations into the national security
impact of aluminium and steel imports. How will this affect the United States, Australia and the rest of the
world? Refer to Box 11.1 in the third article to answer this question.
9. Explain how electricity prices affect aluminium smelters. What other obstacles are currently facing the
aluminium industry?
10. Using information from both articles, provide evidence to support your opinion on the future of the
aluminium industry.
Resources
Weblinks Australia’s major export commodities: aluminium, alumina and bauxite (2017)
Boyne aluminium smelter poised to slash workforce, lower production
Aluminium, alumina and bauxite: Resources and energy quarterly, March 2018 (for question 9 only)

UNIT 4
HOW ARE ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS CATEGORISED,
ANALYSED AND USED?
Although organic compounds make up a
relatively small proportion of the Earth, their
diversity is extraordinary, and life, in any form,
could not exist without organic chemistry.
There are more than 9 million known organic
compounds. This diversity is due to the ability
of carbon to form stable bonds with four other
elements, and is enhanced by the creation of
isomers. With the vast number of carbon
compounds possible, a systematic, worldwide
naming system has been developed to allow
this variety of molecules to be identified.
The millions of organic compounds known
to chemists are mainly covalent molecules.
These could be simple molecules, such
as methane and ethanol, or macromolecules,
such as polyethene and proteins. The trends
in physical properties of organic compounds,
such as melting point, boiling point, viscosity, flashpoint and solubility, and their behaviours can be deduced from their
structure, including size, shape, structure, degree of polarisation of their covalent bonds, and the presence of any
functional groups. These factors depend on the strength of the intermolecular forces present.
Organic reactions are examined to understand the formation of other organic compound groups, which can be
recognised through a variety of analytical techniques. This study of organic compounds is extended to the chemistry of
food, which provides both the energy and raw materials that humans need. Hydrolysis reactions break down the food
while condensation reactions create new biomolecules necessary for growth and repair.
AREA OF STUDY OUTCOME CHAPTERS

1. How can the diversity Compare the general structures and 8. Structure and nomenclature of
of carbon compounds reactions of the major organic families of organic compounds
be explained and compounds, deduce structures of organic 9. Categories, properties and
categorised? compounds using instrumental analysis reactions of organic compounds
data, and design reaction pathways for the 10. Analysis of organic compounds
synthesis of organic molecules.
2. What is the chemistry Distinguish between the chemical structures 11. Key food molecules
of food? of key food molecules, analyse the chemical 12. Metabolism of food in the
reactions involved in the metabolism of the human body
major components of food including the 13. Energy content of food
role of enzymes, and calculate the energy
content of food using calorimetry.
3. Practical investigation Design and undertake a practical inves- 14. Practical investigation
tigation related to energy and/or food,
and present methodologies, findings and
conclusions in a scientific poster.
AREA OF STUDY 1
HOW CAN THE DIVERSITY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS BE EXPLAINED AND CATEGORISED?
8 Structure and nomenclature

of organic compounds
8.1 Overview
8.1.1 Introduction
Plastics, fuels, medicines, and simple and complex life forms are all part of the millions of natural or
synthetic organic compounds that exist. To understand the basics of organic chemistry, we need to learn
about carbon and why its unique chemical properties allow it to become a part of so many different organic
compounds. We need to understand how these molecules are put together and how they exist physically
and react chemically. Students of organic chemistry learn how to represent and name these molecules using
a set of rules and symbols. It’s a bit like learning a new language: the further you go the more complex it
becomes.
Organic compounds are marketed and sold to us every day, but they might not be instantly recognisable.
For example, Prozac is the brand name given to a medication that treats a variety of conditions including
depression and anxiety. Calling it ‘Prozac’ is a lot easier than using its systematic name: N-methyl-3-
phenyl-3-4-(trifluoromethyl)phenoxypropan-1-amine!
However, Prozac and other commercial names are variations used to market the same chemical. To
avoid confusion, a naming system maintained by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC) is used to classify organic compounds. This ensures consistency in the way the scientific
community names and classifies organic compounds.
FIGURE 8.1 Prozac (a) as a chemical structure and (b) as capsules prescribed by doctors.
(a) (b)
In this topic you will examine carbon and its tendency to bond with itself and other elements in many
stable forms that result in compounds with diverse chemical and physical properties. These compounds are
named systematically and can be drawn as full structures, semi-structures and skeletal structures of familiar
functional groups including alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters. Amines and
the application of rules for naming compounds that contain two functional groups on the same molecule are
introduced.
TOPIC 8 Structure and nomenclature of organic compounds 259

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the carbon atom with reference to valence number, bond strength, stability of carbon bonds with other
elements and the formation of isomers (structural and stereoisomers) to explain carbon compound
diversity, including identification of chiral centres in optical isomers of simple organic compounds and
distinction between cis- and trans- isomers in simple geometric isomers
• structures including molecular, structural and semi-structural formulas of alkanes (including cyclohexane),
alkenes, alkynes, benzene, haloalkanes, primary amines, primary amides, alcohols (primary, secondary,
tertiary), aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and non-branched esters
• IUPAC systematic naming of organic compounds up to C8 with no more than two functional groups for a
molecule, limited to non-cyclic hydrocarbons, haloalkanes, primary amines, alcohols (primary, secondary,
tertiary), carboxylic acids and non-branched esters.
Resources
8.2 The carbon atom

KEY CONCEPT
• The carbon atom with reference to valence number, bond strength, stability of carbon bonds with other
elements
8.2.1 Carbon: a remarkable element

The carbon atom is the one constant in the millions of organic compounds either found in natural
substances or made (synthesised) in the laboratory. This incredible variety can even be seen in samples of
pure carbon, which exist in different chemical and physical forms. The different physical forms in which an
element can exist are called allotropes.
Carbon is found in so many compounds due to its arrangement of electrons. You may recall from Unit 1
that electron shells contain three-dimensional regions of space, called orbitals, where electrons at any given
time may be found around the nucleus of an atom. The number of electrons, shells, and potentially occupied
orbitals are collectively known as an element’s electron configuration.
Carbon is located at the top of group 14 of the periodic table of elements. This location is determined not
only by the six protons in a carbon nucleus (atomic number) but also the electron configuration. A neutral
carbon atom will have six electrons occupying its orbitals and these are situated in the first two electron
shells of the atom.

FIGURE 8.2 Allotropes — different physical forms of carbon (a) diamond, (b) carbon nanotube, (c) glassy carbon,
(d) graphite pencil.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Valence number 4 FIGURE 8.3 Carbon atom

The valence number of an element refers to the number of electrons demonstrating four valence
occupying the orbitals in the outermost electron shell. Only two of electrons.
carbon’s six electrons occupy the first electron shell, therefore, the
remaining four valence electrons are found in the second, outermost shell.
These four electrons are available for bonding.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF CARBON

The first two electron shells of carbon have a different number and type of orbitals. Each atomic orbital can hold a
maximum number of two electrons. However, each orbital can contain one or two electrons, or none at all.
The first and second electron shells of a carbon atom have one s orbital each (called 1s and 2s respectively),
and the valence shell has three p orbitals. An s orbital is a spherical shape around the nucleus; p orbitals are
often described as having a dumbbell shape.
Figure 8.4 shows the orientation of the orbitals in three dimensions. If you are sitting at a table, reading this
from your text book, the x- and y-planes cover the length and width of your page. The z-plane extends out of the
page towards your eyes and behind the page towards your feet.
FIGURE 8.4 Electron shell orbitals of carbon

z z z z
y y y y
s x px x py x pz x
In its lowest energy state (ground state), the electron configuration of carbon is
FIGURE 8.5
1s2 2s2 2p2 . This can also be written as 1s2 2s2 2px 1 2py 1 to represent the different p
Visualisation of s
orbitals potentially occupied.
and p orbitals
The distance of the 2p orbitals from the nucleus is greater than the 2s orbital
and this means electrons occupying p orbitals are higher in energy than those
in s orbitals in the same shell. If energy is applied, the electrons move to higher
energy orbitals. This is referred to as an excited state. For example, 1s2 2s1 2p3
(1s2 2s1 2px 1 2py 1 2pz 1 ) is an excited state of carbon.
When s and p orbitals overlap they produce a blend of the two types called sp
hybrids. These hybrid regions of space allow electron pairs to be more stable than if
they were in s or p orbitals exclusively.

8.2.2 Bonding
Bond energy
Energy transfer is involved when chemical bonds are formed and broken. Recall from Unit 3 the energy
profiles showing activation energy required to break bonds and then an amount of energy lost when new
bonds are formed. Carbon forms stable, lower energy compounds when its valence shell resembles that of
Neon (2, 8, 8). How and with what this happens is varied and complex.
Bond energy can have a variety of units. One such unit is kilojoule(s) per one mole (kJ mol–1 ), which
tells us the amount of energy required to break the bonds of the reactants or the amount of energy released
per mole when the covalent bond forms between two atoms. Bond energy differs by the element(s) sharing
a covalent bond and is affected by the distance between the two atoms. If atoms are too close they repel, and
if they are too far away they are unable to share the electrons. The distance between the nuclei of the atoms
sharing the electrons is known as bond length.
TABLE 8.1 Comparison of bond energies (kJ mol–1 )
Hydrogen Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Same

bonds bonds bonds bonds elements
H−H 436 C−H 414 N−H 391 C−C 346
H−C 414 O−C 358 C=C 614
C−N 286 N−N 158 O−N 214 Cl−Cl 242
H−O 463 C−O 358 N−O 214 O−O 144 Br−Br 193
H−F 567 C−F 492 N−F 278 O−F 191 I−I 151
H−Cl 431 C−Cl 324 N−Cl 192 O−Cl 206
Bond angle and stability

The ability of carbon to form millions of compounds is also dependent
FIGURE 8.6 The tetrahedral
upon the geometry (spatial arrangement) of atoms attached to it. The geometry of CH4
orbitals of molecules can combine (hybridise) to produce bond angles
and covalent bonds with greater stability. For example, when carbon H
forms four, single covalent bonds, the bonds separate so that the angle
between the bonds is 109.5°, forming a tetrahedral molecule shape. H
C
H
Multiple carbon to carbon bonds H
The majority of carbon atoms bond with this approximate angle of

109.5°. However, carbon has the ability to overlap orbitals in such a way
that C=C double covalent bonds form. In this scenario, other atoms bonded to the two carbon atoms have
bonds that are spaced at an approximate 120°angle, resulting in a planar geometry.
The bonds in a C=C double bond are shorter and stronger that C−C single bonds. It takes almost twice
the amount of energy to break a C=C bond than it does a C−C bond. This is not surprising given there are
four electrons providing stability in a C=C bond compared to just two in a C−C bond.
All the bonds in C2 H4 occur in the same plane. This is why it is often referred to as a flat molecule (see
figure 8.7).
The same can be said of carbon to carbon triple bonds because they have a linear geometry and 180°
between bonds (see figure 8.8). C≡C triple bonds are stronger than C=C bonds. They are the shortest of
C to C bonds, with a length of approximately 120 picometres (1.2 × 10−10 m).

FIGURE 8.7 The planar, flat geometry of C2 H4 FIGURE 8.8 The planar, flat geometry of C2 H2
H H H C C H
C C
H H
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the energy, in kJ, required to break all covalent bonds in 1.6 g of CH4 gas.
THINK WRITE
−1 m
1. The standard unit for bond energy is kJ mol but n=
the question has given a mass of CH4 and not an M
amount in mol. Therefore, we need to convert mass 1.6 g
m =
into moles using n = . 16.0 g mol−1
M = 0.10 mol
2. There are four C−H bonds in CH4 . Use table 8.1 to Energy in C–H bonds = 4 × 414
find the value stated for a C−H bond and multiply = 1656 kJ mol−1
it by four.
3. To find the total bond energy to break all the bonds 0.10 mol × 1656 kJmol−1 = 166 kJ
in 1.6 g methane, multiply bond energy per mol = 1.7 × 102 kJ
calculated in step 2 by the number of moles in 1.6 g
of methane.
TIP: Remember to give your answer to the correct
number of significant figures.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Calculate the energy required, in kJ, to break all covalent bonds in 64 g of CH4 gas.
8.2 EXERCISE
1. Which of the following molecules would have similar bond angles to CH3 Cl?
A. C2 H4
B. C2 H2
C. CH4
D. CO2
2. Why are C=C bonds stronger than C−C bonds?
3. If the bond energy of H−F is 565 kJ mol–1 , what is the overall bond energy of two moles of HF?
4. What is the difference in C−H bond angles between C2 H2 and C2 H4 molecules?
5. What amount of energy per mole would be released if all covalent bonds in CH2 F2 were broken?


8.3 Structure and naming of organic compounds

KEY CONCEPTS
• Structures including molecular, structural and semi-structural formulas of alkanes (including cyclohexane),
alkenes, alkynes, benzene, haloalkanes, primary amines, primary amides, alcohols (primary, secondary,
tertiary), aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and non-branched esters
8.3.1 Molecular modelling FIGURE 8.9

Three-
We model the way atoms are bonded and arranged in a molecule in a number of ways.
dimensional
The simplest molecular models are electron dot (Lewis) diagrams and structural space
diagrams, which were covered in Unit 1. As molecules become larger and more (wedge–dash)
complex, we look for easier ways to represent all of the bonded atoms. diagram
of CH4
Structural diagrams
H
Structural diagrams show all covalent bonds in the molecule. There are a number of
different ways we draw structures. The simplest way is to show all atoms and all bonds
C
in a molecule. These can then be modified to skeletal and semi-structural formulas. H
Wedge–dash notation represents the spatial arrangement of atoms. Figure 8.9 H
H
shows the position of the hydrogen atoms in three-dimensional space relative
to one another. The wedges shows the atom coming out of the page towards us, FIGURE 8.10 Structural
while dashes shows the atom going behind the page away from us. The formulas of CH4
unbroken lines represent bonds to atoms that are in the same plane as the page.
H H
Wedge–dash diagrams can be simplified to structural formulas, as shown in
figure 8.10. Structural formulas do not show the arrangement of atoms in three C H H
C
dimensions.
H H
H H
Semi-structural formulas
Semi-structural formulas are used to simplify the structure presented while
FIGURE 8.11 Structural
preserving the order of groups of atoms. This is done by not including the formula of C7 H14
covalent bonds shown in structural diagrams. Semi-structures are useful
when showing larger molecules that require a lot of bonds to be drawn in H H H H H
H H
full structures. C C C
The structure of C7 H14 can be used to show the different ways of H C C C C H
writing a semi-structure. H H H H H

First, condense the structure by removing the bonds while maintaining the order of groups of atoms.
CH3 CH2 CHCHCH2 CH2 CH3

If there is a sequence of the same group, such as CH and CH2 as in the semi-structure shown above, we
can condense it further using brackets. This allows further simplification and is useful for large molecules.
Therefore, CH3 CH2 CHCHCH2 CH2 CH3 becomes CH3 CH2 (CH)2 (CH2 )2 CH3 .
Skeletal structural formulas FIGURE 8.12 Full structure

Skeletal structural formulas are a further simplification of semi-structural and skeletal structure of
formulas. Skeletal structures use lines and vertices to simplify a structural C7 H14
formula by omitting the carbon and the hydrogen atoms bonded to
H H H H H
it. It is assumed that a carbon atom (and enough hydrogens to satisfy
H H
carbon’s valency) is present at each vertex (and also at the ends). C C C
H C C C C H
Double bonds and other different types of atoms are specifically shown.
Skeletal structures preserve the bond angles in a carbon chain and are the H H H H H
preferred method for representing complex organic molecules that are

large and often contain ring or cyclic structures.
Returning to C7 H14 , the simplicity of skeleton structure compared to the full structure can be seen in
figure 8.12. The C and associated H atoms have been omitted, but the C=C bond has been preserved.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
For the structure shown, draw:

H H O
a. a semi-structual formula H H
b. a skeletal structural formula. C C
H C C C H
H H H H
THINK WRITE
1. Recall that semi-structures condense the carbon chain by O
removing the covalent bonds while preserving the order of the CH2 C
atoms and skeletal structures remove the C and their H atoms CH3 CH2 CH3
from the structural diagram.
Draw the structure out but condense all hydrogen atoms
connected to each carbon.
a. For the semi-structure, remove all of the covalent bonds and CH3 CH2 CH2 COCH3
write out the sequence of groups in the chain.
b. For the skeletal structure, remove all of the C and H atoms O
attached to the covalent bonds but retain the bonds.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
H H O H
For the structure shown, draw:
a. a semi-structural formula H C C C C H
b. a skeletal structural formula. H H H

8.3.2 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds and are composed solely of carbon and hydrogen.
They are obtained mainly from crude oil and are used as fuels or solvents, or in the production of plastics,
dyes, pharmaceuticals, explosives and other industrial chemicals. The organic families studied in this topic
contain various percentages of carbon and hydrogen atoms. They include the alkanes, alkenes and alkynes,
which are classified as aliphatic compounds, and benzene, which is an aromatic compound.
FIGURE 8.13 The structural arrangement of ethane (alkane), ethene (alkene), ethyne (alkyne) and the benzene
ring (aromatic). Carbon can form ring structures as well as single or multiple bonds with itself.
H
H H H C H
H H C C
H C C H C C H C C H
H H C C
H H H C H
H
ethane ethene ethyne benzene
A family of carbon compounds that are structurally related and where members of the family can be
represented by a general formula is called a homologous series. Successive members of a homologous
series have formulas that differ by CH2 . Each is named for the number of carbon atoms in the longest chain.
Alkanes
Alkanes with carbon atoms in long chains are known as
FIGURE 8.14 Propane, the third member
straight-chain hydrocarbons. Alkanes have the structural of the alkane homologous series, is used
formula Cn H2n + 2 , where n is an integer. They are classified to fly hot air balloons
as saturated hydrocarbons because only single covalent
bonds exist between atoms and there are no available
multiple carbon bonds to break and add atoms into
the molecule. The first four alkanes are gases at room
temperature, and they are summarised in table 8.2.
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with single bonds between the carbon atoms, they have the
general formula Cn H2n + 2
TABLE 8.2 The first four members of the alkane homologous series
Semi-structural
(condensed)
Alkane formula Source Uses
Methane CH4 Natural gas or biogas • Fuel

• Synthesis of other chemicals
Ethane CH3 CH3 Natural gas • Manufacture of ethene

• Refrigerant in cryogenic systems

Semi-structural
(condensed)
Alkane formula Source Uses
Propane CH3 CH2 CH3 Natural gas • Fuel (e.g. in gas cylinders for heating)
processing or • Propellant for aerosols
petroleum refining
Butane CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3 Natural gas • Fuel (e.g. cigarette lighters and portable
processing or stoves)
petroleum refining • Synthesis of other chemicals
• Propellant for aerosols
The next four members of the alkane homologous series are:

• pentane, C5 H12
• hexane, C6 H14
• heptane, C7 H16
• octane, C8 H18 .
The name of each alkane has two parts. The prefix (the start) of each name tells us how many carbon
atoms are in the straight chain. The suffix (the end) -ane of each name tells us that the hydrocarbon is
an alkane. The prefixes are used to name the number of carbon atoms in a chain in the majority of the
homologous series studied in this topic.
Resources
Video eLesson Naming alkanes (eles-2484)
Alkenes FIGURE 8.15 Structural formulas of

Double bonds between carbon atoms are formed when two ethene and propene
hydrogen atoms are removed from alkanes. These hydrocarbons
are said to be unsaturated. Hydrocarbons with one or more H H H
H H
C C
carbon–carbon double bonds per molecule are members of the C C C H
homologous series called alkenes. The general formula for H H
H H
alkenes is Cn H2n . The first two members of the alkene series ethene
propene
are ethene, C2 H4 , and propene, C3 H6 . Their structural formulas
are shown in figure 8.15.
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with FIGURE 8.16 These tomatoes are the
same age but the red one has been
a double bond between two carbon atoms.
ripened using ethene gas.
They have the general formula Cn H2n.
Ethene is also commonly known as ethylene. It is produced

naturally by some plants and it aids in ripening fruit. It can also
be produced artificially by heating petroleum in the absence
of air in a process called cracking. Ethene is an important raw
product for making many chemicals and plastics.

TABLE 8.3 Members of the alkene homologous series
Semi-structural formula
Systematic name Formula with double bonds
Ethene C2 H4 H2 C=CH2
Prop-1-ene C3 H6 H2 C=CHCH3
But-1-ene C4 H8 H2 C=CHCH2 CH3
Pent-1-ene C5 H10 H2 C=CH(CH2 )2 CH3
Hex-1-ene C6 H12 H2 C=CH(CH2 )3 CH3
Hept-1-ene C7 H14 H2 C=CH(CH2 )4 CH3
Oct-1-ene C8 H16 H2 C=CH(CH2 )5 CH3
Table 8.3 shows the first seven members of the alkene series. Alkenes are named using the same general
rules described for alkanes except that the suffix -ene is added instead of -ane, and the number of the carbon
atoms after which the double bond is positioned is indicated. The longest unbranched chain must contain
the double bond, so the molecule CH3 CH2 CH=CHCH3 is named pent-2-ene. The ‘2’ indicates the position
of the double bond between carbon atoms 2 and 3 (the lower number is used in the formula, and numbering
starts from the carbon atom closest to the double bond) and ‘pent’ indicates that five carbon atoms are
present in the unbranched chain. Some people prefer to name it 2-pentene. Either way, the number of
carbon atoms in the chain and the position of the carbon bond are indicated. For consistency, we will use
the first naming method.
Resources
Video eLesson: Homologous series of alkenes (eles-2477)
Alkynes
Alkynes contain a carbon–carbon triple bond and have the general formula
FIGURE 8.17 Prop-1-yne
Cn H2n – 2 . Examples include ethyne, HC≡CH, and propyne, HC≡CCH3 .
Ethyne is used to produce ethane and in oxyacetylene torches for welding H
to join metals. It can heat objects up to 3000 °C. Alkynes are named using
the same general rules as for alkanes, but the -ane is dropped and replaced
with -yne.
H C C C H
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with a triple bond between two carbon atoms. They
have the general formula Cn H2n-2.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 8.1 Constructing models of hydrocarbons (doc-31266)
Cyclic hydrocarbons
Cyclic hydrocarbons are also known as ring structures because the carbon chain is a closed structure
without open ends. The single-ringed cycloalkanes have the same molecular formula as alkenes due to all

carbon atoms being covalently bonded to two others either side to form the closed ring. As well as having
a different molecular formula to straight chain alkanes, the prefix ‘cyclo-’ is put at the start of the name to
indicate the ring structure. The simplest cyclic hydrocarbon, cyclohexane, has the molecular formula C6 H12
and is a colourless, flammable liquid that is used as a reactant in the production of nylon.
FIGURE 8.18 Structural diagrams of cyclohexane
H H
H H
C C CH2 CH2
H H
C C CH2 CH2
H H
C C CH2 CH2
H H
H H
Another important group of cyclic hydrocarbons are the arenes. These compounds are derived from
benzene. The benzene, C6 H6 , molecule consists of six carbon atoms arranged in a ring with one hydrogen
atom bonded to each carbon. Originally, it was thought that there were alternating single and double
carbon–carbon bonds in the ring. However, the lack of reactivity, high stability and same bond lengths
between the carbon atoms did not support this theory. Currently, benzene is considered to be a molecule
with six electrons from the three double bonds shared by all of the carbon atoms in the ring. The attraction
of the electrons to all of the carbon atoms gives the molecule stability.
Benzene is a very important compound in organic chemistry. Even though benzene itself is carcinogenic,
many of the chemicals produced from it are not. In fact, many foods and pharmaceuticals, such as
paracetamol, contain benzene rings.
There are various ways of representing the benzene ring, as shown in figure 8.19.
FIGURE 8.19 Representations of benzene
H C H
C C
C C
H C H
Alkyl groups
Alkyl groups are hydrocarbon branches coming off the longest carbon chain of an organic molecule. Alkyl
branches use the same prefixes to represent the number of carbons in the branch as those used in straight
chain molecules, but the suffix changes to ‘-yl’. To branch off the main chain, alkyl groups have one less
hydrogen atom than the alkanes that share the same prefix in their name.
TABLE 8.4 The first three alkane and alkyl groups
Alkane Semi-structural formula Alkyl groups Semi-structural formula
Methane CH4 Methyl −CH3
Ethane CH3 CH3 Ethyl −CH2 CH3
Propane CH3 CH2 CH3 Propyl −CH2 CH2 CH3

FIGURE 8.20 The polystyrene foam and the
epoxy resin in surfboards make them light and
strong. Both chemicals contain cyclic hydrocarbon
groups.
Alkyl groups have to be named in both number and position on a carbon chain. As an example, let’s
follow the IUPAC rules for naming the following branched alkane.
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3
1. Count the longest carbon chain. This will determine the prefix used to name the main/parent chain.
2. Identify alkyl groups branching off the main chain.
3. Starting at the end, number the chain that gives the lowest number for an alkyl branch.
1 2 3 4 5 6
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 methyl group

alkyl group
4. Write the number and the name of the alkyl group(s) attached in alphabetical order. 3-methyl
5. Write the name of the parent chain at the end. Six carbons separated by single bonds is a hex-ane:
3-methylhexane
When there are more than one of the same type of alkyl group branching off the parent chain, prefixes are
used to indicate how many there are, and numbers are used to indicate which carbon atom they come off in
the parent chain. For example, consider the following multi-branched alkane.
CH3 CH3
CH3 C CH2 CH CH3
CH3
1. The longest chain is five carbons.

2. Three methyl (CH3 ) groups are branching off the chain.
3. The chain is numbered from left to right because this gives two alkyl groups coming off C2 instead of
C4 if named from the opposite end.
CH3 CH3
CH3 C CH2 CH CH3

1 2 3 4 5
CH3
4. List the numbers of the C atoms the CH3 groups are branching off separated by commas and then a
hyphen before the prefix ‘tri-’ to indicate there are three methyl groups.
5. Add the parent chain name to the end: 2,2,4-trimethylpentane.

TIP: If there are molecules with two or more branches of the same type, the branch type is
named and a prefix (di-, tri-, etc) is used to indicate the number of branches. Branches are listed
in alphabetical order, ignoring the prefix (i.e. ethly is written before methyl or dimethyl).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Write the systematic (IUPAC) name of the following CH3 CH3
hydrocarbon. CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH3
THINK WRITE
1. Examine the molecule to find the longest carbon CH3 CH3
chain.
CH2 CH2 CH3
2. Locate the alkyl groups. CH3 CH3
CH2 CH2 CH3
3. Number the chain from an open end that gives one 8

CH3 CH3
or more alkyl groups the lowest number. 7
CH2 CH2 CH3

6 5 4 3 2 1
4. Write the number(s) of the alkyl groups separated 2,6-dimethyl
by commas and then hyphenated to the prefix to 4-ethyl
indicate the number of the same type of alkyl
group.
5. List the different alkyl groups in alphabetical order, 4-ethyl-2,6-dimethyl
ignoring the prefix.
6. Add the name of the parent chain to the end of the 4-ethyl-2,6-dimethyloctane
name.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Write the IUPAC name of the following hydrocarbon.
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH2
CH3 CH CH2 CH
CH2
CH3

Resources
Interactivity Systematic naming of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes (int-1231)
8.3.3 Functional groups

An atom or a group of atoms that determines
FIGURE 8.21 Different functional groups (COOH)
the function (chemical nature) of a compound is attached to the basic carbon skeleton of methane
called a functional group. As with the alkanes
and alkenes, compounds containing the same H H
O
functional group form a homologous series (a H C OH H C Cl H C
family with similar properties). A molecule with a OH
functional group attached is usually less stable than H H
the carbon backbone to which the functional group CH3OH CH3Cl HCOOH
is attached and therefore more likely to participate methanol chloromethane methanoic acid
in chemical reactions. Figure 8.21 shows three
different functional groups attached to the basic
carbon skeleton of methane.
8.3.4 Haloalkanes
Haloalkanes are a class of molecules that have one or more halogens attached to the carbon chain. They are
used in a variety of applications including solvents, refrigeration and medicine.
Haloalkanes are often represented as R−X. The R is used to represent the hydrocarbon chain of
any length and the X is used to represent any of the halogens, such as fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl) and
bromine (Br).
The naming system of haloalkanes follows the same rules as naming hydrocarbons. However, like all
functional groups, halogen functional groups take priority over alkyl groups when numbering the longest
carbon chain. We all use the same prefixes to name compounds with more than one of the same halogens.
Another difference in the naming is the replacement of the ‘-ine’ with ‘-o’. Fluorine becomes fluoro,
chlorine becomes chloro and bromine becomes bromo when they are part of a haloalkane.
Consider the molecule:
H H Cl H
Cl C C C C H
H H H H
The molecule has a four-carbon chain with two chlorine atoms attached on C1 and C3. The systematic
name of this compound is 1,3-dichlorobutane.
When there are different halogens on the carbon chain, they are numbered as usual but written
alphabetically, like alkyl groups.
For example:
CH3 Br
Cl CH2 CH CH CH3
3-bromo-1-chloro-2-methylbutane
Haloalkanes are hydrocarbons with one or more halogens attached to the carbon chain.
They have the general formula R−X, where R is a hydrocarbon chain of any length and X
is a halogen.

8.3.5 Alcohols
Organic hydroxyl compounds containing the −OH group belong to the homologous series called alcohols.
A study of the properties of the −OH group is important to chemists because of the industrial importance
of compounds containing this functional group, and because of its wide occurrence in biological molecules.
Ethanol is the most common alcohol and it has many uses. It is present in beer, wine and spirits, and is used
in the preparation of ethanoic acid (acetic acid) and for sterilising wounds. Methylated spirits (containing
95% ethanol) is a very useful solvent and is used in the manufacture of varnishes, polishes, inks, glues
and paints. Other alcohols that are volatile at low temperatures are also good solvents and are used in
deodorants, colognes and aftershave lotions. Glycerol, C3 H5 (OH)3 , is used for making fats and soaps.
Alkanols are alcohols containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
For naming purposes, alcohols have the general formula R−O−H. The first three members of the
alcohol homologous are shown in figure 8.22. Again, the standard prefixes are used to name the number
of carbon atoms in the chain. In the first two members (methanol and ethanol), the hydroxyl group is not
numbered because its position is always C1. However, with the third member, the −OH group could be
on C1 or C2, and therefore needs to be stated in the name. The suffix ‘-ol’ is used instead of hydroxy in
the name, which tells us that the −OH is the functional group with priority. So the third member is named
propan-1-ol rather than 1-hydroxypropane. When the hydroxyl group branches off C2 we simply change the
ending of the name to -2-ol as shown in figure 8.23.
FIGURE 8.22 Members of the alcohols: ethanol, ethanol and propan-1-ol FIGURE 8.23 Butan- 2-ol
H H H H H H H O H H
H C O H H C C O H H C C C O H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H
TABLE 8.5 The first eight alkanols. The —OH group is

attached to the first carbon atom in each case.
Systematic name Semi-structural formula
Methanol CH3 OH
Ethanol CH3 CH2 OH
Propan-1-ol CH3 (CH2 )2 OH
Butan-1-ol CH3 (CH2 )3 OH
Pentan-1-ol CH3 (CH2 )4 OH
Hexan-1-ol CH3 (CH2 )5 OH
Heptan-1-ol CH3 (CH2 )6 OH
Octan-1-ol CH3 (CH2 )7 OH
Alcohols are classified as primary, secondary or tertiary, based on the number of carbon atoms connected
to the carbon atom attached to the hydroxyl functional group.

• Primary (1°) alcohol: The C−OH is attached to one other
carbon atom. FIGURE 8.24 Primary, secondary
and tertiary alcohols
• Secondary (2°) alcohol: The C−OH is attached to two other
carbon atoms. OH OH OH
• Tertiary (3°) alcohol: The C−OH is attached to three other H3C C H H3C C CH3 H3C C CH3
carbon atoms. H H CH3
primary secondary tertiary
alcohol alcohol alcohol
Alcohols are hydrocarbons with the −OH functional group. They have the general formula
R−OH.
• Primary (1°) alcohols have the C−H group attached to one other C atom.
• Secondary (2°) alcohols have the C−H group attached to two other C atoms.
• Teritary (3°) alcohols have the C−H group attached to three other C atoms.
Resources
Video eLesson Molecular representations of butan-1-ol (eles-2485)
8.3.6 Aldehydes
The aldehyde functional group −CHO
FIGURE 8.25 C7 H15 CHO is added to fragrances to
produces compounds that have characteristic provide hints of citrus
odours. The familiar smells of vanilla and
cinnamon are caused by aldehydes. Low-
molecular-weight aldehydes, such as methanal
(formaldehyde) and ethanal, have unpleasant
odours; formaldehyde was previously used
as a preservative but is now suspected to
be carcinogenic. High-molecular-weight
compounds have sweet, pleasant smells and
are used in perfumes. Other uses of aldehydes
include solvents and the manufacture of
plastics, dyes and pharmaceuticals.
Aldehydes are generally written as R−CHO
and are named by replacing the last –e on the
name of the corresponding alkane with –al. For
example, propane becomes propanal. Aldehydes have a C=O bond at the end of the carbon chain, at C1.
Aldehydes are always named from C1, so they do not need a number in the name to reference where the
functional group is.
Aldehydes are hydrocarbons with the −CHO functional group, with a C=O double bond
at C1. They have the general formula R−CHO.
8.3.7 Ketones
Ketones contain the carbonyl (C=O) functional group and are used extensively to produce pharmaceuticals,
perfumes, solvents and polymers. The ‘–e’ is replaced by ‘–one’ and the general formula of a ketone is
R−CO−R’. Hence, the carbonyl functional group is never found at C1. They have important physiological

properties and are found in medicinal FIGURE 8.26 Propanone, butanone and pentan-3-one
compounds and steroid hormones, including
cortisone. The most familiar ketone is O O O
propanone (acetone), which has unlimited CH3 C CH3 C CH3 CH2 C
solubility in water and is a solvent for many CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2 CH3
organic compounds. It evaporates readily propanone butanone pentan-3-one
because of its low boiling point, which
contributes to its usefulness.
Ketones are hydrocarbons with the carbonyl, C=O, functional group. They have the
general formula R−CO−R’.
8.3.8 Carboxylic acids

The carboxyl functional group −COOH is part of the homologous series classed as carboxylic acids. They
are generally written as R−COOH and the C in the carboxyl functional group is always assigned C1 for
naming purposes. Because of this, the 1- is left off the start of the names. The ‘–e’ in the name is replaced
by the suffix ‘-oic acid’.
Carboxylic acids are generally weak acids and occur widely in nature. Some common examples include
citric acid, which is found in citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons, malic acid, found in apples, and
ascorbic acid (vitamin C), found in a number of foods. Other carboxylic acids, such as stearic acid and
oleic and palmitic acids, are used in the formation of animal and vegetable fats. Carboxylic acids are also
used to make soaps and polyesters. The carboxylic acids with chains of four to eight carbons have a strong,
unpleasant smell and are found in cheese, perspiration and rancid butter.
Carboxylic acids are hydrocarbons with the carboxyl, −COOH, functional group. They have
the general formula R−COOH. The C in the carboxyl functional group is always assigned C1.
FIGURE 8.27 Different structural formulas of butanoic acid, CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH
O H H H O
H H C C C C
O
H H H O
TABLE 8.6 Some carboxylic acids and their uses
Semi-structural Non-systematic
Systematic name formula name Occurrence and uses
Methanoic acid HCOOH Formic acid Used by ants as a defence mechanism; also
used in textile processing and as a grain
preservative
Ethanoic acid CH3 COOH Acetic acid Found in vinegar; used in making artificial
textiles
Propanoic acid CH3 CH2 COOH Propionic acid Calcium propanoate used as an additive in
bread manufacture
(continued)

TABLE 8.6 Some carboxylic acids and their uses (continued)
Semi-structural Non-systematic
Systematic name formula name Occurrence and uses
Butanoic acid CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH Butyric acid Present in human sweat; responsible for the
smell of rancid butter
Benzoic acid COOH Benzoic acid Used as a preservative
FIGURE 8.28 Dogs can be trained to find fruit by

sniffing out distinctive carboxylic acids, such as malic
acid, which is found in apples. Sniffer dogs play an
important part in quarantine procedures to prevent the
illegal import and export of fruit.
Resources
Interactivity Matching carboxylic acids and formula (int-1232)
8.3.9 Amines and amides

Primary amines (R−NH2 ) and amides (R−CONH2 ) contain the amino −NH2 and amide −CON
functional groups. However, primary amides can be thought of as −CONH2 . With amines, the ‘–e’ in the
name is replaced by ‘-amine’ and this suffix follows a number for C3 and up. Primary amides are named the
same way as carboxylic acids except they have the suffix ‘-amide’.
FIGURE 8.29 (a) Butan-1-amine and (b) butanamide
(a) (b)
H H H H H H H O
H C C C N H C C C C
H H H H H H H N H

TABLE 8.7 The first eight compounds FIGURE 8.30 Wing suits are made from polymers
of the amine homologous series containing amide links.
Semi-structural
Systematic name formula
Methanamine CH3 NH2
Ethanamine CH3 CH2 NH2
Propan-1-amine CH3 (CH2 )2 NH2
Butan-1-amine CH3 (CH2 )3 NH2
Pentan-1-amine CH3 (CH2 )4 NH2
Hexan-1-amine CH3 (CH2 )5 NH2
Heptan-1-amine CH3 (CH2 )6 NH2
Octan-1-amine CH3 (CH2 )7 NH2
Amines are hydrocarbons with the amino, −NH2 , functional group. They have the general
formula R−NH2 .
Amides are hydrocarbons with the amide, −CON (or −CONH2 ) functional group. They
have the general formula R−CONH2 .
8.3.10 Esters
The ester functional group (−COO), also referred to as an ester
FIGURE 8.31 Formation of
link, forms via a condensation reaction between hydroxyl and ethylpropanoate from propanoic acid
carboxyl functional groups. Esters have the general formula and ethanol
RCOOR’. H H O H H
The name of an unbranched ester is a product of the
H C C C O H H O C C H
carboxylic acid and primary alcohol that produces it. The first
part of the name comes from the hydrocarbon or alkyl part of H H –H2O H H
ethanol
the alcohol. For example, if methanol is used to make an ester propanoic acid
the first part of the name will be methyl, and if ethanol is used,
H H O H H
the first part of the name is ethyl.
The second part of the ester name comes from the carboxylic H C C C O C C H
acid. The ‘-oic acid’ suffix is removed and replaced with H H H H
‘-oate’. If methanoic acid was used to make an ester, the
ethylpropanoate
second part of the name would be methanoate.
O
Figure 8.31 shows propanoic acid and ethanol being used to
Note: C O
make ethylpropanoate.
This reaction can be summarised as: ester link
CH3 CH2 COOH + CH3 CH2 OH ⇌ CH3 CH2 COOCH2 CH3 + H2 O

propanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl propanoate + water
Esters are used in a variety of applications. The small, volatile esters are used in artificial flavours and
smells in food and fragrances. Larger esters occur naturally as fats and oils. They can also be used in the
manufacture of materials as diverse as Perspex and artificial arteries used in open heart surgery.

Esters are hydrocarbons with the ester −COO, functional group. They have the general
formula RCOOR’.
Esters form through condensation reactions between a primary alcohol and a carboxylic
acid. The alcohol gives the first part of the name, the carboxylic acid gives the second half
of the name, with the suffix ‘-oate’.
8.3.11 Functional group summary

TABLE 8.8 Functional group summary
Group
Homologous
Formula Name series Method of naming Example
−O−H hydroxyl alcohol suffix -ol CH3 CH2 CH2 OH

propan-1-ol (1-propanol)
aldehyde aldehyde suffix -al CH3 CHO

O ethanal (acetaldehyde)
C
H
carbonyl ketone suffix -one CH3 CH2 COCH2 CH3

C O pentan-3-one (3-pentanone)
carboxyl carboxylic suffix -oic acid CH3 COOH

O H acid ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
C
O
ester ester as alkyl alkanoate CH3 CH2 COOCH3

O methyl propanoate
C
O
ether ether as alkoxyalkane, or CH3 OCH3

O name the two groups methoxymethane or dimethyl
attached to the ether ether
linkage
amine amine suffix -amine CH3 NH2

H methanamine
N CH3 CH2 NH2
H ethanamine
primary amide primary suffix -amide CH3 CONH2

O amide ethanamide
H CH3 CH2 CONH2
N
propanamide
H
−Cl chloro haloalkanes prefix chloro- CH3 Cl

−Br bromo prefix bromo- chloromethane
−I iodo prefix iodo- CH3 CH2 Br
bromoethane
ICH2 CH2 I
1,2-diiodoethane

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
For the following molecule: H
a. Name the functional group and the homologous series
H C H
b. Write its systematic (IUPAC) name.
H H H
H C C C C H
H O H H
H
THINK WRITE
a. Find groups of atoms that are not alkyl groups. H
Remember, alkyl groups are hydrocarbon branches
H C H
coming off the longest carbon chain of an organic H H H
molecule.
The functional group is the hydroxyl group in the H C C C C H
alcohol homologous series. The name will end in H O H H
‘-ol’.
H
hydroxyl group
b. 1. The longest chain is composed of 4 carbons, H
making the molecule butanol.
H C H
Number the chain so that the functional group has H H H
the lowest number possible. The hydroxyl group is
branching from C2. H C1 C2 C3 C4 H
H O H H
H
hydroxyl group
2. Identify any alkyl groups branching off the longest H
methyl group
carbon chain.
Methyl is branching from C3. H C H
H H H
H C1 C2 C3 C4 H
H O H H
H
hydroxyl group
3. Name the molecule. 3-methylbutan-2-ol
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
For the following molecule: H H H H O
a. Name the functional group and the homologous series H C C C C C
b. Write its systematic (IUPAC) name.
H H O
H C H H C H
H
H H

Resources
Interactivity Organic molecule structures (int-1234)
Digital document Experiment 8.2 Constructing models of organic compounds (doc-31267)
8.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the molecular formula of the alkane containing 18 carbon atoms?
2. Show the molecular, empirical, semi-structural and skeletal formulas and structures of propane.
3. Study the following molecule.
H H
C
H
H Br Br C H
H C C C C
H H H H
(a) Write its systematic (IUPAC) name.

(b) Write its semi-structural formula.
(c) Write its molecular formula.
(d) Write its empirical formula.
4. Draw structural, semi-structural and skeletal diagrams for 2-methylpropan-1-ol.
5. Draw the structures of butanoic acid and octanoic acid.
6. What are the systematic names of the following molecules?
(a) CH3 CH(NH2 )C(CH3 )2 CH2 CH3
(b) H H
H H
C C
H H
C C
H H
H C C H
H H
(c) O
(d) CH2 CH2
CH2
(e) H H
C C
H C C H
C C
H H
(f) CH3 C C CH CH2 CH3
Cl

(g) CH3
O O
C
CH2
CH2
CH3
7. Which homologous series does this molecule belong to?

O
CH3CH2CH2 C CH3
8. Draw the structure of the primary amide with the molecular formula C3 H7 NO.
9. Draw structural, semi-structural and skeletal diagrams for:
(a) ethylpropanoate
(b) propylethanoate.
10. Consider the hydrocarbon shown.
CH3
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 C CH2 CH3
CH2 CH3
CH2
CH3
(a) Name the alkyl groups present.

(b) Write the systematic name.

8.4 Functional groups and naming priority

KEY CONCEPT
8.4.1 Naming compounds with two functional groups

When molecules have two or more functional groups, the naming becomes more complex. A lot of
the molecules with many functional groups are referred to by their commercial or simplified names.
Pharmaceuticals are typically branded or referred to using non-preferred IUPAC names.

IUPAC naming of compounds with two functional groups
Compounds with two or more functional groups are classified by the principal group (the main functional
group) defining the series to which they belong. Table 8.9 shows the priority scale for the groups.
TABLE 8.9 Functional group priority scale
Group Homologous series Suffix
carboxyl carboxylic acid -oic acid Highest priority name

O H
C
O
ester ester -oate

O
C
O
aldehyde aldehyde -al

O
C
H
carbonyl ketone -one
C O
hydroxyl alcohol -ol

−O−H
amine amine -amine

R−NH2
alkyne and alkene alkyne and alkene -yne -ene

C≡C C=C
alkane alkane -ane Lowest priority name

C−C
The parent name of the compound is derived from the principal group according to the following rules.
• The numbering system used is that of the principal group.
• An alcohol is regarded as a hydroxyl side group, an amine is regarded as an amino side group and a
ketone is regarded as a carbonyl side group.
• A compound containing both alcohol and aldehyde functional groups is named as an aldehyde with a
hydroxyl side group.
• A compound containing an alcohol, a ketone and an acid is named as an acid with hydroxyl and
carbonyl side groups.
Some examples are listed below.
FIGURE 8.32 (a) 3-aminobutan-2-ol, (b) 3-hydroxypropanoic acid and (c) pent-2-en-1-ol
(a) (b) (c)
H H H H
N
H H H O H H H C C
H H
H C C C C H H C C C O C C
H H H
O
H H H H H C O
O H
H H
H

SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Name the following organic compound. H
H H
H C H N
H H H
H C C C C C
H H H H O
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the functional groups on the molecule and amino
H
assign priority. H H
Aldehyde functional group takes priority over H C H N
H H H
amino functional group. The name will end in ‘-al’.
aldehyde
H C C C C C
H H H H O
2. The longest chain is composed of five carbons, H
H H
making the molecule pentanal. H C H N
Number the carbon chain with the lowest number H H H
for the priority functional group, aldehyde. H C5 C4 C3 C2 C1
Determine the branch position of the second O
H H H H
functional group, amino.
Amino is branching at C2.
3. Identify any alkyl groups branching off the longest methyl
H
carbon chain. H H
Methyl is branching from C4. H C H N
H H H
H C5 C4 C3 C2 C1
H H H H O
4. Write the name with substituents in alphabetical 2-amino-4-methylpentanal
order.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Name the following organic compound.
H
H C H
H H O
N C C C
H H H H
8.4 EXERCISE

1. Complete the following table.
Functional group Name Priority Homologous series
Carboxyl 1
Ketones
NH2 6
Hydroxyl
COO
2. Write the semi-structural formula for 4-aminopentan-1-ol.

3. (a) Name the following molecules.
(b) Draw semi-structures for the molecules.
(c) Draw skeletal structures for the molecules.
i. H
Cl
H
C
C
H H
H
C C
H H
ii. CH3 CH CH CH CH3
Br Cl CH3
iii. H H H O
H O C C C C
H H O
H C H
H
H
iv. O
CH3 CH C
Br CH2
CH3
v. O H H H
C C C N
H H H H
4. A student named the molecule below 5-amino-2-chlorohexane. Is this name correct?
Explain your answer.
CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH3
Cl NH2
5. Draw the skeletal structure of but-3-en-1-ol.
6. Draw the structure and semi-structure of a four-carbon amide with 2,3-dihydroxy groups.


8.5 Isomers
KEY CONCEPT
• The formation of isomers (structural and stereoisomers) to explain carbon compound diversity, including
identification of chiral centres in optical isomers of simple organic compounds and distinction between cis-
and trans- isomers in simple geometric isomers
8.5.1 Introduction to isomers

Another reason for the enormous number of organic compounds is the existence of isomers. These are two
or more compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms. The effect on
the properties of the substances depends on the type of isomerism present. If the atoms are arranged in
different orders, they are structural isomers. If the atoms are connected in the same order but are oriented
differently in space, they are stereoisomers. In many cases, three-dimensional space diagrams (using
wedges and dashes) are used to show the different positions.
Resources
Video eLesson Isomers (eles-2478)
8.5.2 Structural (constitutional) isomers

Structural isomers are those where the connectivity (or arrangement) of atoms or groups of atoms are
different. For the first three alkanes (methane, ethane and propane) there is only one way of arranging the
atoms and that is the straight-chain arrangement. In butane, there ther are two ways of arranging the carbon
and hydrogen atoms, therefore, there are two structures. One is the straight-chain structure and the other is
the branched-chain structure.
Each of the two structures of butane satisfies the valence of carbon
FIGURE 8.33 Structural
and hydrogen atoms, and each is a neutral and stable molecule (see isomer models of (a) butane
figure 8.33). Their chemical and physical properties are similar but and (b) 2-methylpropane
not identical. For instance, straight-chain butane has a boiling point (a)
of –1 °C, while the branched chain molecule, 2-methylpropane, has
a boiling point of –12 °C. Butane and 2-methylpropane are called
structural isomers because they have the same molecular formula but
different arrangements of atoms.
Three types of structural isomers are chain, positional and functional
isomers. An easy way of determining structural isomers is to go through
the systematic naming process. A different name means a different
structure. (b)
Chain isomers
Chain isomers are structures that are different because of the size of
the parent chain and the alkyl branches, if any, attached. Butane and
2-methylproane (methylpropane) are examples of chain isomers.
The number of possible ways of combining the atoms to form chain
isomers increases with the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
Pentane, C5 H12 , has three isomers, and heptane, C7 H16 , has nine, while
decane, C10 H22 , has 75 isomers. For C15 H32 , there are 4347 possible

isomers and for C40 H82 , there are more than 6 × 1013 possible isomers. Isomerism is responsible for the
enormous number of organic compounds that are known.
Positional isomers
Isomers where the functional group is located on different carbon atoms in the structure are called
positional isomers. Propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol are examples.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Draw and name all structural isomers of C4 H9 Cl.
THINK WRITE
1. This is a haloalkane, so the easiest place to start is H H H H
to draw the straight-chain and put the chlorine atom Cl C C C C H
on C1 and name it.
H H H H
1-chlorobutane
2. Change the position of the Cl atom to make a
H Cl H H
different structure with a different name.
TIP: There is no 3-chlorobutane or 4-chlorobutane H C C C C H
because when they are flipped over they are H H H H
actually just 1-chlorobutane and 2-chlorobutane. 2-chlorobutane
3. Move the −CH3 group to make it a methyl group Cl

H H
and have the Cl branch off the same carbon. Make
sure it has a different name in case you have drawn H C C C H
the same structure but a different way. H H
H C H
H
2-chloro-2-methylpropane
4. Make the last change possible by moving the H H H
chlorine back to C1 of the methylpropane.
Cl C C C H
H H
H C H
H
1-chloro-2-methylpropane
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Draw and name all structural isomers of C4 H9 OH with one hydroxyl functional group.
Functional isomers
If isomers have functional isomerism they have the same molecular formula but different functional groups
in their structures. Figure 8.34 is an example.

FIGURE 8.34 Functional isomers of (a) C3 H6 O: propanone and propanal, and (b) C3 H6 O2 : methyl ethanoate and
propanoic acid
(a)
H H O O
H C C C
C
H H H
CH3 CH3
propanal
propanone
(b)
H O H H O
H
H C C H H C C C
C H
H O H H O
H
methyl ethanoate propanoic acid
Resources
Interactivity Identifying structural isomers (int-1233)
8.5.3 Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers have the same type and order of connected atoms but a different three dimensional
orientation or arrangement in space.
Enantiomers
For a carbon atom to be able to form enantiomers, it must have four
FIGURE 8.35 Chiral objects
different atoms, or groups of atoms, bonded to it. Carbon atoms that are non-superimposable mirror
meet this criteria are called chiral or have chiral centres. images of each other.
Figure 8.35 shows a pair of enantiomers (I and II) with atoms
X X
bonded in a tetrahedral arrangement to the chiral carbon. They might
look the same initially with the same atoms all connected to the same
carbon atom, but W and Y have swapped places. They are reflections W W
Y Y
of each other. We can tell they are arranged differently in space Z Z
because we cannot place or rotate them so that they sit exactly on top I II
mirror
of one another. That is, the reflections cannot be superimposed. The
only way we could make the two molecules exactly the same is if we
pulled the ball and stick models apart and re-positioned the atoms. X
Enantiomers are also called optical isomers. ‘Optical’ isomers cause X II
(plane-polarised) light to be rotated in opposite directions once it has
Y
passed through a sample of each. When optically active substances are W
W Z
synthesised in the laboratory, they are often a 50:50 mixture of the two Y
enantiomers. This is known as a racemic mixture or racemate. I Z
A racemic mixture does not affect plane-polarised light and

stereoisomers formed in biological systems consist of the one enantiomer. As a result of this, many of
the natural and synthetic drugs used in medicine have different effects on the body. This is because the
enantiomer in the body has a unique three-dimensional shape so the drug that interacts (binds) with it
must have a matching three-dimensional shape. With 50:50 mixes of enantiomers produced when making
medicines, synthetic chemists are looking to develop pathways that only produce the medicinal enantiomer.
Different effects on the body can mean the medicines don’t work as well, or at all. Worse, some medicines

can produce beneficial and harmful enantiomers. FIGURE 8.36 Enantomers of thalidomide
For example, between 1957 and 1962, the drug
thalidomide was used to treat morning sickness in O O H O O H
pregnant women. More than 10 000 babies were H N H N
N O N O
born with birth defects as a result of using this drug.
Eventually, investigations found that thalidomide O O
was a racemic mix of two enantiomers due to the stereocentre
presence of one chiral carbon atom. While one effective isomer mutagenic isomer
enantiomer did indeed cure morning sickness, the
other enantiomer caused deformities in organs and limbs.
USING POLARISED LIGHT TO DISTINGUISH OPTICAL ISOMERS

Normally, a light wave is made up
of a mixture of waves vibrating in FIGURE 8.37 A polarimeter is used to distinguish between optical
every direction perpendicular to its isomers.
direction of movement. Unpolarised
light can be converted into a single Br
Cl
polarised beam by passing it through H C
a polarising filter. Sunglasses use
F
a polarising filter to limit glare.
Optically active molecules can rotate
the plane of polarisation of plane- filter
emerging
polarised light. An instrument called radiations
a polarimeter can be used to analyse
this rotation. If it is rotated clockwise
cross-section of plane-polarisation
it is the (+) enantiomer; if it is rotated Cl
light beam showing oscillations Br
anticlockwise, it is the (–) enantiomer. random orientation of H C
electromagnetic waves F
Identifying chiral centres

We often use our hands, feet or household objects to demonstrate the difference between symmetrical and
asymmetrical (not symmetrical) objects. Symmetry is observed when a line cuts through an object and one
half is the mirror image of the other half, and this can be extended to organic molecules. Organic molecules
with a plane of symmetry are achiral (not chiral), whereas asymmetrical molecules will have chiral carbons
and form enantiomers.
FIGURE 8.38 Chirality is determined by the presence of a plane of symmetry: (a) A bottle has a plane of
symmetry but (b) a hand does not have a plane of symmetry. (c) The 2-chloropropane molecule is achiral because
it has a plane of symmetry but (d) the 2-chlorobutane molecule does not have a plane of symmetry and so is
chiral.
Cl Cl
H3C H3C
CH3 C2 H5
H H
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Plane of symmetry No plane of symmetry Plane of symmetry No plane of symmetry

Geometric (cis–trans) isomers
Geometric isomers exist in compounds with C=C bonds. Unlike C−C single bonds, carbon to carbon
double bonds do not rotate, so they can produce structures where the same type of atoms (substituents), or
groups, are bonded to each carbon on either the same side of the double bond or on opposite sides of the
double bond. As an example, let’s compare C2 H4 Cl2 and C2 H2 Cl2 . The first compound has one C−C bond,
which is able to rotate.
Although C2 H4 Cl2 might look different initially, these molecules are the same due to the bond rotation.
In other words, the C−C bond can be rotated to produce the same molecule.
FIGURE 8.39 The single bond between carbons is able to rotate, meaning these molecules are not isomers.
Cl H Cl Cl
H C C H H C C H
H Cl H H
The second compound, C2 H2 Cl2 , with its restricted C=C bond will produce different geometric isomers.
When the substituents (Cl atoms) are on the same side the molecule has a cis geometry but the molecule
with the substituents on opposite sides has trans geometry.
FIGURE 8.40 The double bond between carbons is not able to rotate, meaning these molecules are isomers.
Cl H Cl Cl
C C C C
H Cl H H
trans 1, 2-dichloroethene cis 1, 2-dichloroethene
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
Which of the following organic molecules would produce two enantiomers?
a. CH4 b. CH2 Cl2 c. CHBrF2 d. CHBrClF
THINK WRITE
1. A carbon atom must have four different atoms or groups of
atoms to be classified as chiral and produce enantiomers.
a. CH4 has four atoms of the same type attached to a CH4 does not have a chiral centre
carbon atom. and will not produce enantiomers
b. CH2 Cl2 has two sets of two atoms of the same type CH2 Cl2 does not have a chiral
attached to a carbon atom. This will produce molecules centre and will not produce
that are symmetrical. Therefore, it is achiral. enantiomers.
c. CHBrF2 has one set of two atoms of the same type CHBrF2 does not have a chiral
attached to a carbon atom. This will produce molecules centre and will not produce
that are symmetrical. Therefore, it is achiral. enantiomers.

d. CHBrClF has four different atoms attached and H H
therefore has a chiral centre. It will produce two
C C
enantiomers; that is, mirror images of each other that F F
Br Cl Cl Br
are not superimposable.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
Which of the following would produce two enantiomers?
A. CH2 ClF
B. CH3 CHBrF
C. (CH3 )2 CHF
D. CHBr2 F
8.5.4 Isomer summary

Table 8.10 summaries the different types of isomers.
TABLE 8.10 Types of isomers
Isomer Example
Structural isomers
Chain isomers: different branching in carbon chain H H H H H CH3 H
H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H
butane methylpropane
Positional isomers: different positions of the functional group, OH H H H OH H

which is usually indicated by a number in the name
H C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H
propan-1-ol propan-2-ol
Functional isomers: same atoms but different functional groups H H H H

O
H C C C H C C C H
H
H H H O H
propanal propanone (acetone)
Stereoisomers
Geometric (cis and trans) isomers: different arrangements of CH3 CH3 H CH3
atoms around a double bond or in a ring, which restricts rotation.
C C C C
If the groups on each carbon atom are on the same side of the
molecule, that molecule is the cis isomer. If they are on opposite H H CH3 H
sites, it is the trans isomer. cis-but-2-ene trans-but-2-ene
Enantiomers or optical isomers: non-superimposable H H

reflections containing an asymmetric carbon atom. These
molecules are referred to as chiral. C C
F F
Br Cl Cl Br

Resources
Digital documents Experiment 8.3 Constructing models of structural isomers (doc-31268)
Experiment 8.4 Investigating optical isomers (doc-31269)
Teacher-led video Experiment 8.3 Constructing models of structural isomers (tlvd-0754)
8.5 EXERCISE
1. What is the difference between chiral and achiral carbon atoms?
2. Why are enantiomers called optical isomers?
3. What is the difference between a stereoisomer and a structural isomer?
4. Draw the enantiomers of CH3 CHBrF.
5. Draw all isomers of C4 H10 .
6. Describe the type of isomerism that exists in the following two molecules.
OH OH
Br C C Br
Cl Cl
H H
7. Draw the structure of a functional group isomer of ethanol, C2 H5 OH.

8. Name this geometric stereoisomer.
CH3CH2 CH2CH3
C C
H H
9. Draw skeletal structures and give systematic names for the cis and trans isomers of C5 H10 .
10. Draw and give systematic names to all structural isomers with the molecular formula C4 H8 O that contain
the carbonyl functional group.

8.6 Review
8.6.1 Summary
The carbon atom
• Organic chemistry is the study of the compounds of carbon. This does not include the inorganic
compounds of cyanides, carbonates and oxides of carbon.
• Historically, organic compounds were associated with living things, but these days chemists can
manufacture organic compounds for a variety of uses.
• Carbon can form many different compounds due to its ability to create four covalent bonds with itself
or other elements.
• The electron configuration of carbon is 2,4. Therefore, it has a valence number of four.

• In the methane molecule, a carbon atom can form covalent bonds with four other atoms. The resulting
shape is tetrahedral, resulting in bond angles of 109.5°.
• Bond angle and bond length determine the strength of carbon covalent bonds. Bond strength in
measured in kJ mol–1 .
• C≡C are stronger than C=C, which are stronger than C−C bonds.
Structure and naming of organic compounds
• Molecular modelling is used to show the structure of molecules.
• Molecular representations include:
Structures:
H
H C H
H H H H
H C C C C O
H H H
H C H
Semi structures:
CH3 C(CH3 )2 (CH2 )2 OH
Skeletal structures:
OH
• A homologous series is a group of organic chemical compounds that have a similar structure and
whose structures differ only by the number of CH2 units in the main carbon chain. They are
compounds containing the same functional group and have similar properties.
• The alkanes, alkenes and alkynes are hydrocarbons and form homologous series with general formulas
of Cn H2n + 2 , Cn H2n and Cn H2n–2 , respectively.
• Saturated hydrocarbons have only single C−C covalent bonds.
• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons. Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons with double
and triple carbon bonds, respectively.
• Haloakanes (R−X) are formed when halogens such as F, Cl, Br and I are substituted into hydrocarbon
chains.
• Functional groups change the family of molecules or the type of homologous series.
These include:
• Alcohols (primary, secondary and tertiary) contain the hydroxyl (−OH) functional group. The suffix
for alcohols on systematic names is ‘–ol’.
• Aldehydes (R−CHO) and ketones (RCOR’) contain the carbonyl (C=O) functional group. The
suffixes for naming are ‘–al’ and ‘–one’ respectively.
• Carboxylic acids contain the carboxyl (−COOH) functional groups.
• Primary amines (R−NH2 ) contain the amino functional groups while primary amide links have the
general formula R−CONH2 .
• Straight chain esters are made from carboxylic acids and primary alcohols. The ester (−COO) link
gives esters the general formula RCOOR’ where R−CO comes from the carboxylic acid and R’−O
comes from the alcohol. The first part of the ester name comes from the alkyl (R’) part of the
alcohol (e.g. methyl, ethyl, propyl, etc). The second part of the ester name comes from the number
of carbons in the RCOOH. The suffix ‘–oic acid’’ becomes ‘–oate’ (e.g. methanoate, ethanoate,
propanoate).
• Rules for naming organic compounds:
• Identify and name the longest unbranched carbon chain containing the principal functional group.
(It is helpful to highlight this chain.)

• Number the carbon atoms in the longest unbranched chain, starting with the carbon atom nearest the
functional group or branch (if an alkane).
• Identify the branching group(s) of atoms and state the number of the carbon atom to which it is
attached. Branches are named using –yl. For example, a branched group of −CH3 would be named
methyl, CH3 CH2 − would be ethyl, and CH3 CH3 CH2 − would be propyl. These go before the name
of the longest chain.
• For molecules with two or more branches of the same type, the branch type is named and a prefix
(di–, tri–, tetra–, etc) is used to indicate the number of branches.
• Branches are listed in alphabetical order, ignoring the prefix in the previous rule. Ethyl is written
before methyl or dimethyl. Note that adjacent numbers in a name are separated by a comma and
numbers are separated from words by a hyphen.
• If two or more side chains are in equivalent positions, assign the lowest number to the one that will
come first in the name.
Functional groups and naming priority
• If more than one functional group is present, the order of decreasing priority in determining the suffix
is carboxylic acid > ester > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine > alkyne = alkene > alkane.
Isomers
• Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
• In structural isomers, the atoms are arranged in different ways, which means that the chemical bonding
is different. Structural isomers have different physical properties and, if different functional groups,
chemical reactivities.
• Chain isomers have different branching in the carbon chain.
• Positional isomers show different positions of the particular functional group, which is usually
indicated by a number in the name.
• Functional isomers have the same atoms but different functional groups.
• Stereoisomers have the same sequence of bonded of atoms, but the spatial arrangement of atoms
differs.
• Geometric isomers can be either cis or trans. They are non-mirror-image molecules that have the
same chemical bonding but different spatial arrangements of atoms. In restricted bonded
compounds, cis isomers involve atoms or groups that are next to each other and trans isomers
involved atoms or groups on opposite sides of the molecule.
• Enantiomers (optical isomers) are mirror-image molecules that cannot be superimposed on each
other. These molecules are described as chiral. Enantiomers have identical physical properties and
their chemical properties are also generally the same (except interactions with other molecules with
optical properties). A chiral molecule rotates the plane of polarised light passing through the
solution. Optical isomers can have radically different biological effects.
Resources
8.6.2 Key terms

alcohols organic hydroxyl compounds containing the −OH group
aliphatic describes organic compounds in which carbon atoms form open chains
alkanols alcohols containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
alkenes the family of hydrocarbons that contain one carbon–carbon double bond
alkyl groups hydrocarbon branches joined to the parent hydrocarbon chain (e.g. CH3 (methyl) CH2 CH3 (ethyl))
alkynes the family of hydrocarbons with one carbon–carbon triple bond

allotropes different physical forms in which an element can exist
arenes aromatic, benzene-based hydrocarbons
aromatic describes a compound that contains at least one benzene ring and is characterised by the presence of
alternating double bonds within the ring
benzene an aromatic hydrocarbon with the formula C6 H6
bond length the distance between two nuclei involved in covalent bonding
chain isomers a type of structural isomer that involves more branching
chiral describes compounds containing an asymmetric carbon atom or chiral centre. The molecule cannot be
superimposed upon its mirror image.
chiral centres asymmetric carbon atoms
cis–trans isomers types of stereoisomers that are formed when the same two different groups are bonded to
each of the carbon atoms in a carbon–carbon double bond. A cis isomer has identical groups on the same
side of the double bond; a trans isomer has the groups on opposite sides.
covalent bonds bonds involving the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
electron configuration the number of electrons and shells they occupy (e.g. 2,4 or 1s2 2s2 2p2 )
enantiomers chiral molecules that are non-superimposable mirror images of one another
excited state when electrons moved to higher energy orbitals when energy is applied
functional group a group of atoms attached to or part of a hydrocardon chain that influence the physical and
chemical properties of the molecule
functional isomerism isomers containing different functional groups
halogens elements in Group 17 of the periodic table: F, Cl, Br, I and At
homologous series a series of organic compounds that have the same structure but in which the formula of
each molecule differs from the next by a CH2 group
optical isomers see enantiomers
positional isomers isomers where the position of the functional group differentiates the compounds
racemate a 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers; often occurs when optically active substances are synthesised in
the laboratory
racemic mixture see racemate
stereoisomers two or more compounds differing only in the spatial arrangements of their atoms
structural isomers molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
unsaturated describes hydrocarbons containing at least one double carbon–carbon bond
valence number the number of electrons occupying the orbitals in the outermost electron shell
Resources
Digital document Key terms glossary - Topic 8 (doc-31412)
Experiment 8.3
Constructing models of structural isomers
Aim: To construct models of structural isomers
Resources
Experiment 8.1 Constructing models of hydrocarbons (doc-31266)
Experiment 8.2 Constructing models of organic compounds (doc-31267)
Experiment 8.4 Investigating optical isomers (doc-31269)

8.6 Exercises

1. Which of the following does not apply to alkanes?
A. They have the general formula Cn H2n .
B. They contain C and H.
C. Each has at least one C−C bond.
D. They are saturated hydrocarbons.
2. The functional groups and suffixes for naming alcohols and carboxylic acids respectively are:
A. −OH, −COOH, -oate, -ol
B. −COOH, −OH, -ol, -oic
C. −OH, −COOH, -ol, -oic
D. −OH, −COOH, -ol, -oate.
3. Cycloalkanes have the same molecular formula as:
A. alkanes
B. alkenes
C. alkynes
D. benzene.
4. In the IUPAC nomenclature system, the name of which of the following would end in –al?
A. An alcohol
B. An aldehyde
C. An alkane
D. A ketone.
5. This compound is:
O
H3C CH3
CH3
an ester
A.
an aldehyde
B.
a ketone
C.
D. a carboxylic acid.
6. The structural arrangement of 2,2-dimethylbutan-1-ol is:
A. H CH3 CH3 H B. H H CH3 H
H C C C C OH H C C C C OH
H H H H H H CH3 H
C. H H CH3 H D. H H
H C C OH
HO C C C C H
CH3 CH3
H H CH3 H

7. The IUPAC name for the compound (CH3 )2 CHCH2 CH(NH2 )CH3 is:
A. 2-methylpentanamine
B. 4-methylpentan-2-amine
C. 2-methyl-4-pentanamine
D. 4-methyl-2-pentanamine.
8. Identify the chiral carbon atom in the following molecule.
OH H H
O
a b c d
C C C C H
H
H H H
a
A.
b
B.
c
C.
D. d
9. What is the IUPAC name of the following molecule?
HO NH2
1-amino-2-methylbutan-4-ol
A.
2-aminobutan-4-ol
B.
4-amino-3-methylbutan-1-ol
C.
D. 3-aminobutan-1-ol.
10. The following two molecules are best described as:
H
H C H
H H H H H H
H C C C C H H C C C H
H H H H H H H
A. optical isomers
B. structural isomers
C. cis–trans isomers
D. stereoisomers.

1. Draw three-dimensional space (wedge–dash) diagrams for the following molecules.
a. CH4 b. C2 H4 c. C2 H2 d. C2 H4 ClF
2. Explain why carbon to carbon triple bonds are higher in energy than carbon to carbon double bonds.
3. Calculate the energy required to break all covalent bonds in 20.0 g of CCl4 . The C−Cl bond energy is
324 kJ mol-1 .
4. Define the following terms.
a. Hydrocarbon
b. Homologous series
c. Saturated hydrocarbon
d. Unsaturated hydrocarbon
e. Structural isomer

5. Define the terms ‘alkane’ and ‘alkene’ and describe their similarities and differences.
6. Name the following organic compounds.
a. CH3 CH2 CH=CHCH3
b. CH2 =CHCI
c. CF2 CI2
d. CH3 CH2 OH
e. CH3
CH3 C CH3
CH3
f. CH3(CH2)3CHCH3
OH
g.CHCI2 CHBr2
7. Draw the structural formulas for the following compounds.
a. 2-methylpentan-3-ol
b. butan-2-ol
c. 2,2-dimethylbutan-1-ol
d. 2,3-dimethylpentan-2-ol
e. pentanoic acid
f. 2-methylpropanoic acid
g. butanoic acid
h. pentanal
i. 2-chloropropan-1-amine
j. butyl methanoate
k. butanone
l. 2-pentyne
8. Give the systematic name of the following compounds.
a. H H
H C N
H H
b. H H H
O
C C C C
H H
H
H N H
c. O
H C H
H C O
C H
H O
d. O
H C H
C C
Cl H H Cl
9. Draw and label the cis and trans isomers with the molecular formula C2 H2 F2 .

10. Describe the type of isomerism present in each of the following pairs of compounds.
a. H H
C C
OH HO
H3CH2C CH2CH3
CH3 H 3C
b. HOOC H HOOC H
HOOC H H COOH
c. H
H H H H H H O H
H C C C C O H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H H

Question 1 (1 mark)
An organic molecule with the molecular formula C4 H10 O is shown.
CH3 CH CH2 CH3
OH
Which of the following statements about the molecule is true?
A. It is a primary alcohol and its systematic name is butan-2-ol.
B. It is a primary alcohol and its systematic name is butan-3-ol.
C. It is a secondary alcohol and its systematic name is butan-2-ol.
D. It is a secondary alcohol and its name is butan-3-ol.
Question 2 (1 mark)
Which of the following contains a chiral carbon?
A. prop-1-ene CH2 CHCH3
B. 1,2-dichloropropane CH2 ClCHClCH3
C. 2-chloropropane CH3 CHClCH3
D. 2-bromobutane CH3 CHBrCH2 CH3
Question 3 (1 mark)
The semi-structure of the following compound is:
Cl
A. CH3 (CH2 )2 CH2 Cl

B. CH3 CH2 CH2 Cl
C. (CH3 )2 CHCl
D. CH3 CHCHCH2 Cl
Question 4 (1 mark)
Which of the following structures is a primary amide?
A. O
H
N C
H H
C
H
H

B. H H H
H C C C H
H H
N
H H
C. H H O
H C C C
H
H C
N H
H
H H
D. H H H
H C C N
H H H

The diverse nature of organic compounds can be attributed to carbon and its unique chemical properties. In
fact, there are millions of organic compounds found in nature and synthesised in the laboratory. To be able
to identify these molecules IUPAC has developed naming conventions and models.
a. Consider the alcohol 2-methylpropan-2-ol.
i. Draw the structural formula of the alcohol. 1 mark
ii. What is the name of the functional group? 1 mark
iii. Is this a primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol? Justify your answer. 1 mark
b. Write the semi-structural formula of methyl butanoate. 1 mark
c. Stereoisomers such as cis-but-2-ene and trans-but-2-ene are also known as geometric isomers.
i. Draw the structures of cis and trans but-2-ene. 2 marks
ii. Write a balanced chemical equation for the combustion of but-2-ene gas. 2 marks
iii. Calculate the volume of CO2 gas collected from the complete combustion of 1.50 kg of but-2-ene at
SLC. 2 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
9 Categories, properties and

reactions of organic compounds
9.1 Overview
9.1.1 Introduction
Natural and synthetic organic reaction pathways can range from
FIGURE 9.1 The variety of jelly bean
the fairly simple to quite complex. Chemists and engineers are flavours and colours is due to esters
constantly looking for ways to make new materials, improve — changing even a small part of a
products and reduce environmental impact. Finding the right molecule can provide a very different
pathway can be a challenging and time-consuming process. For flavour.
example, engineers are looking to replace plastic bottles made
from fossil fuels with furan-based polymers derived from sugars
in biomass. Others have reduced the many steps involved in
adding nitrogen to drugs, fertilisers and pesticides to a single step,
making it possible to increase production and yield.
This topic builds on the chemical interactions between
the hydrocarbons and homologous series studied in topic 8.
The relationships between intermolecular forces and physical
properties and the types of functional groups that influence them
are discussed in detail. You will learn about different reaction
pathways to make a variety of organic compounds including alcohols, carboxylic acids and esters. You
will learn about reaction yields and atom economy because chemists are increasingly looking for ways to
improve the efficiency of reactions and reduce chemical waste. You look at the different types of chemical
reactions including oxidation, addition, substitution, condensation and hydrolysis.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• an explanation of trends in physical properties (boiling point, viscosity) and flashpoint with reference to
structure and bonding
• organic reactions, including appropriate equations and reagents, for the oxidation of primary and secondary
alcohols, substitution reactions of haloalkanes, addition reactions of alkenes, hydrolysis reactions of esters,
the condensation reaction between an amine and a carboxylic acid, and the esterification reaction between
an alcohol and a carboxylic acid
• the pathways used to synthesise primary haloalkanes, primary alcohols, primary amines, carboxylic acids
and esters, including calculations of atom economy and percentage yield of single-step or overall pathway
reactions.

Resources
9.2 Explaining trends in physical properties

KEY CONCEPT
• An explanation of trends in physical properties (boiling point, viscosity) and flashpoint with reference to
structure and bonding
The physical and chemical properties of organic compounds provide information that helps us understand
and evaluate the interactions between organic chemicals. Depending on the types of atoms present in
compounds, these interactions determine how organic molecules react to produce important chemicals for
fuels, pharmaceuticals, manufacturing, industry and biological processes. The number of all the possible
organic reactions that can occur is essentially infinite because there are so many combinations of organic
compounds. However, certain general patterns involving addition, decomposition, combination, substitution
or rearrangement of atoms or groups of atoms can be used to describe many common and useful reactions.
It is not unusual to find that different pathways can produce the same organic substance.
9.2.1 Intermolecular forces

Intermolecular forces are those that act between molecules. They are influenced by the elements, bonds and
shapes of molecules. These forces, along with the kinetic energies of the particles, determine properties
such as melting and boiling points, density, etc.
In molecules (where atoms are connected by intramolecular covalent bonds), intermolecular forces may
be of three types: dispersion forces, dipole–dipole attractions and hydrogen bonding.
Dispersion forces
In non-polar molecules such as methane (CH4 ), wax and oils, electrons can momentarily be distributed
unevenly within the molecules, inducing a temporary dipole. Neighbouring molecules with similar
temporary dipoles are attracted weakly to each other. This results in weak dispersion forces between the
molecules. The strength of the dispersion forces is affected by the size and shape of molecules. Dispersion
forces are also called van der Waals forces.
Consider figure 9.2, which demonstrates a temporary dipole resulting in intermolecular attractions
(dispersion forces). Molecule A has a temporary polarity due to uneven distribution of electrons. As the
non-polar molecule B approaches A, its electrons are redistributed, because there is a tendency for them
to be attracted to the end of A. This sets up an induced dipole in B. These intermolecular attractions are
TOPIC 9 Categories, properties and reactions of organic compounds 301

called dispersion forces. Dispersion forces are weak and temporary, because electrons tend to redistribute
themselves at different instances.
FIGURE 9.2 Temporary FIGURE 9.3 Candle wax consists of long

dipoles giving rise to hydrocarbon molecules held together by
intermolecular attractions dispersion forces. The strength of dispersion
(dispersion forces) forces increases with molecular size.
δ– A δ+ B
δ– A δ+ δ– B δ+
original induced
temporary dipole
dipole
Dipole–dipole attractions
Molecules such as HCl, HBr and CH3 Cl are polar and have permanent dipoles. The partial positive charge
on one molecule is electrostatically attracted to the partial negative charge on a neighbouring molecule.
Dipole–dipole attractions are stronger intermolecular forces than dispersion forces.
Hydrogen bonding
When hydrogen forms a bond with one of fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen (highly electronegative atoms), its
electrons move slightly toward that atom. This causes the hydrogen nucleus to be exposed or unshielded.
The molecule that forms is a dipole. Hydrogen bonding occurs between this dipole and another molecule
that must also contain an electronegative atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen.
Hydrogen bonds are stronger intermolecular forces than both dispersion forces and dipole–dipole
attractions. Hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules and also between organic compounds such
as alcohols (e.g. methanol, CH3 OH), carboxylic acids (e.g. ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH) and organic amines
(e.g. methylamine, CH3 NH2 ).
Hydrogen bonding is stronger than dipole–dipole attractions due to the larger dipole moment that
exists within these molecules and because of the small size of the hydrogen atom involved. This allows
the molecules to get closer to each other than in dipole–dipole attractions, thus increasing the force of
attraction.
Hydrogen bonding is stronger than dipole–dipole attraction, which is stronger than dispersion
forces.
Resources
Video eLesson Hydrogen bonding (eles-2483)
9.2.2 Physical properties

Physical properties are measurable and used to describe how a substance behaves and exists without
changing its chemical composition. For example, physical states such as solid (s), liquid (l) and gas (g),
density and colour are observable and measurable. There are many physical properties associated with
chemical substances, but boiling point, viscosity and flashpoint are examined in detail below.

Boiling point FIGURE 9.4 Honey is a viscose liquid
Standard boiling points are the temperatures at which liquids can because of strong intermolecular
vaporise at atmospheric pressure. For a liquid to boil, it must forces.
overcome the pressure of the atmosphere. This means when the
air pressure varies so does a substance’s boiling point. Kinetic
energy of the particles causes an outward pressure and, if larger
than atmospheric pressure, particles vaporise. At high altitudes
with less air and therefore less air pressure, liquids need less
energy to boil. For example, it is difficult to hard boil an egg
on Mount Everest because water boils at around 71 °C at that
altitude.
An increase in intermolecular forces makes it harder to
separate particles and therefore they need higher temperatures
to boil.
Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a liquid, and it is affected by
intermolecular forces and the shapes of the molecules. Honey has
high viscosity and water has low viscosity. The increased number
of intermolecular forces in larger molecules, together with the
possibility of branched molecules becoming tangled, results in
higher viscosity. Viscosity decreases as the temperature increases
because the molecules attain enough energy to overcome the
forces holding the molecules together.
Flashpoint FIGURE 9.5 The low flashpoint
Organic chemicals can be classified as flammable or of ethanol allows its ignition on a
combustible according to their flashpoints. The flashpoint of a Christmas pudding.
volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which the liquid gives
off enough vapour to start burning at its surface on application
of an ignition source. Below the flashpoint, there is not enough
vapour available to support combustion. A flammable liquid is
any liquid with a flashpoint below 37.8 °C. Liquids classified as
combustible are harder to ignite and have a flashpoint of 37.8 °C
and above.
Flammable liquids ignite and burn easily at lower
temperatures. Combustible liquids can burn at temperatures that
are usually above room temperature. It is not actually the liquid
that burns, but rather the mixture of its vapours in the oxygen
in the air. Smaller hydrocarbons have weaker intermolecular
forces and are more easily vaporised, therefore they have
lower flashpoints and are more flammable. The vaporisation
rate increases as the temperature increases. This means that
flammable and combustible liquids are more hazardous at
temperatures higher than room temperature. If a fuel has a
flashpoint below room temperature, such as petrol and alcohol,
it is a safety hazard, because a spark could cause immediate
ignition. It is this property that allows ethanol poured over
Christmas puddings to be ignited in a celebratory display of flame. The pudding is not burned because the
alcohol used is approximately half water, and the evaporating water keeps the temperature low. The oxygen
in the alcohol causes it to completely combust with a blue flame, as distinct from the yellow flame observed
when burning hydrocarbons in candle wax.

9.2.3 Trends in homologous series
Within a homologous series, trends in physical properties are apparent. In the alkanes, the melting and
boiling points increase with the size of the hydrocarbon. Their solubility in water is virtually non-existent
due to the non-polar nature of hydrocarbons and the weak dispersion forces between molecules.
The presence of functional groups containing atoms other than hydrogen affects the properties of organic
compounds. For example, the existence of a halogen in an organic molecule can result in a polar molecule.
This would increase the strength of the intermolecular forces because dipole–dipole attractions would
be present in addition to dispersion forces. When oxygen, fluorine or nitrogen is involved, hydrogen
bonding will also be present.
Hydrocarbons
The alkane, alkene and alkyne homologous series’ have similar physical properties. Alkanes are colourless
compounds that are less dense than water and have weaker intermolecular attractive forces. Alkanes consist
of non-polar molecules. The first four in the series are gases. As the size of the molecule increases, so does
the influence of the dispersion forces, therefore, the melting and boiling points increase.
TABLE 9.1 The melting and boiling points of alkanes increase with increasing molecular size.
Alkane Formula Semi-structural formula Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) State
Methane CH4 CH4 −183 −164 gas
Ethane C2 H6 CH3 CH3 −182 −87 gas
Propane C3 H8 CH3 CH2 CH3 −190 −42 gas
Butane C4 H10 CH3 (CH2 )2 CH3 −135 −1 gas
Pentane C5 H12 CH3 (CH2 )3 CH3 −130 36 liquid
Hexane C6 H14 CH3 (CH2 )4 CH3 −94 68 liquid
Heptane C7 H16 CH3 (CH2 )5 CH3 −90 98 liquid
Octane C8 H18 CH3 (CH2 )6 CH3 −57 126 liquid
Effect of side-chains or branching

The degree of branching affects the boiling point; as the amount of branching increases, the boiling point
decreases. This is due to the inability of molecules to get closer to each other. The dispersion forces operate
over a small distance only, so the attraction is diminished. However, a higher degree of symmetrical
branching has the opposite effect on melting point.
TABLE 9.2 Physical properties of branched butane isomers
Skeletal
Name structure Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) Flashpoint (°C)
2-methylbutane –159.8 27.8 –51
2,2-dimethylbutane –99.9 49.7 –47.8
(continued)

TABLE 9.2 Physical properties of branched butane isomers (continued)
Skeletal
Name structure Melting point (°C) Boiling point (°C) Flashpoint (°C)
2,3-dimethylbutane –128.8 57.9 –28.9
The hydroxyl functional group

The hydroxyl group in alcohols has a significant effect on properties. It can form hydrogen bonds with
other alcohol or water molecules. Consequently, alcohols have a higher boiling point than corresponding
alkanes, and smaller alcohols (three or fewer carbon atoms) are soluble in water. The boiling point of
primary alcohols increases with increasing chain length due to the increasing number of dispersion forces,
whereas the solubility decreases with increasing chain length due to the increasing length of the non-polar
(hydrophobic) section of the molecules. The effect of the increased number of dispersion forces explains
why volatility (tendency to vaporise) decreases with molecular size whereas viscosity increases.
FIGURE 9.6 Alcohols can form hydrogen bonds with other alcohol molecules or water.
hydrogen bond hydrogen bond

H H H H
δ– δ–
H C C O H δ+ H H H C C O H δ+
H H δ+ H O C C H H H δ+ H O H
δ– δ–
H H
two ethanol molecules ethanol and water molecules
Many alcohols are highly flammable (with

FIGURE 9.7 This bar is made almost entirely of ice.
flashpoints below 37.8 °C), especially methanol The alcoholic drinks do not freeze even though they
(11 °C) and ethanol (17 °C). The flammability are served in ice vessels because alcohol has a lower
of alcohols decreases as the molecules increase freezing point than water.
in size and mass due to the increased strength of
attraction between the molecules. Volatility also
decreases as the size of the molecule increases.
The carboxyl functional group

Like the alcohols, the first few members of
the carboxylic acid homologous series are
very soluble in water due to their capacity for
strong hydrogen bonding with water molecules.
Carboxylic acids have much higher boiling points
than the previously discussed homologous series
because carboxylic acid molecules can form two
hydrogen bonds with each other.
Carboxylic acids are weak acids that only partially ionise in water. They are still stronger acids than their
corresponding alcohols because the −OH group is more polarised in the −COOH group by the presence
of the highly electronegative O atom of C=O. This double-bonded O atom attracts the electrons away from
the −OH group. Therefore, the H (from the hydroxyl group) is more weakly bonded to O and is more easily
donated.

FIGURE 9.8 A dimer (a pair of molecules) is FIGURE 9.9 Polarisation of the −OH group in a
formed by carboxylic acid molecules. carboxylic acid and an alcohol.
intermolecular high electronegativity

hydrogen bonding of O atoms influences
δ– covalent bonds nearby
O
δ– δ+ δ– δ+
O H O R C R C O
δ+ δ–
δ+ δ+ O H H
R C C R δ+
δ– δ+
O H O carboxylic acid alcohol
δ– δ+ δ–
FIGURE 9.10 A graph showing the relative boiling points of the homologous series of alkanes, alkenes, alcohols
and carboxylic acids
300
250
200
Temperature (°C)
150
100
50
0
–50 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of carbon atoms
–100
–150 alkane alcohol
–200 alkene carboxylic acid
Aldehydes, ketones and esters

Aldehydes and ketones are volatile compounds and are commonly found in perfumes and flavourings.
Smaller molecules of these compounds are soluble because they can form hydrogen bonds with water, but
solubility decreases with increasing length of the non-polar chain. These molecules cannot hydrogen bond
with each other, but the polarity of the molecule means that the boiling point is higher than for similar-sized
alkanes but lower than for alcohols and carboxylic acids, which have hydrogen bonding between hydroxyl
groups.
Esters are commonly found in plants and are responsible for many distinctive odours and flavours. Esters
have lower boiling points than carboxylic acids because esters cannot form hydrogen bonds with each
other (they do not have an O−H bond). Esters with very short carbon chains are soluble in water, whereas
those with longer chains are less soluble.
Amines and amides

Amines are stable compounds that generally have strong or
FIGURE 9.11 Amines are weak bases.
unpleasant odours, similar to rotting fish. They are weak bases
because they can accept a proton (see figure 9.11). H H
Hydrogen bonding is possible in amines (due to the O +
R N + H H R N H + OH–
presence of N−H bonds) but their boiling points are lower
than the corresponding alcohols. The first two members of the H H
homologous series are gases at room temperature, whereas the
larger members are liquids. As with the other polar compounds
containing hydrogen bonding, the solubility decreases with
chain length.

Amides have higher melting and boiling temperatures than similar-sized organic compounds due to
their capacity to form multiple hydrogen bonds between molecules. Methanamide is a liquid at room
temperature, but larger amides are solids because of the increased number of dispersion forces. Smaller
amides are soluble but less soluble than comparable amines and carboxylic acids; their solubility is similar
to that of esters.
TIP: When explaining physical properties, ensure the structure of the molecule is used to justify
the type of intermolecular forces existing and how the difference in strength of the intermolecular
results in the different properties.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Propane has a boiling point of –42 °C whereas the boiling point of propan-1-ol is 97 °C. Explain
this difference by referring to the intermolecular forces in both compounds.
THINK WRITE
1. Draw the structures of propane and Propane:
propan-1-ol. H H H
H C C C H
H H H
Propan-1-ol:
H H H
H C C C O H
H H H
2. Consider the type of intermolecular forces Propane: intermolecular forces are dispersion
that exist between molecules with the O−H forces only. These forces are weak and
functional group compared to temporary. As a result it doesn’t take a lot of
hydrocarbons. energy in the form of heat to vaporise the
liquid.
Propan-1-ol: intermolecular forces have
hydrogen bonds due to the polar hydroxyl
functional group on one end of the molecule.
3. Explain how the different intermolecular Hydrogen bonds are much stronger than
forces affect boiling point. dispersion forces so significantly more heat is
required to vaporise propan-1-ol than propane.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
By referring to intermolecular forces, explain the difference in the boiling point of 1-chloropropane
(46.6 °C) and propane (–42 °C).
Resources
Digital document Experiment 9.1 Comparing physical properties of alkanes, haloalkanes, alcohols and esters (doc-31270)

9.2 EXERCISE
1. Describe the intramolecular and intermolecular bonding that exists in hydrocarbons.
2. Identify the types of intermolecular forces (dispersion forces, dipole–dipole attraction or hydrogen bonding)
acting between molecules of the following compounds.
(a) CH3 OH
(b) CH3 CH3
(c) CH3 CH2 Cl
(d) CH3 NH2
3. (a) Explain why the flashpoint of propan-1-ol is higher than the flashpoint of propan-2-ol.
(b) Predict whether propan-1-ol or propan-2-ol has the higher boiling point.
4. Explain why methane and ethane are insoluble in water whereas methanol and ethanol are soluble.
5. Explain which has the higher boiling point: butanamide, CH3 CH2 CH2 CONH2 , or ethyl ethanoate,
CH3 COOCH2 CH3 .
6. Candles can be made from a variety of compounds including soy, and bee and paraffin waxes. Paraffin
contains a mixture of alkanes and is a solid at room temperature and melts at 50–60 °C.
(a) What does the solid state of paraffin candles suggest about the size of the mix of alkanes used to
make it?
(b) Why are essential oils, used to add scent to a candle, able to be mixed with paraffin wax?
7. Hexane is often used as an industrial solvent. Explain why each of the following is or is not an appropriate
use of hexane.
(a) Removing salt from water
(b) Removing oil from soy beans
(c) Removing oil contaminants in water
8. The structures of dichloromethane and carbon tetrachloride are shown.
dichloromethane carbon tetrachloride

Cl Cl
C C
Cl Cl
H Cl
H Cl
Explain the table of physical properties below based on the two structures.
Physical property Dichloromethane Carbon tetrachloride

Boiling point 39.6 °C 76.7 °C
–1
Solubility in water at SLC 17.5 g L 0.81 g L–1
9. Two compounds have the molecular formula C2 H6 O. Use the data below to draw the structures of
Compound A and Compound B.
Physical property Compound A Compound B

Boiling point –24 °C 78 °C
Solubility in water at SLC 71 g L–1 miscible
10. Explain why ethyl ethanoate has a higher solubility in water but a lower boiling point than ethyl butanoate.

9.3 Organic reactions
KEY CONCEPTS
• Organic reactions, including appropriate equations and reagents, for addition reactions of alkenes, for
substitution reactions of haloalkanes, for the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols, for the
esterification reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid, the condensation reaction between an
amine and a carboxylic acid, for hydrolysis reactions of esters
• The pathways used to synthesise primary haloalkanes, primary alcohols and carboxylic acids
As described in subtopic 9.2, functional groups influence physical properties, but they also influence
chemical properties and the types of reactions they participate in. Common reaction types are addition,
substitution, condensation, hydrolysis, redox and organic acid-base.
9.3.1 Addition reactions of alkenes

Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes. They are unsaturated hydrocarbons and undergo addition
reactions in which the C=C bond is broken and new single bonds are formed. This is because the energy
required to break the double bond is less than the energy released in the formation of two single bonds. For
example, hydrogenation of ethene produces ethane and releases energy.
H2 C=CH2 (g) + H2 O(g) ⃯ H3 CCH3 (g)

catalyst
Substances that undergo addition reactions with alkenes include hydrogen (H2 ), chlorine (Cl2 ), bromine
(Br2 ), hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrogen bromide (HBr) and hydrogen iodide (HI). Addition of H2 requires
the presence of a catalyst, such as finely divided platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd) or nickel (Ni). The others
react without the need for catalysis.
The following equations are examples of addition reactions with alkenes. Note that the reactants Br2 , HCl
and H2 in these reactions add across the double bond. Therefore, 1,2-dibromopropane is the only product.
⃯
H2 C=CHCH3 + Br2 CH2 BrCHBrCH3
propene bromine 1,2-dibromopropane
⃯
H2 C=CH2 + HCl CH3 CH2 Cl
ethene hydrogen chloride chloroethane
H2 C=CH–CH2 –CH3 + H2 ⃯
Pd
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH3
but-1-ene hydrogen butane
The reaction of an alkene with bromine is used as a test for unsaturation. When red-brown bromine water
is shaken with an unsaturated hydrocarbon, the reaction mixture becomes colourless due to the formation of
the dibromo derivative.
Ethene is used as a raw material in a fast method to produce the large amounts of ethanol needed for
industrial use. Ethene is mixed with steam and passed over a phosphoric acid catalyst at 330 °C. The
reaction of the direct catalytic hydration of ethene in the vapour phase is an addition reaction. This reaction
is demonstrated using molecular models in figure 9.12.
H2 C=CH2 (g) + H2 O(g) ⃯

H3 PO4
CH3 CH2 OH(g)
ethene steam ethanol

FIGURE 9.12 Model equation for the direct hydration of ethene to form ethanol
H3PO4
+
H3PO4
ethene + steam ethanol
Resources
Video eLessons Addition reactions of alkenes (med-0352)
Catalysis: hydrogenation of ethylene (eles-1673)
Bromination of ethylene (eles-1674)
Indirect hydration of ethylene (eles-1677)
9.3.2 Substitution reactions

Substitution reactions occur when one or more atoms on a molecule are replaced by others as opposed
to being added in like those in addition reactions. The types of atoms or groups involved in these reactions
generally depend on the atoms they replace on the molecule. Electron rich, electron deficient and neutral
groups participate in substitution reactions. Halogens are very good at substituting, as are polar functional
molecules or groups with lone pairs of electrons, such as H2 O and NH3 .
REACTION MECHANISMS
Reaction mechanisms describe the way bonds are broken and formed. Many of the reactions and pathways
explored in this topic are caused because of radical and polar reactions.
Bond breaking can be symmetrical (radical formation) or unsymmetrical (polar formation).
Symmetrical breaking Asymmetrical breaking
A B A + B A B A+ + B–
Bonds can be made symmetrically where each reactant contributes one electron to the covalent bond, or they
can be unsymmetrical where one reactant contributes both electrons in a covalent bond.
Symmetrical bond formation Asymmetrical bond formation
A + B A B A+ + B– A B
Radical reactions
Radical reactions involve symmetrical bond formation and bond breaking. Reactions that involve asymmetrical
bond formation and breaking are called polar reactions. Radicals are very reactive because they have an atom
without a stable octet of outer shell electrons. They can achieve the stable octet of valence electrons by first
taking an atom and its valence electron causing the formation of a new radical, and then adding across a C=C
double bond, taking one electron from the double bond and forming a new radical.
The formation of chloromethane from methane involves a radical substitution. UV light provides the energy
for the formation of two chlorine radicals from Cl2 that has undergone symmetrical bond breaking (in a process
called initiation). Then the Cl• radicals begin the process by taking a hydrogen atom and its electron from

methane to form HCl and a CH3 • radical (UV light is not required for this to occur). Further radical processes take
place to form CH3 Cl as outlined below.
H H
H C H + Cl H C + H Cl
H H
H H
H C + Cl–Cl H C Cl + Cl
H H
H H
H C + Cl H C Cl
H H
Polar reactions
Polar reactions occur because of the positive and negative attractions between centres and functional groups.
This can be achieved by polarising molecules using chemicals such as acids. Negatively polarised groups or
negative ions will be attracted to positively polarised groups or positive ions and the two form new covalent
bonds. Negatively polarised groups or ions are called nucleophiles and positively polarised atoms, centres or
ions are called electrophiles.
electrophile
δ+ δ– δ– δ+
X + A– Y X–A + Y
nucleophile leaving
group
electrophilic
centre
Ions or polar groups that can act as bases (accept protons) make good nucleophiles while acids make good
electrophiles (donate protons). The terms nucleophile and electrophile are used when they are involved in bonds
with carbon.
The addition of hydrogen bromide to ethene can be shown as:
H H H Br
C C + H Br H C C H
H H
H H
ethene (nucleophile) hydrogen bromide bromoethane
(electrophile)
However, it is an example of nucleophile and electrophile interactions requiring two steps to complete.
H Br
–
Br
H H H H H H
+
C C H C C H C C Br
H H H H H H
reaction intermediate

Substitution reactions of alkanes
The alkanes undergo substitution reactions with the halogens in which the halogen atoms replace hydrogen.
For example, the successive chlorination of methane to form chloromethanes occurs as follows.
CH4 + Cl2 ⃯
UV light
CH3 Cl + HCl
chloromethane
CH3 Cl + Cl2 ⃯
UV light
CH2 Cl2 + HCl
dichloromethane
CH2 Cl2 + Cl2 ⃯

UV light
CHCl3 + HCl
trichloromethane
(chloroform)
CH2 Cl3 + Cl2 ⃯

UV light
CCl4 + HCl
tetrachloromethane
(carbon tetrachloride)
These reactions require energy in the form of UV light to catalyse the reaction. The UV light breaks
the covalent bond between the chlorine atoms to produce unstable chlorine free radicals. In general when
exposed to light:
R–H + X2 ⃯ R–X + HX
UV light
Substitution reactions of haloalkanes

Haloalkanes are widely used but most do not occur
FIGURE 9.13 Coral secretes natural
naturally and must be produced synthetically. One of the haloalkanes to deter starfish like the Crown of
first haloalkanes used was chloroform. It was used during Thorns from feeding on it.
the American Civil War (1861–65) as an anaesthetic for
amputations and treatment of soldiers. Now, haloalkanes
are widely used in medicine, agriculture and production of
polymers.
Although haloalkanes have a number of uses in their
own right, they are particularly useful as precursors to
the preparation of further substances. Alcohols can be
prepared from haloalkanes in substitution reactions by
reacting them with dilute solutions of either sodium
or potassium hydroxide. For example, propan-2-ol
can be made by reacting either 2-chloropropane or
2-bromopropane with dilute sodium hydroxide.
CH3CHCH3 + NaOH CH3CHCH3 + NaBr
Br OH
Either 1-chloropropane or 1-bromopropane could be used to make propan-1-ol.
CH3 CH2 CH2 Cl + NaOH ⃯ CH3 CH2 CH2 OH + NaCl

Polar group substitution
Polar groups can be substituted with other polar groups. For example, R−OH can be substituted to R−NH2 .
Substitutions like this are controlled by the reagents and solvents used. NH3 is added with a catalyst (such
as alumina) and increased temperature (350–500 °C) and pressure (3000 kPa) facilitate the reaction.
H H H
350–500 °C
H C O H + NH3 H C N + H 2O
alumina
H H H
Resources
Interactivity Comparing substitution and addition reactions (int-1235)
9.3.3 Reactions of alcohols

Primary alcohols
Primary alcohols are easily oxidised in the laboratory, first to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids,
using either acidified permanganate,H+ /MnO− + 2−
4 (aq), or acidified dichromate,H /Cr2 O7 (aq), or another
oxidising agent. [O] is the symbol for an oxidising agent.
FIGURE 9.14 Stages of oxidation of carbon compounds. Notice the increase in oxidation number of carbon from
left to right.
oxidation
H H H H
[O] [O] [O] [O]
H C H H C OH C O C O O C O
H H H HO most oxidised
most reduced form of carbon
form of carbon
reduction
In these oxidation reactions in figure 9.14, there is an increase in the oxygen to hydrogen ratio; that is,
there is more oxygen and less hydrogen. The product of these reactions is a carboxylic acid. For example,
propan-1-ol can be converted into propanoic acid as shown below.
+
H /Cr2 O2−
CH3 CH2 CH2 OH ⃮⃮⃮⃮⃮⃮⃮⃯7
CH3 CH2 COOH
The oxidation of ethanol in wine takes place when it is left exposed to air for some time. Such wine has a
sour taste of ethanoic acid, commonly known as acetic acid. The oxidation reaction that takes place is:
C2 H5 (aq) + O2 (g) → CH3 COOH(aq) + H2 O(I)
The reaction is catalysed by the presence of the micro-organism Acetobacter aceti in the exposed wine.
As described in topic 1, all alcohols are flammable and burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
For this reason, ethanol is added to petrol to produce various ethanol blends.
CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(g)

FIGURE 9.15 Ethanol demonstrating the reactions of primary alcohols
CH3CH2NH2 H2C CH2

ethene
N hig titu
io C
H3 h
°
,
0
al tem n
17
n
su
um p
bs
3,
at
in .
2O
dr
a,
Al
hy
tio
de
CH3CH2OH
ca , H +
C
r 2 atio
H
O7
ox
O
tio
2– ,
O
id
3C
H
i
+
rif
H
O2 combustion
te
n
C
es
CH3COOCH2CH3 CO2, H2O CH3CHO
ester aldehyde
C
r 2 ati
O7 o
ox
2– ,
id
H
+
n
CH3COOH
carboxylic
acid
Secondary alcohols
Secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones, which do not undergo further oxidation.
For example, propan-2-ol is oxidised to propanone.
+
H /Cr2 O2−
CH CHOHCH ⃮⃮⃮⃮⃮⃮⃮⃯
3
7
CH COCH
3 3 3
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Write the reaction steps and reagents used to make the ketone butan-2-one (butanone) from
2-chlorobutane.
THINK WRITE
1. Recall ketones can be made by OH O
[O]
oxidising secondary alcohols. C C
R H R R'
R'
2. Draw the structure of NaOH
H3C CH2 CH CH3 H3C CH2 CH CH3
2-chlorobutane.
What reagents are required to Cl OH
convert it into a secondary
alcohol? −OH ions will substitute
with the chlorine atom to form a
secondary alcohol.
3. What reagents and conditions are Cr2O7 2– or MnO4–
used to oxidise alcohols? H3C CH2 CH CH3 H3C CH2 C CH3
H+
Acidified dichromate or OH O
permanganate are used to oxidise
primary and secondary alcohols.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Write the reaction steps and reagents used to make hexan-2-one from a chloroalkane.
9.3.4 Reactions of carboxylic acids

Acid–base reactions
As the name implies, carboxylic acids act as proton donors with the hydrogen ion being donated from the
−OH part of the carboxyl (−COOH) functional group. They slightly dissociate in water and have pH <7.
FIGURE 9.16 Dissociation of carboxylic acid in water

O O
C + H2O C + H3O+
R OH R O–
Carboxylic acids are much stronger acids than alcohols. This is because the carboxylate ion (COO− ) has
the electron left behind shared evenly between the two oxygen atoms. In other words, it is delocalised.
This provides extra stability so the equilibrium favours the product far better than when alcohols are
deprotonated. We draw the negative charge on the single bonded oxygen of the conjugate base of the
carboxylic acid.
Condensation with primary alcohols FIGURE 9.17 The acid present in vinegar is
Carboxylic acids undergo condensation reactions with ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH, commonly known
alcohols to produce esters. A typical esterification as acetic acid.
reaction (the process of ester formation) is the formation
of ethyl ethanoate, CH3 COOCH2 CH3 , by heating ethanol,
C2 H5 OH, and ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH, in the presence
of an acid such as concentrated sulfuric acid. During the
condensation reaction, a water molecule is produced. The
ester formed is partially insoluble in water and can be
purified by mixing it with cold water. The ester forms a
sweet-smelling insoluble layer on top of the water, while
sulfuric acid and unreacted ethanol and ethanoic acid
dissolve.
FIGURE 9.18 A typical esterification reaction
ester link
H
O
H H H conc. H H
O C C H
H2SO4
H C C O H + C C H H C C O + H2O
H
H O
H H H H H
ethanol ethanoic acid ethyl ethanoate
The process is called a condensation reaction because a small molecule (water) is split off as the two
molecules join together. In general:
R′ OH + RCOOH → RCOOR′ + H2 O
alcohol + carboxylic acid → ester + water

TIP: When writing condensation reactions it is important to specify that the acid acting as a
catalyst is concentrated and not in aqueous form.
Reaction with amines

Small amines react in a similar manner to ammonia, which is a weak base. Therefore, carboxylic acids
can donate a proton to a primary amine. An example is the acid–base reaction of ethanoic acid with
methanamine to produce the salt methylammonium ethanoate. This salt is heated to over 100 °C, water is
removed and an amide is formed.
FIGURE 9.19 Reaction of a carboxylic acid with an amine
H H CH3 O
O O
heat
H3C C + N CH3 H 3C C H N+ CH3 N C CH3 + H2O
dehydration
O H O–
H H H
ethanoic acid methanamine methylammonium ethanoate N-methylethanamide water
heat
carboxylic acid + amine → ammonium salt → amide + water
dehydration
Resources
Video eLessons Esterification (eles-1668)
Ester formation (med-0353)
Acid–base reaction of an amine with a carboxylic acid (eles-1667)
Digital document Experiment 9.2 Esterification (doc-31271)
Teacher-led video Experiment 9.2 Esterification (tlvd-0757)
9.3.5 Hydrolysis reactions of esters

Esters undergo hydrolysis in aqueous acids or bases to reverse the condensation reaction. The products are
carboxylic acids and alcohols.
FIGURE 9.20 Hydrolysis of an ester
O O
H2O, NaOH
C C + RÓH
R OR´ or H3O+ R OH
Ester Acid Alcohol

Ester hydrolysis in alkaline solutions is also known as saponification,
FIGURE 9.21 Soaps are
from the Latin word sapo meaning ‘soap’. The ester linkages in fats are manufactured through
hydrolysed in basic solutions to make soap. ester hydrolysis.
POLYESTERS
Polyesters are synthetic fibres used as a substitute for
cotton and wool and are formed as a result of ester FIGURE 9.22 Monomers used to form the
linkages between monomers to form the polymer. A polyester terylene
common polyester is terylene, which is poly(ethane-1,
OH OH
2-diylbenzene-1,4-dicarboxylate). This polyester is made by
the esterification of ethane-1,2-diol (also known as ethylene H C C H HOOC O COOH
glycol) and benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid (also known
as terephthalic acid). The structures of these molecules H H
are shown in figure 9.22. These monomer units are joined ethane-1,2-diol benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid
together to form polyester as shown in figure 9.23.
FIGURE 9.23 Esterification to form terylene

+ HOCH2CH2OH + HOOC O COOH + HOCH2CH2OH + HOOC O COOH +
ester linkage
{
OCH2CH2 OOC O COOCH2CH2 OOC O CO
+ + +
H2O H 2O H2O
Polyesters have great tensile strength and are used as the bonding
FIGURE 9.24 Most sails today are
resin in glass fibre plastics. They have a wide variety of uses in the
made of polyester.
textile industry. Many yachts have sails made of polyester because it
is stronger than natural fibres and does not rot. Polyesters are mixed
with cotton to make fabric for clothing. They are crease resistant and
do not shrink or stretch. The oven bags used for roasting are also
made of polyester because it can withstand high temperatures.

9.3 EXERCISE
1. Explain how you would make 1,1-dichloroethane from ethane.
2. Write the structural equations for the reactions of chlorine, hydrogen and hydrogen chloride with propene.
Name the compounds formed.
3. Red bromine, Br2 , liquid is decolourised in an addition reaction with an alkene. With reference to ethane
and ethene, explain how this reaction could demonstrate which substance is unsaturated.
4. (a) Name the following alcohol.
CH3
H3C CH CH2 CH2 OH
(b) Give the name and structure of the product formed by the complete oxidation of this alcohol by
acidified potassium dichromate.
5. Why can’t secondary alcohols be used to make carboxylic acids?
6. Write the equation representing the reaction between aqueous solutions of ethanoic acid and potassium
hydroxide.
7. Draw the structures formed when ethanoic acid is reacted with:
(a) butan-1-ol in the presence of H2 SO4 (l)
(b) propan-1-amine followed by dehydration.
8. List the conditions and reagents required to convert ethene into:
(a) ethane
(b) ethanol
(c) chloroethane
(d) ethanamine
(e) propyl ethanoate.
9. Write equations for the oxidation of:
(a) pentan-1-ol
(b) pentan-2-ol.
10. Explain the difference between ester hydrolysis and ester formation. What are the reactants and products?
9.4 Reaction pathways

KEY CONCEPT
• The pathways used to synthesise primary haloalkanes, primary alcohols, primary amines, carboxylic acids
and esters, including calculations of atom economy and percentage yield of single-step or overall pathway
reactions.
Reaction pathways are important in synthetic chemistry. Chemists are looking to save time and money
while reducing waste and maximising the yields from reactions. Subtopic 9.3 covered some of the steps and
reagents to produce a host of chemicals, but this subtopic is looking at multi-step procedures for making
these chemicals from a variety of starting materials and being able to calculate the yield and atom economy
as means of measuring the efficiency of these reactions.

9.4.1 Measuring reaction efficiency
There are a number of ways of evaluating the efficiency of a chemical process. Factors that could be
considered include energy consumption, cost of chemicals and equipment, and environmental impact.
Traditionally, the efficiency of a reaction has been determined by calculating the percentage yield.
Percentage yield
Sometimes when chemical reactions are performed, not all of the reactants are converted into the desired
products. This could be due to many factors including:
1. the reaction being an equilibrium reaction and not going to completion
2. losses when transferring liquids between containers
3. losses when filtering
4. losses when heating
5. presence of unreactive impurities
6. decomposition of product
7. some liquid lost due to evaporation
8. other side reactions.
Chemical processes have been designed to manufacture the maximum amount of product from a
given amount of raw materials. This is called the yield of a reaction and can be calculated by finding the
percentage of the mass of the product actually made compared to the theoretical mass of a product that
could be made. The theoretical mass of the product is calculated using the given amount of the limiting
reactant in the reaction.
actual yield 100

% yield = ×
theoretical yield 1
TIP: The % yield formula can be found in table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
2.18 g of ethanol, C2 H5 OH, is reacted with excess oxygen to produce 3.63 g of carbon dioxide
C2 H5 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 3H2 O(g) + 2CO2 (g)
What is the percentage yield of this reaction?

THINK WRITE
actual yield 100
1. The percentage yield will be the mass of % yield = ×
CO2 actually produced (actual yield) divided theoretical yield 1
by the theoretical mass of CO2 expected to
be produced (theoretical yield) according to
the mole ratios in the equation and
multiplied by 100.

m
2. Calculate the number of moles of ethanol by n(C2 H5 OH) =
m M
using the formula n = .
M 2.18 g
=
(2 × 12.0 + 6 × 1.0 + 16.0) gmol−1
= 0.0474 mol
3. Determine the number of CO2 moles expected. n(CO2 ) = 2 × 0.0474
From the equation given, one mole of ethanol = 0.0948 mol
produces two moles of carbon dioxide.
m
4. Calculate the theoretical yield of CO2 by n=
rearranging the molar mass formula. M
m(CO2 ) = n × M
= 0.0948 mol × (12.0 + 2 × 16.0) g mol−1
= 4.17 g
3.63g
5. Determine the % yield by dividing the actual %yield = × 100
yield by the theoretical yield and multiplying 4.17g
by 100. Express the answer to three significant = 87.0%
figures and do not round answers at each step.
TIP: Formulas can be found in table 3 of the
VCE Chemistry Data book.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
2.5 g of methanol is reacted with excess oxygen to produce 3.1 g of carbon dioxide according to the
following reaction.
2CH3 OH(l) + 5O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g)
Calculate the percentage yield of carbon dioxide.
Atom economy
Calculating the percentage yield does not give an indication of how effectively the reactants have been used
to generate the product with minimal waste. Atom economy is another method for measuring the efficiency
of a reaction that takes into account the amount of waste produced.
reactant (s) ⇌ desired product + waste products
The atom economy of a reaction considers the amount of useful product produced from a particular
amount of reactants. Measuring atom economy enables sustainable development by using fewer natural
resources and minimising waste. The optimal situation is where the yield of a reaction is maximised, and as
many atoms as possible of the reactants are incorporated into the final product. It is preferable to decrease
the amount of waste produced rather than have to deal with it at the end of the process.

% atom economy = ×

TIP: The % atom economy formula can be found in table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
What is the percentage atom economy for the synthesis of ethanamine from chloroethane?
C2 H5 Cl(g) + NH3 (g) → C2 H5 NH2 (g) + HCl(g)
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate relative molecular Mr (C2 H5 NH2 ) = (2 × 12) + (5 × 1) + 14 + (2 × 1)
mass (Mr ) of the product = 45
ethanamine.
2. Calculate the Mr of the Mr (C2 H5 Cl) + Mr (NH3 ) = (2 × 12) + (5 × 1) + 35.5 + 14 + (3 × 1)
reactants and add them = 81.5
together.
3. Calculate the % atom economy % atom economy = ×
by dividing the Mr of the molar mass of all reactants 1
desired product by the total Mr 45
= × 100
of the reactants and 81.5
multiplying by 100%. = 55%
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
Calculate the percentage atom economy when methyl ethanoate is produced from the condensation
of methanol and ethanoic acid.
TIP: Write ester functional group semi-structures as COO and not OCO.
9.4.2 Reaction pathway summary

Esters and amides from alkenes
Esters are produced from the condensation reaction between a primary alcohol and carboxylic acid using an
acid catalyst. Alcohols are added in excess to favour the forward reaction and increase the yield of the ester.
The precursor to a carboxylic acid is a primary alcohol. Primary alcohols have the general formula
R−O−H. These alcohols can be formed from the addition of steam to alkenes in the presence of an acid
catalyst, or the substitution of an OH− ion with a primary haloalkane. Haloalkanes can be prepared from
the addition of HX, where X is a halogen, typically Cl or Br. Carboxylic acids are then produced by the
oxidation of the primary alcohol using a strong oxidant in an acidified solution.
Amides can be made from the reaction between primary amines and the carboxylic acids.

Esters and amides from alkanes
To arrive at the carboxylic acid and primary alcohol reactants from alkanes, reactive haloalkanes are
required as precursors. The further down the group a halogen is, the faster the rate of reaction when OH−
replaces it. For example, part of a primary haloalkane, Br, is 500 times more reactive than Cl, which means
it is a lot easier to substitute OH− for Br− than it is Cl− . Nonetheless, Cl can still readily leave the molecule
and be replaced by OH− . For tertiary haloalkanes, which are far more reactive than primary haloalkanes, the
halogens are all reactive and are easily substituted out.
As seen earlier, substituted haloalkanes are prepared using diatomic halogens and UV light to catalyse
the reaction.
FIGURE 9.25 Organic reactions pathways summary
H H H H
Cl2 or Br2
H C C H H C C Cl + HCl
hv
H H H H
alkane haloalkane
HCl(g) OH–
H2(g)
H H H H O H
H H H2O(g) Cr2O72– or MnO4– O CH3OH
C C H C C OH H C C H C C O C H
H H H3PO4 ; 300°C H+ OH H2SO4(l)
alkene H H H H H + H2O
ester
primary carboxylic acid
alcohol
CH3NH2
primary
amine
H O H H
O
+ H2O + H C C N C H H C C + CH3NH3+
heat
O–
H H H H
amide
Resources
Interactivity Identifying compounds in reaction pathways (int-1236)
9.4 EXERCISE
1. Ethanol is used in alcoholic drinks and as a fuel and a solvent. Write the structural equations for the
chemical reactions involved in the three ways that ethanol can be produced.
2. Describe the steps involved in producing the flavouring ethyl ethanoate, commencing with ethane.
3. 30.3 g of ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH, is obtained from the oxidation of 26.8 g of ethanol, C2 H5 OH. What is
the percentage yield?
4. The complete combustion of 82.2 g of propane produces a 73.2% yield. How many grams of CO2 would
be produced?
5. Ethanol is manufactured industrially by reacting ethene with steam.
H2 C=CH2 (g) + H2 O(g) → CH3 CH2 OH(g)
What is the % atom economy for this reaction?

6. Two methods of producing hydrogen are shown below. Which has the higher % atom economy?
Method 1: CH4 (g) + H2 O(g) → CO(g) + 3H2 (g)
Method 2: C(s) + H2 O(g) → CO(g) + H2 (g)
7. Starting with but-2-ene, draw a reaction pathway for the production of butanone.
8. Describe how 2-chloropropane could be used to synthesise:
(a) propanone
(b) propan-2-amine.
9. List the catalyst used in the following reactions:
(a) chloroethane used to make ethanamine
(b) propanal to make propanoic acid
(c) propan-1-ol and ethanoic acid to make propyl ethanoate
(d) prop-1-ene used to make propan-1-ol.
10. Fill in the boxes to complete the reaction pathways.
(a) H H H H
H H H H
(b) H3C CH2 CH2
H3C CH2 CH CH2 H3 C CH2 CH2 CH2 OH
C O
HO
9.5 Review
9.5.1 Summary
Overview
• Natural and synthetic pathways can range from single to multi-step procedures.
• Chemists and engineers are looking to reduce waste and improve materials by developing more
efficient pathways.
• Many physical and chemical properties of materials and medicines can be altered using alternate
structures and pathways.
Explaining trends in physical properties
• The boiling points and other physical properties of organic compounds are influenced by the size,
shape, structure and degree of polarisation of their covalent bonds.
• The intermolecular forces involved are dispersion forces, dipole–dipole attractions and hydrogen
bonding.
• Viscosity is a measure of how well liquids flow with higher values, meaning slower flow rate.
Viscosity increases with molecular weight but decreases with increasing temperature.
• Flashpoint is the temperature at which there is a high enough concentration of vapours to support
combustion of fuels. The weaker the intermolecular forces, the lower the flashpoint.

• General trends in a homologous series see an increase in boiling point, flashpoint and viscosity but
decreased solubility in water as more carbon and hydrogen are added to the parent chain. Adding
electronegative atoms to asymmetrical polarity increases solubility in water.
• Alkanes, alkenes and alkynes consist of non-polar molecules. Smaller molecular mass hydrocarbons
are gases, and their boiling points increase with size due to the increased effect of dispersion forces.
They are also insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They are colourless and have low
density.
• Alcohols are flammable and form hydrogen bonds with adjacent molecules. As a result, the smaller
alcohols are liquids at room temperature and soluble in water. Solubility deceases with increasing
chain length, whereas boiling point increases.
• Carboxylic acids form stronger hydrogen bonds than alcohols because their −OH group is more
polarised due to the presence of the electron-withdrawing group C=O. The −COOH group is more
acidic than the −OH group of alcohols, but carboxylic acids are much weaker acids than inorganic
acids such as sulfuric acid.
• Aldehydes with lower molar mass have an unpleasant smell, but those with higher molar mass have a
pleasant smell. Aldehydes and ketones have lower boiling points than alcohols because, although the
C=O (carbonyl group) is polar, they do not have a hydroxyl group and so do not form hydrogen bonds
between molecules.
• Esters are volatile liquids at room temperature. Smaller molecules are polar and soluble in water, but
their solubility decreases with increased size.
Organic reactions
• All alkanes and alkenes undergo complete combustion with excess oxygen to produce carbon dioxide
and water. The exothermic nature of these reactions is the reason for the use of these hydrocarbons as
fuels.
• Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens to produce a range of haloalkanes.
• Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes (because of the C=C double bond) and undergo addition
reactions with a wide range of substances.
• Alcohols burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water. They undergo substitution reactions (e.g. with
ammonia to form amines).
• Primary alcohols are oxidised to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids using acidified dichromate or
permanganate ions.
• Secondary alcohols are oxidised to ketones but do not undergo further oxidation. Tertiary alcohols
cannot be oxidised.
• Carboxylic acids are weak acids that undergo reactions with metals, bases and metal carbonates.
• Carboxylic acids react with amines in acid–base reactions, followed by dehydration to form amides.
• Esters are formed by condensation reactions between alcohols and carboxylic acids in the presence of
heat and an acid catalyst. A water molecule is eliminated in the process.
Reaction pathways
• The percentage yield is the amount of product produced from a given amount of raw materials. It is
calculated using the formula:
actual yield 100

% yield = ×
theoretical yield 1
• Atom economy is another method of measuring the efficiency of a reaction that takes into account the
amount of waste produced. It is a measure of the amount of reactants that become useful products. It is
calculated using the formula:

% atom economy = ×

• Pathways you should be familiar with are:
• synthesis of primary alcohols, aldehydes and carboxylic acids from alkanes and alkenes
• synthesis of ketones from haloalkanes
• synthesis of esters from alkanes and alkenes
• synthesis of amides from carboxylic acids.
Resources
exam question booklet (doc-31417)
9.5.2 Key terms
addition reactions reactions in which one molecule bonds covalently with another molecule without losing any
other atoms
atom economy measurement of the efficiency of a reaction that considers the amount of waste produced
by calculating the percentage of the molar mass of the desired product compared to the molar mass of all
reactants
condensation reactions reactions in which molecules react and link together by covalent bonding with the
elimination of a small molecule, such as water or hydrogen chloride, from the bond that is formed
esterification the process of ester formation
flashpoint the temperature at which a particular organic compound gives off sufficient vapour to ignite in air
percentage yield measurement of the efficiency of a reaction by calculating the percentage of the actual yield
compared to the theoretical yield
primary alcohols alcohols in which the carbon atom that carries the −OH group is attached to only one alkyl
group
secondary alcohols alcohols in which the carbon atom that carries the −OH group attached is joined directly to
two alkyl groups, which may be the same or different
substitution reactions reactions in which one or more atoms of a molecule are replaced by different atoms
viscosity a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
Resources
Digital documents Key terms glossary – Topic 9 (doc-31415)
Experiment 9.2
Esterification
Aim: To prepare a small amount of the ester ethyl ethanoate from ethanol and
ethanoic acid

Resources
Experiment 9.1 Comparing physical properties of alkanes, haloalkanes, alcohols and esters
(doc-31270)
9.5 Exercises

1. Which properties are generally characteristic of hydrocarbons?
A. Low melting point and soluble in polar solvents
B. High melting point and soluble in polar solvents
C. Low melting point and insoluble in polar solvents
D. High melting point and insoluble in nonpolar solvents
2. Which of the following alkanes would you expect to have the lowest melting point?
A. Octane
B. Propane
C. Pentane
D. Butane
3. The lowest temperature at which a material produces a flammable vapour describes:
A. auto ignition temperature
B. flashpoint
C. fire point
D. ignition temperature.
4. Which of the following is the most soluble in water?
A. CH3 CH2 CH2 OH
B. CH3 CH2 OH
C. CH3 CH2 CH3
D. CH3 CH3 Cl
5. Which of the following compounds can form hydrogen bonds between its molecules?
A. CH3 CH2 OCH2 CH3
B. CH3 CH2 CH2 F
C. CH3 CH2 N(CH3 )2
D. CH3 CH2 CH2 OH
6. Which of the following has the greatest solubility in octane?
A. Octanol
B. Propylamine
C. Pentane
D. Ethanoic acid
7. What is the following reaction is an example of?
CH2 CH2 + HCl → CH3 CH2 Cl
A. An addition reaction
B. A substitution reaction
C. A condensation reaction
D. A combustion reaction

8. If a secondary alcohol is oxidised it produces:
A. a ketone
B. an aldehyde
C. a carboxylic acid
D. initially an aldehyde that reacts further to form a carboxylic acid.
9. Which of the following reaction pathways used to produce ethanamine has the greatest percentage atom
economy?
A. C2 H4 + H2 O → C2 H5 OH
C2 H5 OH + NH3 → C2 H5 NH2 + H2 O
B. C2 H5 Cl + NH3 → C2 H5 NH2 + HCl
C. C2 H6 + Cl2 → C2 H5 Cl + HCl
C2 H5 Cl + NH3 → C2 H5 NH2 + HCl
D.C2 H5 Cl + NaOH → C2 H5 OH + NaCl
C2 H5 OH + NH3 → C2 H5 NH2 + H2 O
10. If the theoretical yield for a reaction to produce propanoic acid is 126 g and 95.0 g of the product is
actually made, what is the percentage yield?
A. 132%
B. 32.6%
C. 75.4%
D. 24.6%

1. Describe the intermolecular forces acting between the following molecules.
a. CH3 Cl
b. CH3 OCH3
c. CBr4
d. CH3 CH2 NH2
e. H2 CCH2
f. CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CHO
g. cis–CH2 Cl2
h. HCOOH
2. The molar masses of propan-1-ol and butane are similar. Which would you expect to have the higher
boiling point? Explain your answer.
3. What is a substitution reaction? Write the equations of methane reacting with bromine and all the
possible products formed.
4. Write equations for the reactions between:
a. ethene and HI
b. propene and H2 (Pt catalyst)
c. ethene and Br2
d. but-1-ene and Cl2
e. methane and excess O2
f. ethane and Cl2
g. ethene and H2 O
h. but-2-ene and H2 .

5. Write the formulas for substances X, Y and Z shown in the following diagram.
H2O
CH2BrCH2Br
6. What type of reaction is the esterification process? What are the reactants and products?
7. Carboxylic acids can be made from alkanes. Describe the stages and products formed in the conversion
of ethane to ethanoic acid. Draw structures and name the products at each stage.
8. When 11.5 g of methanol was treated with excess acidified permanganate, 13.2 g of methanoic acid was
obtained. Balance the following equation by first balancing the relevant half-equations, and then
calculate the percentage yield.
CH3 OH + MnO−
4 → HCOOH + Mn
2+
9. 2-methylpropan-1-ol can be used to manufacture diesel and jet fuel. The first step in the process is the
production of 2-methylpropene (C4 H8 ).
C4 H10 O(l) → C4 H8 (g) + H2 O(g)

2-methylpropan-1-ol 2-methylpropene
Calculate the % atom economy for this reaction.

10. Explain why the atom economy of the following reaction is 100%.
H2 C═CH2 + H2 O → CH3 CH2 OH

Question 1 (1 mark)
Which of the following would not distinguish between the colourless and odourless butan-1-ol and
butan-2-ol?
A. Reaction with acidified KMnO4 and then pH test
B. Boiling point
C. Flashpoint
D. Electrical conductivity
Question 2 (1 mark)
Which of the following compounds will be produced by the reaction between CH3 CH2 CH2 OH and
HCOOH in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid?
A. Propanone
B. Propyl methanoate
C. Methyl propanaoate
D. Propanal

Use the following information to answer questions 3 and 4.
A student decided to test the flammability of two esters. The student took a 50.0 g sample of each liquid,
placed them on a hot plate and heated them gradually until they ignited in the air when a flame was passed
over each sample. The first ester was methyl methanoate and the second was pentyl pentanoate.
Question 3 (1 mark)
Which of the following statements is not true?
A. The student is measuring the flashpoint of each liquid.
B. The independent variable is the temperature at which the fuel ignites.
C. The methyl methanoate will ignite at a lower temperature.
D. Methyl methanoate is more volatile than pentyl pentanoate.
Question 4 (1 mark)
Calculate the mass of CO2 produced when 50.0 g of methyl methanoate is completely combusted.
Haloalkanes have many uses ranging from solvents to fumigants. One particular haloalkane used to control
termites is shown below.
H H
Br C C Br
H H
a. Write equations to show the production of the haloalkane using ethane as a starting material. 2 marks
b. Write the IUPAC name of the haloalkane used to control termites. 1 mark
c. What is the percentage atom economy from the production of the haloalkane from ethane? 1 mark
d. Write a chemical equation for the production of the haloalkane that would result in a 100% atom
economy. 1 mark
e. Haloalkanes also make excellent starting materials for the production of other chemicals used in
industry.
i. Complete the following reaction pathway by drawing the structures of molecules in the
empty boxes. 2 marks
H H
Br C C Br + NaOH(aq)
H H
H+ Cr2O72–
H O
MnO4–
Br C C H
H+
H
Name:
ii. Give the IUPAC name of the final product. 1 mark

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 1
10 Analysis of organic
compounds
10.1 Overview
your digital formats, eBookPLUS and learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.
10.1.1 Introduction
The advances in our ability to
FIGURE 10.1 MRI is based on the principles of NMR, a
qualitatively and quantitatively analyse spectroscopic technique used to study the structure of molecules.
chemical compounds have allowed
research and technology to progress
at an extraordinary pace. We are able
to take advantage of the interactions
between electromagnetic radiation
and matter as well as the different
interactions between matter itself.
Doctors use magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) to investigate physical
disorders without surgery. Images
are created by a signal from flipping
proton spins (hydrogen nuclei) in water
molecules or fat molecules using a
magnetic field and radio waves. As
our bodies are 60 to 70% water, water-
containing tissue appears white in an MRI, whereas bones with lower water content are much darker. MRI
is based on the principles of NMR, a spectroscopic technique often used to obtain information about the
structure of molecules.
The analysis of organic compounds in this topic covers qualitative spectroscopic techniques and analysis
by chromatography and titration. You will revisit HPLC and acid-base titration analysis as well as learn
about new techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and infrared (IR) and mass spectroscopy
(MS). The power of the instrumental techniques in combination allows for the identification of organic
compounds and the amounts present in samples. These techniques are commonly used in the medical, food
and pharmaceutical industries as well as forensics.
You will learn how to deduce the structure of simple organic compounds containing groups such as
the amino, hydroxyl and carbonyl from spectra, and investigate how matter responds to different types of
electromagnetic radiation. Chromatography and acid-base and redox titration will be used for quantitative
analysis of organic compounds. In the case of HPLC, retention time will be used to identify the presence of
chemicals in a mixture.
TOPIC 10 Analysis of organic compounds 331

KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the principles and applications of mass spectroscopy (excluding features of instrumentation and operation)
and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data, including identification of molecular ion peak,
determination of molecular mass and identification of simple fragments
• the principles and applications of infrared spectroscopy (IR) (excluding features of instrumentation and
operation) and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data including use of characteristic absorption
bands to identify bonds
• the principles (including spin energy levels) and applications of proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (NMR) (excluding features of instrumentation and operation); analysis of
carbon-13 NMR spectra and use of chemical shifts to determine number and nature of different carbon
environments in a simple organic compound; and analysis of high resolution proton NMR spectra to
determine the structure of a simple organic compound using chemical shifts, areas under peak and peak
splitting patterns (excluding coupling constants) and application of the n+1 rule
• determination of the structures of simple organic compounds are determined using a combination of mass
spectrometry (MS), infrared spectroscopy (IR) and proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (NMR) (limited to data analysis)
• the principles of chromatography including use of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)
and construction and use of a calibration curve to determine the concentration of an organic compound in
a solution
• how the concentration of an organic compound is determined by volumetric analysis, including the
principles of direct acid-base and redox titrations (excluding back titrations).

Resources
10.2 Mass spectrometry

KEY CONCEPT
• The principles and applications of mass spectroscopy (excluding features of instrumentation and operation)
and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data, including identification of molecular ion peak,
determination of molecular mass and identification of simple fragments
10.2.1 Principles of mass spectroscopy

Mass spectrometry is a technique that can be used to determine the structures of molecules, and its
applications are numerous. Mass spectrometry can be used to determine the structures of biomolecules, and

detect drugs, explosives, toxins in seafood, oil deposits in rocks and impurities in steel, in space exploration
and radiocarbon dating of fossils.
Mass spectrometry is not strictly spectroscopy because it does not use electromagnetic radiation. Instead,
molecules are bombarded by high-energy electrons, and the positive ions formed in this process then
undergo fragmentation. The output is a mass spectrum that plots the mass/charge ratio (m/z) versus the
abundance of each fragment. The most abundant peak is assigned a value of 100%. Only milligrams of a
sample are required for the analysis, but the sample is destroyed in the process.
Molecular ion formation and detection

A mass spectrometer detects ions formed from atoms and molecules to determine their mass and charge. It
does this by detecting the path of the ionised substance through a magnetic field.
FIGURE 10.2 Fragmentation in a mass spectrometer
mass analyser
+ +
ionisation + + + + +
+ +
+
molecular or
sample positively charged parent ion
molecules fragments detector
When a compound is analysed in a mass spectrometer, most of the molecule breaks up into smaller
fragments, called fragment ions. Identification of the fragment ions can help determine the structure of the
original molecule. The few remaining whole molecules produce ions with a peak at the relative molecular
mass of the compound, even though this might be small due to extensive fragmentation. The ion represented
by this peak is called the parent, or molecular, ion. Each line in the spectrum represents a positive ion with a
specific m/z ratio.
M(g) + e− → M+ (g) + 2e−

M+ (g) → P+ (g) + Q•(g)
M + is the parent or molecular ion, which breaks down to P+ and Q•. The charged fragment, P+ ,
is detected in the mass spectrometer. The uncharged (free radical) fragment, Q•, is not detected. Mass
spectrometers can be used in conjunction with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to further
identify a peak in a chromatogram.
The mass spectrum

The output of a mass spectrometer is a mass spectrum that
FIGURE 10.3 A mass spectrometer
generally looks like a bar graph. Each column represents an ion readout for boron
with a specific m/z ratio. The height of the column shows the
relative abundance. 100
Relative abundance (%)
Although the horizontal scale is technically mass/charge, the

bulk of the positive ions produced have a single positive charge
(+1). This means that the horizontal axis is effectively a mass 50
scale. Mass spectrometry can be used to identify isotopes of an
element and to determine molecular structures. The mass spectrum
in figure 10.3 shows that boron has two isotopes and that the
heavier isotope is more abundant. 0
2 4 6 8 10 12
m/z

Consider the mass spectrum of propane (see figure 10.4b). Observe how each fragment ion produces a
specific peak. The most abundant ion is known as the base peak and is usually assigned a height of 100%.
This is the most common fragment, either because it is the most stable or because it can be formed in
different ways. It is not always required to identify every peak in the spectrum.
FIGURE 10.4 (a) Structural formula and (b) mass spectrum for propane
(a) (b) C2H5+
100
29
C2H4+

H H H
28
H C C C H
50
H H H C3H8+
propane CH3+
44
15
0
10 20 30 40 50
m/z
Table 10.1 shows m/z ratios for some small ions that may be observed in a mass spectrum. Sometimes,
it is easier to determine the fragment by subtracting the fragment that is lost (e.g. subtracting 15 from the
molecular mass suggests that a methyl group, CH3 , was part of the molecule).
TABLE 10.1 m/z values for small ions
m/z Positively charged fragment
15 CH3 +
17 OH+
18 H2 O+
19 H3 O+ , F+
26 C2 H2 + , CN+
27 C2 H3 +
28 C2 H4 + , CO+
29 C2 H5 + , CHO+
30 CH2 NH2 +
31 CH3 O+
35 (37) 35
Cl+ (37 Cl+ )

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The following diagram shows the mass spectrum for chloroethane, C2 H5 Cl. What ions are
responsible for the peaks at m/z = 66 and 64, 49 and 51, 29 and 28?
Chloroethane mass spectrum

100

80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
m/z
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the molecular mass of M(C2 H5 35C l) = (2 × 12.0) + (5 × 1.0) + (35)
chloroethane remembering chorine has two = 64
isotopes: 35 Cl and 37 Cl. 37
M(C2 H5 C l) = (2 × 12.0) + (5 × 1.0) + (37)
= 66
2. Check for isotope peaks (e.g. for carbon and The peak at m/z = 64 corresponds to [C2 H5 35C l]+ .
chlorine). The peak at m/z = 66 corresponds to [C2 H5 37C l]+ .
3. Look for gaps of 15 lost from the molecular 64 − 15 = 49 corresponds to
ion, showing the loss of a methyl group, [C2 H5 35 Cl]+ − . CH3 = [CH2 35 Cl]+ .
[CH3 ], to identify fragments. Hence, [CH2 35 Cl]+ shows a peak at m/z = 49.
66 − 15 = 51 corresponds to
[C2 H5 37 Cl]+ − . CH3 = [CH2 37 Cl]+ .
Hence, [CH2 37 Cl]+ shows a peak at m/z = 51.
4. Identify any other fragments (table 10.1 may [C2 H5 ]+ occurs at m/z = 29, and the peak for
assist) and calculate the masses to confirm [C2 H4 ]+ occurs at m/z = 28.
the peaks observed.
5. Write a concluding statement. m/z = 64 corresponds to [C2 H5 35C l]
m/z = 66 corresponds to [C2 H5 37C l]
m/z = 49 corresponds to [CH2 35C l]+
m/z = 51 corresponds to [CH2 37C l]+
m/z = 29 corresponds to [C2 H5 ]+
m/z = 28 corresponds to [C2 H4 ]+

Chloromethane mass spectrum
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
100
The following spectrum is for chloromethane

(CH3 Cl). What ions are responsible for the peaks at 80
m/z = 52, 50 and 15?
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
m/z
TIP: When writing equations involving the production of ions in mass spectra, ensure detected
ions have a positive charge and that the states in equations are gaseous (g).
Resources
Interactivity Interpreting a mass spectrum (int-1230)
10.2 EXERCISE
1. Explain how mass spectra are produced.
2. What is the difference between the molecular ion peak and base peak?
3. If the relative intensity of the base peak is 100 and the molecular ion has a relative intensity of 50, what
does this tell you about the abundance of each?
4. Why can the m/z ratio on a mass spectrum be thought of as a mass scale?
5. Write an equation for the molecular ion formation of ethanoic acid in a mass spectrometer.
6. Write an equation for the fragmentation of the ethanoic acid molecular ion into CH3 CO+ .
7. Propanone, commonly called acetone, CH3 COCH3 , is an important solvent in industry. In a mass
spectrometer, propanone breaks down into a series of fragment ions.
(a) Which peak corresponds to CH3 −CO−CH3 + ?
(b) Identify which fragment ions correspond to the other labelled peaks.
Y
100
propanone
H H
80
H C C C H Z
60 H O H
40
X
20
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
m/z

8. A molecule with the formula C3 H9 N produced the following mass spectrum.
100

80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 70
m/z
(a) What is the m/z ratio of the molecular ion?

(b) What is the m/z ratio of the base peak?
(c) Write the formula of the molecular ion.
(d) Write the formula of the fragment that produced the base peak.
(e) Write an equation for the formation of the base peak from the molecular ion.
9. The following mass spectrum is produced by an aldehyde.
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
m/z
(a) Write the m/z that would be caused by the aldehyde functional group.
(b) Write the formula of the fragment responsible for m/z = 43.
(c) What is the peak at m/z = 43 called?
(d) Name the aldehyde that produced this spectrum. Justify your answer by referring to peaks on the
spectrum.
10. A compound with the empirical formula CH2 Cl produced the following spectrum.
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
m/z

(a) Write the molecular formula of the compound
(b) Explain the presence of three molecular ion peaks.
(c) Write an equation for the formation of the most abundant molecular ion.
(d) Draw the structure of the molecule that produced this spectrum. Justify your answer by referring to the
mass spectrum.
question go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au

10.3 Infrared spectroscopy

KEY CONCEPT
• The principles and applications of infrared spectroscopy (IR) (excluding features of instrumentation and
operation) and interpretation of qualitative and quantitative data including use of characteristic absorption
bands to identify bonds
10.3.1 Principles of infrared spectroscopy

Infrared (IR) spectroscopy identifies the functional groups and single, double and triple bonds in organic
molecules. This qualitative analysis method measures the characteristic amount of energy that the
bonds between atoms in a molecule absorb when exposed to radiation in the infrared portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Covalent bonds can be likened to springs in that they can bend, stretch and vibrate in a number of
different ways. These produce what are called vibrational energy levels. Just as the electrons in atoms
have a number of allowed electronic energy levels, these vibrations have allowed vibrational energy levels.
Therefore, it is possible to talk about ‘ground-state’ vibrational energy levels and ‘excited-state’ vibrational
energy levels. A molecule can move from a lower to a higher vibrational energy level if it absorbs an
amount of energy equal to the difference between levels. The region of the electromagnetic spectrum
corresponding to such amounts of energy is the infrared region. All of this is affected by the type of bond.
The amount of energy required for these transitions, and therefore the frequency (or wavelength), can give
clues about the types of covalent bonds present.
One of the important pieces of information needed to identify an unknown organic compound is the
type of functional groups within a molecule. Infrared spectroscopy can identify the following groups:
−CH (alkyl groups), −OH (hydroxyl groups) and C=O (carbonyl groups). Infrared spectroscopy can also
be used to determine if double or triple bonds are present in a molecule. Proteomics is the study of the
structures and functions of proteins. Infrared spectroscopy was used to analyse proteins in human DNA
as part of the Human Genome Project. The three-dimensional shapes of protein molecules can be easily
and cheaply investigated by using infrared spectroscopy to study the C−C bonds, instead of using more
complicated NMR spectroscopy.

INFRARED ASTRONOMY
This infrared photograph of the Trifid Nebula was taken by the Spitzer
Space Telescope. The nebula is 5400 light-years away from Earth in the
Sagittarius constellation. Visible-light telescopes cannot see into the
nebula, but infrared cameras can detect infrared radiation coming from
the nebula’s interior, allowing us to ‘see’ what’s inside it.
Infrared cameras take pictures using the infrared part of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The differences in infrared wavelengths
between parts of an object or between objects can be used to show
different colours.
Infrared spectra
An IR spectrum looks upside down compared with a UV–visible or AAS spectrum. This is because it
measures transmittance, which is the opposite of absorbance, on the vertical (y) axis. Unlike a UV–visible
spectrum, which has a base line of zero absorbance running along the base of the graph, the IR spectrum
has a base line of 100% transmittance running along the top of the graph, meaning that no light has been
absorbed by the sample. A peak occurs in the UV–visible spectrum when energy is absorbed, whereas a
dip appears in the IR spectrum when energy is absorbed. The IR spectrum measures wave number, which
is the inverse of wavelength, on the horizontal (x) axis; wave number is proportional to frequency. As the
wavelength increases, the wave number decreases. You studied these aspects of spectroscopy in Unit 2.
Nearly all molecules absorb IR radiation and it is largely a qualitative technique. The region above
1000 cm−1 can be used to identify the functional groups present. Tables exist to help identify peaks in this
region and attribute them to certain types of bonds.
TABLE 10.2 Characteristic range for infrared absorption
Bond Wave number (cm−1 )
C−C1 (chloroalkanes) 600–800
C−O (alcohols, esters, ethers) 1050–1410
C=C (alkenes) 1620–1680
C=O (amides) 1630–1680
C=O (aldehydes) 1660–1745
C=O (acids) 1680–1740
C=O (ketones) 1680–1850
C=O (esters) 1720–1840
C−H (alkanes, alkenes, arenes) 2850–3090
O−H (acids) 2500–3500
O−H (alcohols) 3200–3600
N−H (primary amines) 3350–3500

Source: VCAA 2018, VCE Chemistry Data Book, Version 2, June 2018, VCAA, Melbourne, table 14.
The IR spectrum for methanol in figure 10.5 shows characteristic peaks at 3300 cm−1 for −OH and
2950 cm−1 for −CH. The peak at 2950 cm−1 , indicating a C−H bond, is almost always present in organic
molecules and is less helpful because it is not a characteristic identifier.
The lower end of an IR spectrum often looks like a series of peaks crowded together. This is called the
fingerprint region of the spectrum. It is difficult to identify individual peaks caused by particular bonds,

but the region is still useful in identifying the substance, because the region looks similar in any analysis of
that substance.
FIGURE 10.5 This IR spectrum for methanol shows characteristic peaks at 3300 cm−1 for −OH and 2950 cm−1
for −CH. The −CH peak is almost always present in organic molecules and so is less helpful. Nearly every
organic molecule has C−H bonds.
IR spectrum for methanol

100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
O—H CH3—OH
0
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
Wave number (cm–1)
Most organic spectra contain peaks for C−H bonds in the same area, so how do we tell the different
spectra apart?
Differences can be seen by comparing the spectra in figure 10.6 for ethanol, CH3 CH2 OH, and figure 10.7
for propan-1-ol, CH3 CH2 CH2 OH. The peaks for O−H at 3300 cm−1 and for C−H at 2900 cm−1 are clear
in each of the spectra. However, there are many more peaks in the 1000–1100 cm−1 region for the longer
molecule than the shorter molecule. This is because the C−H bonds adjacent to other C−H bonds, as in
CH3 CH2 CH2 OH, affect each other. In addition to this, the electronegative oxygen atom affects the adjacent
C−H bond, slightly polarising it towards the oxygen atom. This is because the oxygen atom draws the
electrons in the C−O bond towards itself, making the carbon atom take on a slight positive charge. This
partial, positive charge attracts the electrons in the C−H bond towards the C atom, making the C−H bond
slightly polar. This alters the bond length and strength, making the bonds absorb and transmit IR at slightly
different frequencies, so there are more peaks. The next C−H bond in the chain does not feel the same
electrostatic attraction and so is not as affected.
FIGURE 10.6 IR spectrum for ethanol
IR spectrum for ethanol

100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
CH3CH2—OH
0
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500

FIGURE 10.7 IR spectrum for propan-1-ol
IR spectrum for propan-1-ol

100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
CH3CH2CH2—OH
0 4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
TABLE 10.3 Infrared band positions for selected functional groups
−O−H −O−H
Functional group (alcohols) (carboxylic acids) −C=O −C−O− −N−H
Infrared band 3200–3550 2500–3300 1670–1750 1000–1300 3350–3500

position (cm−1 )
Resources
Video eLesson Infrared spectroscopy (med-0349)
Interactivity Interpreting IR spectra (int-1229)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Identify the major peaks in this IR spectrum for a molecule that has only one carbon atom in its
molecular structure, and then identify the molecule.
IR spectrum for an alkanoic acid
100
90
Transmittance (%T)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500

THINK WRITE
1. Identify characteristic peaks caused by functional The peak at approximately 1600–1750 cm−1
groups listed in table 14 of the VCE Chemistry Data corresponds to C=O.
Book. The peak at approximately 2500–3200 cm−1
corresponds to O−H acids
2. Deduce a structure that must have both the C=O and Functional group must be −COOH.
O−H acid groups and contains one carbon atom only
(as stated in the question).
3. Identify the molecule. The C atom in −COOH has The molecule must be HCOOH,
one unbonded electron so it could be bonded to a H. methanoic acid.
The C−H peak at 2950 cm−1 is mostly hidden by the
broad O−H peak. The structure is HCOOH.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Identify the major peaks in this IR spectrum and deduce a structure for a molecule with the formula
C3 H6 O.
100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
TIP: O−H hydroxyl and O−H carboxyl are distinguished by OH(alcohols) and OH(acids) in the
VCE Chemistry Data Book. When identifying −OH peaks you need to state which one you are
referring to.
10.3 EXERCISE
1. Describe the interaction between infrared light and covalent bonds.
2. With respect to the fingerprint region of an IR spectrum:
(a) what trend would you observe in a homologous series?
(b) how are fingerprint regions useful for identifying known substances?

3. The following infrared spectrum was produced by ethyl ethanoate. Identify the major peaks in the spectrum.
100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
4. Examine the following IR spectra.
IR spectrum for compound A

100
90
Transmittance (%T)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
IR spectrum for compound B

100
90
Transmittance (%T)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
(a) Using table 10.2 or table 14 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book, identify the bonds responsible for the
major peaks on each spectrum.
(b) By examining the peaks, determine which spectrum has the most C−H bonds.
(c) Both substances were examined by mass spectrometry. The results confirmed that both of the
molecules contained only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The molecular masses of the molecules were
60 and 74. Determine the possible molecular formulas of the two substances (i.e. deduce one possible
molecular structure for each of the substances).

5. The following figure shows two infrared spectra for two different compounds, X and Y. Only one is a
carboxylic acid; the other is an alcohol. Use table 10.2 to identify the spectrum corresponding to a
carboxylic acid.
(a) IR spectrum for compound X (b) IR spectrum for compound Y

100 100
90 90
Transmittance (%T)
Transmittance (%T)
80 80
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 500 4000 3000 2000 1500 1000 500
Wave number (cm–1) Wave number (cm–1)
6. The following figure shows two IR spectra for two different compounds X and Y. Both compounds contain
carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen but only one contains oxygen. Use table 10.2 or table 14 in the VCE
Chemistry Data Book to identify the homologous series that compounds X and Y belong to.
Compound X
100
90
Transmittance (%T)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
Compound Y
100
90
80
70
Transmittance (%T)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000

10.4 NMR spectroscopy

KEY CONCEPT
• The principles (including spin energy levels) and applications of proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic
resonance spectroscopy (NMR) (excluding features of instrumentation and operation); analysis of
carbon-13 NMR spectra and use of chemical shifts to determine number and nature of different carbon
environments in a simple organic compound; and analysis of high resolution proton NMR spectra to
determine the structure of a simple organic compound using chemical shifts, areas under peak and peak
splitting patterns (excluding coupling constants) and application of the n+1 rule
10.4.1 Principles of NMR spectroscopy

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) images are called MRI scans in the medical field. MRI stands for
magnetic resonance imaging. These images provide doctors with pictures of the soft tissues of the body.
When NMR was introduced, many patients refused to have NMR scans because they thought it had
something to do with being bombarded with radiation from a nuclear reactor. However, the word ‘nuclear’
in this case refers to the nucleus of an atom and how it interacts with a magnetic field. To alleviate patients’
fears, NMR scanning is now called MRI.
Particles making up a nucleus exhibit properties called ‘spin’ and ‘magnetic moment’. The combination
of particular numbers of protons and neutrons give each nucleus an overall spin and magnetic moment,
which responds to an applied magnetic field (see figure 10.9). NMR measures this response to give an
indication of the connectivity of atoms in a molecule. It does this by recording the interaction of C and H
nuclei with a magnetic field.
NMR is a qualitative analysis method. Some nuclei have
FIGURE 10.8 A MRI scan showing the
two overall spin states and behave as if they are magnets blood vessels in the brain
spinning about their axes. 1 H and 13 C are two such nuclei.
If a strong, external magnetic field is applied to such nuclei,
these spinning magnets either align with the external field
(to produce a slightly lower energy level) or align against it
(to produce a slightly higher energy level). By absorbing the
exact difference in energy between these two states, a nucleus
can ‘flip’ between its lower and higher spin states. It then
releases this same amount of energy when it ‘relaxes’ back to
its lower state. The energy involved in these changes is in the
radio frequency section of the electromagnetic spectrum. The
energy difference between these two spin states depends on
the strength of the external magnetic field that is ‘felt’ by the
nucleus. This is not always the same as the external magnetic
field because other atoms that surround a given nucleus can

modify it in subtle, but important, ways. Therefore, the energy required for a nucleus to change its spin state
depends on what is around it (its environment). The use of NMR can give valuable information about the
connectivity of atoms in a molecule.
FIGURE 10.9 (a) Nuclear spin is random in the absence of a magnetic field B0 . (b) In the presence of a magnetic
field, nuclear spin either aligns in the same direction as the magnetic field (red) or against the field (blue). The
nuclei aligned with the magnetic field (lower energy) can absorb electromagnetic radiation of the correct frequency
and flip to the higher energy state (against the magnetic field).
(a) (b)
B0
FIGURE 10.10 A schematic diagram of an NMR spectrometer
recorder
detector
source of
radio waves
magnetic field
spinning
sample tube
10.4.2 Chemical shift and NMR spectra

There are three main types of NMR spectra.
• Carbon-13 NMR (13 C)
• Low-resolution proton NMR (1 H)
• High-resolution proton NMR (1 H)
All of these produce spectra that show peak height versus chemical shift in ppm (parts per million).
The horizontal scale is called ‘chemical shift’ (𝛿); it starts from zero on the right and reads backwards.
The zero reference point is taken from the chemical shift peak produced by tetramethylsilane, (CH3 )4 Si or
TMS, which is added to every sample; without this zero point, it would be impossible to know where to
start the horizontal scale. The number of signals on the x-axis indicates the number of types of protons or
carbons. The chemical shift or position of the peaks on the x-axis of the graph indicates the types of protons
or carbons.
The two particles most commonly used in NMR analysis are carbon-13 atoms, 13 C, and protons, 1 H.
Other atoms within an organic molecule can be analysed but examining the environments of the carbon
atoms and protons reveals valuable information about the structure of the molecule under investigation.

Different functional groups are found at different characteristic chemical shifts on the NMR spectrum.
Comparison with a table of the chemical shifts enables identification of the group. Either carbon or
hydrogen may be the subject of the NMR scan, and each set of data lends different information to the
analysis. Depending on the solvent used in the analysis, a signal may also be found for the carbon or
hydrogen atoms in that solvent.
Chemical shift is influenced by the electrons surrounding the nucleus of an atom. Electrons surrounding a
nucleus will somewhat shield the nuclei from the applied magnetic field of the NMR spectrometer. TMS is
excellent at shielding its nuclei with electrons. Because of this, it takes a higher magnetic field strength at a
particular radio frequency to flip the spin of nuclei in TMS. All other nuclei in organic molecules generally
need less field strength than TMS at the same radio frequency to flip to the opposing spin.
Chemical shift for 1 H NMR occurs in the 0–13 ppm range downfield (lower strength) from the TMS
reference. For 13 C NMR this range is from 0–220 ppm downfield. Electronegative atoms like nitrogen
and oxygen will de-shield or expose the nuclei of neighbouring carbon and hydrogen atoms by attracting
the electrons belonging to those atoms. This essentially results in a downfield shift required to achieve
resonance of nuclei.
10.4.3 Applications of NMR spectroscopy

NMR is used extensively in organic synthesis. For example, in pharmaceutical manufacturing, NMR is
used for quality control of medicines. It ensures that the drug molecule has been made with the correct
atom–atom linkages and has the desired properties. Other uses include studying DNA, RNA and similar
proteins in forensic analysis; the technique is not destructive so samples can be studied for weeks. NMR
is also used in the petrochemical industry to identify oil and gas deposits, and other features of the rock
sample in which deposits are contained. Although the scans seen in medical MRIs are like slices through
the body that build up into a three-dimensional picture, simpler scans are effective when analysing most
molecules.
10.4.4 13 C NMR spectroscopy

To analyse an NMR spectrum we need to look at the chemical shift and the number of unique peaks
(sets of peaks) on the spectrum. Peaks are unique if they are produced by nuclei in different electronic
environments. That is, the effect of shielding electrons will be different for carbon atoms surrounded
by different neighbours. Peaks will have the same chemical shift or environment if they have the same
neighbouring groups of atoms.
Consider the carbon environments of propan-2-ol and propan-1-ol
FIGURE 10.11 Structures of
in figure 10.11. There are three carbon atoms in propan-2-ol but only (a) propan-2-ol and
two unique carbon environments. The CH3 groups are both connected (b) propan-1-ol
to the central carbon atom and nothing else. They both experience
the same shielding and therefore will achieve resonance at the same (a) (b)
CH3
chemical shift. The other carbon atom is in a different environment
H3C CH H3C CH2 CH2 OH
due it being connected to the two CH3 groups and the OH group.
Propan-1-ol has three unique carbon environments because each OH
carbon atom in the structure has different connectivity or different
neighbours.
Identifying groups on a 13 C spectrum

If we examine the spectra propan-2-ol and propan-1-ol (see figure 10.12) we can see the difference in the
chemical shift and the number of peaks visible on the spectra.
The carbon atoms attached to the OH in both molecules are shown downfield due to the de-shielding of
the nuclei.

FIGURE 10.12 Spectra of (a) propan-2-ol and (b) propan-1-ol
(a)
H
H C H
H TMS
H O C H
C H
H 200 100 0
Chemical shift (ppm)
(b)
H H TMS
H
H O C C C H
H H H
200 100 0
The CH3 groups in propan-2-ol experience the same chemical shift from TMS to achieve resonance
and show as one peak only. The CH2 group in propan-1-ol is less shielded than the carbon atom in the
neighbouring CH3 group.
The 13 C NMR chemical shifts are summarised in table 10.4.
13
TABLE 10.4 C NMR chemical shift data relative to TMS = 0
Type of carbon Chemical shift (ppm)
R–CH3 8–25
R–CH2 –R 20–45
R3 –CH 40–60
R4 –C 36–45
R–CH2 –X 15–80
R3 C–NH2 , R3 C–NR 35–70
R–CH2 –OH 50–90
RC≡CR 75–95
R2 C=CR2 110–150
RCOOH 160–185
165–175
R
C O
RO

Type of carbon Chemical shift (ppm)
R 190–200
C O
H
R2 C=O 205–220
Source: VCAA 2018, VCE Chemistry Data Book, Version 2, June 2018, VCAA, Melbourne,
table 15.
10.4.5 1 H NMR spectroscopy

In 1 H NMR, the signal intensity (height) is statistically linked to the number of atoms for that signal. This
is similar to the calibration graphs in other instrumental methods such as gas chromatography, HPLC,
colorimetry, UV–visible spectroscopy and atomic absorption spectroscopy. An integral trace provides the
relative area under each signal in 1 H spectra and indicates how many hydrogen atoms contribute to that
signal. It is often indicated by a numeral written at the top of the integration curve (peak). For example,
(3) indicates three H atoms.
The bonding electrons of each atom in a molecule experience a small but significant effect caused by
the other atoms around them. A highly electronegative element, such as a halogen, affects the electrons of
neighbouring atoms by slightly attracting their electrons towards it. An oxygen atom in an alcohol group
not only affects the hydrogen atom bonded to it, but also affects the hydrogen atom bonded to the adjoining
carbon atom. The distribution of electrons affects the magnetic field around each nucleus, enabling slight
changes in electron distribution to be measured by NMR.
Identifying groups on a 1 H spectrum

The chemical shifts for 1 H NMR spectra are summarised in table 10.5.
TABLE 10.5 1 H NMR data
Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm) Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm)
R–CH3 0.9–1.0 O 2.3
O C CH3
R–CH2 –R 1.3–1.4 O 3.7–4.8

R C
OCH2R
RCH=CH–CH3 1.6–1.9 R–O–H 1–6 (varies under

different conditions)
R3 –CH 1.5 R–NH2 1–5
O O 2.0 RHC=CHR 4.5–7.0

CH3 C or CH3 C
OR NHR
R CH3 2.1–2.7 4.0–12.0

C OH
O
R–CH2 –X (X = F, Cl, Br or I) 3.0–4.5 6.9–9.0

H
(continued)

TABLE 10.5 1 H NMR data (continued)
Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm) Type of proton Chemical shift (ppm)
R−CH2 −OH, R2 −CH−OH 3.3–4.5 O 8.1

R C
NHCH2R
O 3.2 O 9.4–10.0
R C R C
NHCH2R H
R−O−CH3 or R−O−CH2 R 3.3–3.7 O 9.0–13.0

R C
O H
Source: VCAA 2018, VCE Chemistry Data Book, Version 2, June 2018, VCAA, Melbourne, table 16.
Low-resolution spectra
There are two different types of NMR spectrum: high resolution and low resolution. A low-resolution
spectrum shows the unique types of environments of the hydrogen atom in the molecule; the ratio of the
areas under the peaks shows the number of hydrogen atoms in that environment, and the chemical shift tells
you important information about the type of bond involved.
In figure 10.13, the low-resolution 1 H NMR spectrum of ethanol, the size of the peaks are proportional to
the number of hydrogen nuclei producing the signal.
FIGURE 10.13 Low-resolution 1 H NMR spectrum of ethanol
Peak area 2 : 1 : 3
CH3
H OH
CH2
H C C H
H H H O
Ethanol
5 4 3 2 1 0
High-resolution spectra
A high-resolution spectrum contains the same information as the low-resolution spectrum, but each signal
in the low-resolution spectrum appears to have been split into several peaks.
1
H nuclei can interact with other 1 H nuclei near them. If the neighbours are chemically different, that
interaction splits the NMR signal into a number of peaks. This happens because neighbouring nuclei have a
small magnetic effect on each other, causing different signals depending on whether they are aligned with or
against the applied magnetic field.
The number of peaks in the high-resolution spectrum tells you about the number of hydrogen atoms next
to the hydrogen atom that has produced that signal. For simple molecules, the number of peaks is one more
than the number of hydrogen atoms on the carbon atom next to that hydrogen atom and chemically different
from that hydrogen atom. This splitting pattern is known as the n+1 rule.

In the high-resolution spectrum of ethanol in figure 10.14, the signal of three peaks (triplet) indicates that
there are two hydrogen atoms attached to the neighbouring carbon atom in the molecule. The set of four
peaks (quartet) indicates that there are three neighbouring hydrogen atoms. O−H groups always present as
a single peak (singlet) in high-resolution spectra.
FIGURE 10.14 The high-resolution spectrum of ethanol, C2 H5 OH, has peak heights proportional to the number
of protons producing the signal and peak splitting according to the n + 1 rule. OH is always presents as a single
peak.
CH2 CH3 OH
CH3
CH2
OH
TMS
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Let’s also consider the spectrum of bromoethane in figure 10.15. The quartet is produced by the hydrogen
atoms in the CH2 group (due to the three hydrogen atoms on the neighbouring carbon). The chemical shift
of 3.7 ppm is in the correct range for R–CH2 X (3.0–4.5 ppm) and is adjacent to a CH3 group at 1.7 ppm.
The CH3 group produces the triplet because it is neighbouring the CH2 group so the n+1 rule determines a
set of three peaks.
FIGURE 10.15 Spectrum of bromoethane
Br CH2 CH3 CH3
CH2
TMS
5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0


SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Analyse the following proton NMR (3)
spectrum and use table 10.5 (or table 16
in the VCE Chemistry Data Book) to
identify the structure of the molecule.
The molecular formula for the molecule (3)
is C4 H8 O2 .
(2)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
THINK WRITE
1. Identify the number of different There are three different hydrogen environments.
hydrogen environments.
2. Identify groups according to the The splitting patterns indicate there is a CH3 group (1.2 ppm)
splitting pattern and the number next to a CH2 group (4.1 ppm).
of hydrogens producing the The singlet at 2.0 ppm indicates there are no
signals by the numbers above the neighbouring hydrogen atoms but a chemical shift
peaks. downfield indicates the presence of an electronegative
atom. There are three hydrogen atoms producing this
signal, indicating another CH3 group.
3. Assemble the molecule that H O
H
matches the number of peak sets, H C C O C H
splitting patterns and chemical H C H
H
shifts. H
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Draw the structure of an isomer of C2 H4 Cl2 that produced the following spectrum.
(3)
(1)
11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

For hydrogen environments that are equivalent we don’t see splitting. For example, 1,2-ethanediol,
HOCH2 CH2 OH, produces two singlets because the CH2 groups have equivalent hydrogen atoms and
therefore no splitting occurs (see figure 10.16).
FIGURE 10.16 Spectrum for 1,2-ethanediol
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Resources
Video eLesson High-resolution proton NMR (med-0350)
Interactivity Predicting carbon and hydrogen environments in different compounds (int-1227)
10.4 EXERCISE
1. What determines the area under the peaks of NMR spectra?
2. What is meant by the term ‘environment’ in 13 C and 1 H NMR spectroscopy?
3. What is the major difference between low-resolution and high-resolution 1 H NMR spectra?
4. Why is TMS used as a reference for chemical shifts?
5. List possible chemical shifts in ppm observed in a 1 H NMR spectrum for CH3 CH2 Cl.
6. The molecule C4 H10 has two isomers. Sketch the isomers and examine the chemical environment of each
carbon atom. Decide how many signals each isomer would produce in a 13 C NMR spectrum.
7. Draw the structural formulas of the two isomers of bromopropane and explain how 13 C NMR spectroscopy
could be used to identify each.
8. How many different carbon environments are present in the compound 2-methylpropan-2-ol?
9. Propanoic acid is used as a preservative and anti-mould agent for animal feed H H
and also in packaged food for human consumption. Complete the table by O
showing the hydrogen environment, splitting pattern, relative peak height and H C C C
the chemical shift for each type of hydrogen atom in this molecule. O H
H H
Hydrogen set or atom Splitting pattern Relative peak height Chemical shift (ppm)
CH3
10. Describe and explain the differences you would expect to see in high-resolution 1 H NMR spectra for
1,1-dichloroethane and 1,2-dichloroethane.

10.5 Combining spectroscopic techniques

KEY CONCEPT
• Determination of the structures of simple organic compounds using a combination of mass spectrometry
(MS), infrared spectroscopy (IR) and proton and carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
(NMR) (limited to data analysis)
10.5.1 Combining spectroscopic techniques

The previously described spectroscopic techniques are rarely used alone when determining the structure of
unknown organic compounds. Typically, a combination of instrumental techniques is used for qualitative
analysis. Mass spectroscopy is often used in conjunction with a chromatography and infrared analysis,
while NMR spectroscopy can be used accurately for determining the structure of small molecules and
biomolecules such as DNA and RNA.
In the VCE Chemistry course, you are exposed to using a combination of mass, infrared and NMR
spectroscopy to determine the structure of small organic molecules, often with functional groups. For
example, esters, carboxylic acids, amines, alcohols and haloalkanes are common analytes.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
Analysis of an unknown compound has revealed that it has
A D
an empirical formula C2 H4 O. Its MS has its parent peak
at 88. The IR has significant peaks at 1700 cm−1 and a
broad peak at 3000 cm−1 . The NMR spectrum is shown.
Identify and name the compound.
Number of Relative area B

C
Peak set split peaks of peak set
A 1 1
B 3 2
C multiple 2
D 3 3 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

THINK WRITE
1. Use the IR wave numbers to identify 1700 cm−1 corresponds to a C=O bond and the
functional groups. broad peak at 3000 cm−1 could be the OH(acid) bond.
This indicates the compound is likely to contain the
COOH group and is most likely a carboxylic acid.
2. Consider the functional groups A carboxylic acid with a mass of 88 g mol−1 is
determined in step 1 and a molecular butanoic acid, CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH.
mass of 88 (which is twice the
empirical formula given of C4 H4 O2 ,
which has a Mr of 44).
3. Use the NMR data to confirm the Four unique hydrogen environments can be seen
correct order of groups and therefore confirmed in the NMR spectrum.
the structure. • Two triplets produced by the CH3 (D) group and
Butanoic acid, CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH, CH2 (B) group attached to the carboxyl group.
has four unique hydrogen • The carboxyl group (A) will present a singlet
environments. downfield in the range of 9.0–13.0 ppm.
• The CH2 (C) group, R–CH2 –R, should be in a
range of 1.3–1.4 ppm, which is close to the set of
peaks seen on the spectrum.
• This set should be split into a sextet (n+1) due to
the five neighbouring hydrogen atoms.
Peak areas confirm the structure as butanoic acid,
CH3 CH2 CH2 COOH, because they correspond to
the number of hydrogen atoms contributing to each
signal.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
An organic compound has the empirical formula C3 H6 O2 . When sodium carbonate is added to this
compound, bubbling is observed. The mass spectrum and infrared spectrum of the compound are
shown.
100
A
80
60
B
40
C
20
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
m/z

100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
Wave number (cm−1 )
a. Determine the molecular formula of this compound.

b. Suggest the formulas of the fragments labelled A, B, C and D.
c. Identify the bonds responsible for the peaks at:
i. 3000 cm−1
ii. 1720 cm−1
iii. 1230 cm−1 .
d. Suggest a possible structure for this compound, giving reasons based on the spectra.
e. Name the compound.
Resources
Video eLesson Combining spectroscopies (med-0351)
Digital document Experiment 10.1 Spectroscopy (doc-31272)
10.5 EXERCISE
1. Explain how you could use a mass spectrum and infrared spectrum together to distinguish between ethanol
and butan-1-ol.
2. How would you use 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra to differentiate between ethanol and ethanal?
3. A compound has the empirical formula C3 H7 Cl. The mass spectrum and 1 H NMR spectrum are following.
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
m/z

B
δ/ppm Integration
3.8 1
1.6 6
5 4 3 2 1 0
(a) Explain why the mass spectrum shows two molecular ion peaks.
(b) What is the molecular formula of the compound?
(c) How many different 1 H environments are there?
(d) Explain why the septet is seen further downfield than the doublet at 1.6 ppm.
(e) Draw the structure of the compound.
4. A compound with the molecular formula C4 H8 O2 produced the following spectra.
1.0
0.8
Transmittance (%T)
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500
Wave numbers (cm–1)
180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

(a) What does the IR spectrum indicate about the functional group(s) present?
(b) What does the 13 C NMR spectrum indicate regarding the functional group(s) present?
(c) How many unique 13 C environments are there?
(d) Draw the structure of C4 H8 O2 .

5. Two different compounds with the molecular formula C3 H9 N produced one each of the following NMR
spectra.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Chemical shift (ppm) Chemical shift (ppm)
Draw the structures of the two molecules and explain how you used the spectra to deduce these structures.

10.6 Chromatography
KEY CONCEPT
• The principles of chromatography including use of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and
construction and use of a calibration curve to determine the concentration of an organic compound in a
solution
10.6.1 Principles of chromatography

Chromatography is a technique that separates mixtures. In all forms of chromatography, a mobile phase
passes over a stationary phase. The stationary phase is either a solid with a high surface area, or a finely
divided solid coated with liquid. The mobile phase moves over or through the stationary phase and carries
the mixture to be separated with it.
As the mixture being analysed is swept along in the mobile phase, some of its components ‘stick’ more
strongly to the surface of the stationary solid phase than others. They then ‘unstick’ and move on. This
results in the components travelling at different speeds, and so they separate.
Chromatography can be very simple (as in paper chromatography and thin-layer chromatography (TLC))
or very sophisticated (as in high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and gas chromatography
(GC)). In paper chromatography, the stationary phase is made up of cellulose fibres that are naturally coated
with a thin layer of water. In thin-layer chromatography, a finely divided adsorbent material is coated onto
either a glass slide or aluminium foil to form this phase. Liquids for the mobile phase can be any of a wide

range of mixtures of solvents (including water). If you have ever seen ink separating into coloured bands as
it rises up filter paper or chalk, you have witnessed chromatography.
The nature of the interactions that
FIGURE 10.17 Thin-layer chromatography: we can see that the
occur between the stationary and red and yellow dyes are more strongly attracted to the stationary
mobile phases can vary. However, phase than the blue dye because they have not travelled as far up
a common interaction involves the paper (stationary phase).
the processes of adsorption and
desorption. The components of the
sample adhere to the material in the
stationary phase to differing extents.
These interactions are then broken
in the desorption process, allowing
the substances to move on. The
stronger these interactions, the slower a
substance moves.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 10.2 Separation of food dyes using chromatography (doc-31273)
10.6.2 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)

You may recall from Unit 2 that HPLC is an adaption of the simple methods described in section 10.6.1.
In HPLC, the most common stationary phase is a narrow diameter tube, called a column, which is packed
tightly with a finely divided powder, commonly alumina or silica. The powder provides the large surface
area required for the process. Particle sizes in the range of a few micrometres are typical, although these are
now becoming even smaller and, when coupled with the higher-pressure pumps now becoming available,
are leading to what is being called ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). The mobile phase is a
liquid called an eluent and can be either a pure liquid or a mixture of liquids.
In operation, the substance to be analysed (called the sample) is injected onto the start of the column as
a liquid. The eluent is then pumped through the column, taking the sample with it. As the mobile phase
moves through the column, the process of adsorption and desorption results in the components of the
sample (referred to as analytes) moving at different speeds and thus being separated from each other.
Separation by HPLC occurs due to interactions between the substances in the mobile phase and the
stationary phase. The weaker these interactions with the stationary phase, the faster a substance moves
through the column.
After passing through the column, the components in the sample exit the column and are detected by a
suitable device. This is recorded as a series of peaks on a chart called a chromatogram. In many modern
instruments, a computer can also present this information in tabular form, showing the retention time and
area of each peak. The data can then be fed into programs for graph drawing or for further mathematical
evaluation.

FIGURE 10.18 A schematic diagram of a high-performance liquid chromatography instrument
HPLC column
injector
recorder
solvent
(mobile phase)
pump detector
sample
waste
Developed in the 1960s, HPLC has developed into an extremely

FIGURE 10.19 A high-performance
sensitive and widely-used technique. Detection of concentrations in liquid chromatography instrument
parts per million and parts per billion levels is routine. Advanced
instruments are now capable of detecting parts per trillion!
Applications of HPLC include research, medicine, pharmaceutical
science, forensic analysis, food analysis, drug detection in sport
and environmental monitoring.
HPLC is often categorised according to the nature of stationary
and mobile phases used. The two most common types are:
1. Normal-phase liquid chromatography (NPLC), where the
material in the column is more polar than the mobile phase.
Because of this, the more polar components in the sample
adsorb more strongly to the column material and move
more slowly through the column. Therefore, they have a
longer retention time.
2. Reverse-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC), which is
the opposite of NPLC, where the material inside the column
is less polar than the liquid being pumped through it. The
columns used often contain silica particles that have been
coated with long hydrocarbon chains (C8 and C18 are commonly used) to achieve a level of
‘non-polarity’. This has the opposite effect on retention times. More polar molecules in the sample are
not as strongly adsorbed to the column material and therefore move through it more quickly, thus
displaying shortened retention times. RPLC is the most commonly used form of HPLC.

Besides these two types, there are other forms of HPLC that can be used in appropriate circumstances.
These include ion-exchange chromatography and size-exclusion chromatography.
Resources
Video eLesson High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (med-0347)
Weblink HPLC
Qualitative analysis
The time taken for each component of the sample to travel from the injection port to the end of the column
where it is detected is referred to as its retention time, Rt . This corresponds to the position of the peak on
the chromatogram. Retention time can be used to identify a component. The retention time for an unknown
substance is compared with retention times for known substances under the same operating conditions.
Figure 10.20 shows results obtained from testing a brand of decaffeinated coffee. Note that a caffeine
standard has been run through the instrument so that the potential caffeine peak on the chromatogram of the
sample can be identified. Therefore, the reduction in the height of the peak due to caffeine becomes obvious
when normal and decaffeinated coffee results are compared.
FIGURE 10.20 HPLC chromatograms for (a) normal coffee, (b) caffeine and (c) decaffeinated coffee
(a) (b)
90
Detector response
80 180
Detector response
70 160
60 140
50 120
40 100
30 80
20 60
10 40
20
0
1 2 3 4 0
1 2 3 4
Time (min)
Time (min)
(c)
120
Detector response
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4
Time (min)
Quantitative analysis
The greater the amount of a component, the greater the area under the corresponding peak. This allows
quantitative analysis of a substance. It should be noted that, when the peaks produced are narrow, the area
measurement can be replaced by a measurement of the peak height. For a quantitative measurement of the

amount of caffeine remaining in the sample, the height (or the area under the peak) could be measured and
compared with a set of caffeine standards of known concentrations.
Instruments must be accurately
FIGURE 10.21 Using the calibration curve, the concentration of
calibrated, using a set of standards,
the unknown sample (shown by the red arrow) can be estimated
before any meaningful quantitative as 16.8 mg L−1 .
results can be obtained. This involves
running a set of standards of known
concentration through the instrument 30 000
and noting the readings (usually either 25 000
peak height or peak area). From these
Peak area
20 000
results, a graph of reading versus
concentration can be drawn. These are 15 000
known as calibration curves. It is then
10 000
a matter of running the sample to be
tested through the instrument and noting 5000
the reading. The calibration graph can
0
then be used to obtain its concentration. 5 10 15 20 25 30
(see figure 10.21). Concentration (mg L–1)
Most modern instruments are programmed to do this automatically. They use statistical algorithms to
determine the equation of the line of best fit using the calibration data. The test result for the unknown is
then fed into this equation and the result displayed.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Although it is usually done using gas chromatography (GC), the level of ethanol in wine can be
determined using HPLC.
In one such analysis using HPLC, a set of six reference samples of known ethanol concentration
were run through the instrument for the purpose of calibration. A sample of wine was then
analysed under exactly the same conditions as the reference samples. A much more complicated
chromatogram was obtained, from which the ethanol peak was identified.
The results obtained are shown in the following table.
Standard concentration, %(v/v) Peak area

7 342 401
8 391 318
9 440 230
10 489 136
11 538 058
12 586 970
Sample 450 012
a. Using these results, plot a calibration curve of concentration versus peak area.
b. Use the graph to deduce the ethanol content in the sample of wine.
c. How was the ethanol peak identified from the pattern produced by the wine sample?
d. Explain why only one peak is produced in the chromatogram for each standard analysed.

THINK WRITE
a. To plot the graph, consider the scale
required. For each percentage the 6.0
peak area differs by approximately
Peak area (× 100 000)

50 000. 5.0
If required a line of best fit may be
drawn. 4.0
3.0
2.0
7 8 9 10 11 12
Ethanol concentration (%v/v)
b. Locate the peak area of the sample

(450 012) and rule a straight line from 6.0
it until you touch the graph. Drop Peak area (× 100 000)
straight down and read the 5.0
corresponding percentage.
4.0
3.0
2.0
7 8 9 10 11 12
Ethanol concentration (%v/v)
Reading from the calibration graph, the sample of

wine gives an ethanol concentration of 9.2%.
c. As ethanol occurs in both the wine Each ethanol standard produces a peak at the same
sample and in the ethanol standard, position on the chromatogram; in other words, they
this can be used to identify the all have the same retention time. So it is just a
ethanol peak in the wine sample. matter of finding the peak from the chromatogram
of the wine sample that corresponds to this
retention time.
d. In a chromotagram, each peak Ethanol is the only substance present (apart from
corresponds to a particular substance. the solvent), so only one peak was produced.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
The ester methyl butanoate, CH3 CH2 CH2 COOCH3 , is used as a flavour additive and in perfumes. It
has both a pleasant odour and taste. However, butanoic acid, from which it is made, has an extremely
unpleasant odour. Therefore, it is desirable that residual butanoic acid levels be kept to a minimum
in methyl butanoate preparations that are used for these purposes.
HPLC was used to measure the level of butanoic acid in a sample of food-grade methyl butanoate.
A number of standards were run through the instrument, together with a sample of the methyl
butanoate. The results are shown in the following table.

Concentration of butanoic acid (mg L−1 ) Peak area
4.0 640
6.0 958
8.0 1280
10.0 1605
Sample 1150
a. Besides butanoic acid, what other organic compound is required to make methyl butanoate?
b. Plot the calibration curve for the data in the table.
c. Determine the concentration of butanoic acid in the sample tested.
Resources
Video eLesson Calibration curves (med-0348)
Digital document Experiment 10.3 Separating mixtures using column chromatography (doc-31274)
10.6 EXERCISE
(a) Analyte (e) Peak area
(b) Stationary phase (f) Chromatogram
(c) Mobile phase (g) Chromatograph
(d) Retention time
2. Explain the effect on the retention time of a polar compound through a NPLC column if:
(a) the column length is increased from 25 m to 50 m
(b) the mobile phase is pumped through with increased pressure
(c) the temperature of the mobile phase is increased.
3. What do the terms ‘adsorb’ and ‘desorb’ mean with respect to HPLC?
4. In what sequence would the first four members of the carboxylic acid homologous series elute from a NPLC
column? Explain your answer.
5. How does reverse-phase liquid chromatograpy (RPLC) differ from NPLC?
6. Which of pentane, pentanol and pentanoic acid would have the shortest retention time eluting from a RPLC
column? Explain your answer.
7. A mixture of amino acids were separated using a polar HPLC column and the following chromatograph was
produced. The mixture was thought to consist of leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine and serine.
2
1
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00

Time (min)

(a) Which of the four peaks (1–4) is most likely to be serine? Explain your answer.
(b) Explain how you would confirm the retention time of serine.
(c) Which of the peaks represents the highest concentration of an amino acid?
(d) Explain how you could determine concentration of serine in the sample.
8. Stanozolol is a performance-enhancing drug taken by athletes to build muscle tissue and increase power.
Stanozolol can be analysed from urine samples using HPLC. A mobile phase mixture of methanol (90%) and
water (10%) is pumped through a non-polar RPLC column.
One particular urine analysis required the preparation of stanozolol standards of 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and
4.0 mgL−1 . The peak areas are shown in the following table.
Retention time (minutes) Stanozolol standard (mgL−1 ) Peak area (× 10 000)

4.1 1.0 5.0
4.1 2.0 9.8
4.1 3.0 15.2
4.1 4.0 20.0
A 20 μL sample of undiluted urine was run through the chromatograph under the same conditions.
(a) Explain how this procedure can be used for the qualitative analysis of stanozolol in urine.
(b) Explain how it could be used for the quantitative analysis of stanozolol in urine.
(c) What is the stanozolol concentration in a urine sample that returned a peak at Rt 4.1 minutes with an
area of 125 000?
(d) Explain why an athlete with a suspected stanozolol concentration of 5.0 mg per litre of urine could not be
reliably tested using this method.
(e) Suggest an alteration to the procedure above so that an athlete suspected of having a stanozolol
concentration above 5.0 mg per litre of urine could be tested.

10.7 Volumetric analysis by titration

KEY CONCEPT
• Determination of the concentration of an organic compound by volumetric analysis, including the principles
of direct acid-base and redox titrations (excluding back titrations).
10.7.1 Volumetric analysis procedure

Volumetric analysis is a quantitative technique that involves reactions in solution. The concentration of
a solution can be determined using accurately measured volumes and reacting it with another solution of
(accurately) known concentration or, in some cases, by making it up directly from a primary standard
solution.
The procedure involves measuring an accurate volume of one of the solutions with a pipette (this volume
is called an aliquot) and pouring it into a conical flask. The other solution (called a titrant) is then added
carefully from a burette until the reaction is just complete (as predicted by the stoichiometry of the

equation). By knowing the volumes involved FIGURE 10.22 Volumetric flasks, conical flasks,
and the concentration of one of the solutions, the pipettes, burettes and various beakers are used in
concentration of the other solution can be determined. volumetric analysis.
This procedure is called titration. The volume of the
titrant delivered is known as the titre.
Two common types of reactions encountered in
volumetric analysis are acid–base reactions and redox
reactions.
The correct use of burettes and pipettes, as well as
other important aspects of volumetric analysis has
already been covered in Unit 2. Some of the more
important points of this technique are revisited in this
subtopic.
Standard solutions
A standard solution is one whose concentration is accurately known. There are usually two methods by
which a solution can have its concentration determined accurately. These are:
1. by reacting it with another solution whose concentration is known accurately. This is called
standardisation.
2. by taking a substance called a primary standard and dissolving it in a known volume of water.
Primary standards are pure substances that satisfy a special list of criteria.
To qualify as a primary standard, a substance must have a number of the following properties.
• It must have a high state of purity.
• It must have an accurately-known formula.
• It must be stable (its composition or formula must not change over time, which can happen as a result
of storage or reaction with the atmosphere).
• It should be cheap and readily available.
• It should have a relatively high molar mass so that weighing errors are minimised.
Not all substances are suitable for use as primary standards. For example, sodium hydroxide is unsuitable
for use as a primary standard for the following reasons.
1. It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere (is deliquescent) as it is being weighed out. Therefore, the
precise mass of sodium hydroxide is uncertain because of the absorbed water.
2. As a typical hydroxide, it reacts with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to produce sodium carbonate.
Thus, there are doubts about its purity.
Hydrated sodium carbonate, Na2 CO3 ·10H2 O, is also unsuitable, but for a different reason. This substance
is efflorescent, which means that it loses water to the atmosphere as it is being weighed out. This water
comes from the crystal structure and is known as ‘water of crystallisation’. As a result, the precise formula is
unknown. However, if hydrated sodium carbonate is heated, these weakly bonded water molecules can be driven
off. Eventually, anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2 CO3 , is formed, which makes an excellent primary standard.
To prepare a primary standard, chemists use special flasks called volumetric flasks. These flasks are filled to
a previously calibrated etched line on their necks, so that the volume of their contents is accurately known.
Resources
Video eLesson Preparing primary standards and standard solutions (med-0345)
Glassware and rinsing

Table 10.6 summarises the glassware, use and rinsing methods for titration.

TABLE 10.6 Summary of glassware used for titration
Glassware Use Rinsed with
Burette Delivers the titrant or analyte. Readings from a The solution it will deliver. A few mL of the solution is
burette should take place at the bottom of the placed in the bottom and burette is inverted 2–3 times
meniscus formed by solution, ideally to two before the liquid is expelled using the tap.
decimal places.
Pipette Used to deliver an aliquot of titrant and The solution it will deliver. A partial or full aliquot can
analyte directly to a conical flask or into a be used to rinse a pipette as long as all of its inner
volumetric flask for dilution. surface has been rinsed.
Volumetric Used to dilute aliquots. Commonly used are Distilled water. The aliquots added to a volumetric
flask 50, 100 and 250 mL sizes. flask will be diluted with distilled water and the
number of moles from the pipette is unchanged.
Conical Used to hold the analyte or titrant that is not Distilled water. Does not change the moles of analyte
flask in the burette. If it is a titration that needs an or titrant delivered by the pipette and burette.
indicator, this will also be added.
Performing a titration
In volumetric analysis, the calculations require that a titration be stopped when one substance has just
finished reacting with the other one. This point is called the equivalence point. Detection of this point is
critical to the success of a volumetric procedure.
In some situations, a reaction may be self-indicating. This is often true in redox titrations where a
substance involved in the analysis may have conjugate forms that display distinctly different colours.
An example is in a titration involving the permanganate ion, MnO− 4 , which is bright purple, because an
indicator is not required due to the reduced form, Mn2+ , being almost colourless.
FIGURE 10.23 Some typical steps in a volumetric procedure
Pipette Add a few Titrate until

Prepare Fill burette
solution Y drops of indicator
primary with
into conical indicator to changes
standard. solution X.
flask. conical flask. colour.
In either type of titration, (acid–base or redox) we usually depend on a colour change to tell us when to
stop. This is called the end point. Because this occurs only after a slight excess is added, we often do not
have the true equivalence point. Thus, we can say that the end point is an approximation to the equivalence
point. However, in a carefully designed procedure with a carefully chosen indicator, these two points should
be very close together.
Resources
Video eLessons Volumetric techniques (med-0820)
Simple (direct) titrations (med-0821)
Concordant titres
Although it may appear tedious and time consuming to produce the required solutions and to prepare the
necessary equipment, a big advantage of volumetric analysis is that it is subsequently very easy to perform
repeat titrations. Such repetition reduces the effect of random errors.
When performing repeat titrations, one usually aims for concordant titres. These are titres that are within
a defined volume of each other, with 0.10 and 0.05 mL being commonly accepted values. 0.05 mL is an

exacting standard, and requires very careful attention to detail and excellent technique because it represents
approximately one drop. However, in many situations, including school laboratories, titres within ±0.10 mL
of each other is a more realistic standard. On this basis, if a titration produces results of 19.25, 19.20, 19.40
and 19.20 mL, all except the third value can be considered concordant. Note that the volume of a titre is
rounded to the nearest 0.05 mL.
Errors in titration
Volumetric analysis involves a number of steps, a number of different skills and a number of different
measurements. Mistakes, uncertainties and poor technique throughout this process can accumulate to
produce errors and uncertainties in the final result. Due care and diligence must be applied throughout all
stages. It is important not only to understand the method and to practise the technical skills involved, but
also to be able to predict the effect that a particular error will have on the final result. In this way, the cause
of unexpected results can be traced and subsequently rectified to improve the accuracy of the analysis. Table
10.7 shows some general areas in which mistakes could be made and what effects these mistakes have on
the final result.
TABLE 10.7 Effect on the calculated result of some possible mistakes during volumetric analysis
Effect if substance under analysis is in the. . .
Situation burette titration flask Comments
Rinsing water left Underestimated Overestimated The burette solution is diluted with water,
in burette so more is used.
Rinsing water left Overestimated Underestimated The solution aliquot in the titration flask
in pipette is diluted.
Indicator chosen Overestimated Underestimated The choice of indicator can be critical.

changes colour
too soon
Water in titration No effect No effect All necessary measurements are made

flask before the chemicals are mixed with this
water.
Concentration Overestimated Overestimated Fewer moles of the standard solution

of standard than expected will be used; the
solution lower substance being analysed will appear
than calculated to have a higher concentration.
Concentration Underestimated Underestimated More moles of the standard solution

of standard than expected will be used; the
solution higher substance being analysed will appear
than calculated to have a lower concentration.
Random errors Variable Variable Random errors can be minimised by

repetition. It is easy to obtain multiple
results with volumetric analysis.
10.7.2 Acid–base titration

In acid–base titrations, the solutions and their products are usually colourless, and identification of the
equivalence point would therefore be quite difficult. To overcome this problem, a few drops of a suitable
acid–base indicator are usually added. Such indicators work because they are either weak acids or bases
themselves and, when they change into their conjugate form, a distinct colour change occurs. The pH at
which such colour changes occur varies from one indicator to another. Therefore, a key step in a particular
titration is to choose an indicator that changes colour at the pH of the equivalence point.

Choosing indicators
The equivalence point of a titration occurs when the
FIGURE 10.24 Phenolphthalein is used as an
correct stoichiometric amounts are present. At this indicator in some acid–base titrations.
point, the pH of the solution is not always 7, due to
the acid–base properties of the conjugate products that
might be formed. It is important to choose an indicator
that changes colour close to the correct pH value for the
titration concerned. A further consideration is how quickly
the pH changes around the point at which the indicator
changes colour. This determines whether the end point is
sharp and easily detected. Table 10.8 shows the pH values
at which various indicators change colour.
TABLE 10.8 Some common acid–base indicators
Indicator Colour at lower pH Colour at higher pH pH range for colour change
Methyl orange Red Yellow 3.1–4.4
Methyl red Red Yellow 4.2–6.3
Litmus Red Blue 5.0–9.0
Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue 6.0–7.6
Phenolphthalein Colourless Crimson 8.3–10.0
Resources
Interactivity: Simulation of an acid-base titration (int-1224)
Titration curves
A titration curve is a graph of the volume added from a burette versus the pH of the solution in the titration
flask. The graphs in figure 10.25 show titration curves for three different scenarios, including:
• a solution of strong acid being reacted with a solution of strong base
• a solution of strong base being reacted with a solution of weak acid
• a solution of strong acid being reacted with a solution of weak base.
In figure 10.25a, note that all the indicators from table 10.8 change colour in the steep portion of its
graph. The steepness of this section is such that the volume over which it occurs could be as little as one
drop. Therefore, there is a wide choice of indicators that might be used, each one giving a sharp end point
that is close to the correct pH.
In figures 10.25b and c, the situation is more complicated. In both cases, some indicators do not even
change colour at the correct pH. In figure 10.25b, methyl red does not change colour at the correct pH and
litmus would also be unsuitable because it begins to change colour before the steep section of the graph.
Therefore, the end point occurs over a volume range that is too wide. In other words, it is not ‘sharp’. A
good choice of indicator for this case would be phenolphthalein. Methyl red would be a good choice in
figure 10.25c.
Examination of the titration curves in figure 10.25 also yields the following important points.
• The pH at the start of the titration depends on what is present in the flask at the start. Likewise, the pH
at the end of the titration depends on what is present in excess at the end of the titration.

FIGURE 10.25 Three titration curves
(a) Strong acid – strong base (b) Weak acid – strong base
14 14
13 13
12 12
11 11
10 10
9 9 equivalence
8 8 point
pH
pH
7 equivalence
7
6 point
6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
10 20 30 40 50 10 20 30 40 50
Volume of NaOH added (mL) Volume of NaOH added (mL)
(c) Strong acid – weak base

12
11
10
9
8
7
pH
6
equivalence
5 point
4
3
2
1
0
10 20 30 40 50
Volume of HCI added (mL)
• The pH at the equivalence point for the strong FIGURE 10.26 Indicator colour changes
acid/strong base combination is 7. This is
because the conjugate species present at this pH
point are weak species and cancel each other out. Strong base and 12
weak acid 11
• When there is a weak species involved, the 10
conjugate is appreciably stronger and this 9 Phenolphthalein
8
affects the pH at the equivalence point. For Strong base and 7 Litmus
example, if a weak acid is involved, its (stronger) strong acid 6 Bromo blue
conjugate base is present at equivalence, thus 5

Methyl red
4
raising the pH at this point. Weak base and 3
Methyl orange
Some redox reactions are self-indicating but there strong acid 2
1
are occasions where an indicator is required. An 0
example of an indicator used in redox titrations is
starch. Starch is used to detect the presence of iodine,
I2 , which is formed in titrations from the oxidation
of iodide ions, I− . Starch is dark blue in the presence

of iodine. Another indicator suitable for redox titrations is methylene blue, which is blue in the presence of
an oxidising agent and colourless in the presence of a reducing agent.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 10.4 Standardisation of hydrochloric acid (doc-31275)
Teacher-led video Experiment 10.4 Standardisation of hydrochloric acid (tlvd-0761)
Analysis of organic compounds using acid–base titration

Volumetric analysis can be used to analyse compounds with distinct acid–base properties, such as
carboxylic acids and amines, as well as those that have redox properties, such as alcohols and aldehydes.
Variations to the basic method of titration have evolved, all aimed at taking into account the properties of
the substances involved. As a result, volumetric analysis can be performed using simple (or direct) titration
where one reactant is added to the other until the correct stoichiometric proportions are present, as well as
by more sophisticated variations.
Once concordant titres have been obtained, the average volume of the titres (in litres) is used to calculate
the number of moles of either the analyte or titrant added to the conical flask from the burette.
The basic steps of any stoichiometric calculation include:
• writing a balanced chemical equation
• converting the known information into amounts (in moles)
• calculating amounts (in moles) of a second substance
• changing amounts (in moles) of this substance to the type of information required.
TIP:
• Because solutions are involved, the formula n = cV is frequently used.
• Due to the necessities of experimental procedure, dilution often takes place and must be
considered, so the formula c1 V1 = c2 V2 may be useful.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
Propanoic acid is used as a preservative in animal feeds. It is sold as a range of solutions that
contain between 10 and 100% (m/v) propanoic acid.
In the analysis of one such solution, a 25.00 mL sample was carefully diluted to 250.0 mL in a
volumetric flask. 25.00 mL aliquots of this diluted solution were then reacted with 0.2500 M
sodium hydroxide. The average of the concordant titres obtained was 32.10 mL.
Calculate the percentage (%m/v) of propanoic acid in the original solution.
THINK WRITE
1. Write the balanced chemical CH3 CH2 COOH (aq) + NaOH(aq) →
equation between propanoic acid and CH3 CH2 COONa(aq) + H2 O(l)
sodium hydroxide to obtain the mole
ratios of the reactants.
2. Calculate the number of moles of the c(NaOH) = 0.2500 M
substance with the known 32.10
V(NaOH) =
concentration (titrant), NaOH by first 1000
identifying the variables and n(NaOH)used = cV
checking the units required. 32.10
= 0.25 ×
Volume is required in litres; convert 1000
mL to L. = 0.008 025 mol

3. Use the mole ratio from the equation n(NaOH)used = n(CH3 CH2 COOH)diluted
to calculate the number of moles of ∴ n(CH3 CH2 COOH)diluted = 0.008 025 mol
the analyte in the diluted sample.
0.008025 × 250.0
4. To determine the number of moles of n(CH3 CH2 COOHoriginal ) in 25.00 mL =
propanoic acid in the original 25.00
aliquot, multiply the calculated = 0.08025 mol
number of moles in the diluted
sample by volume of the volumetric
flask and then divide it by the
volume of the undiluted sample.
5. To calculate the percentage (%m/v) m(CH3 CH2 COOH) in 25.00 mL = n × M
of propanoic acid in the original = 0.08025 × 74.0
solution, the mass of propanoic acid = 5.94 g
must first be determined by applying
m
the formula n = .
M
5.94
6. The percentage (%m/v) of propanoic %(m/v) = × 100
acid can be calculated using the mass 25.00
from step 5 and the volume (mL) of = 23.8%
the undiluted sample. Express
answer to the correct number of
significant figures.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Ethylamine is widely used as a precursor to many herbicides. A chemist investigating the production
of herbicides wished to check the claim on a newly purchased bottle that it contains between 68 and
72%(m/v) ethylamine dissolved in water.
After carefully diluting 10.00 mL of the amine solution to 1000 mL in a volumetric flask, 20.00 mL
aliquots of this diluted solution were taken and titrated against a 0.197 M hydrochloric acid solution.
Using methyl orange as the indicator, an average titre of 15.80 mL was obtained.
Do the contents of the bottle fall within the specifications shown on the label?
10.7.3 Redox titration FIGURE 10.27 The presence of a starch-

In some situations, a reaction can be self-indicating. iodine complex indicates the end point of
this redox titration.
This is often true in redox titrations where a substance
involved in the analysis may have conjugate forms that
display distinctly different colours. An example is in a
titration involving the permanganate ion, MnO4 - , which
is bright purple, because an indicator is not required due
to the reduced form, Mn2+ , being almost colourless.
The permanganate ion, as well as the orange-coloured
dichromate ion, Cr2 O7 2- , are both strong oxidants and the
various oxidation states of chromium and manganese ionic
compounds are useful for redox reactions.

Another well-known redox titration is the use of iodine and starch as an indicator. When iodine, I2 , is
mixed with starch, a blue/black colour is observed. The appearance, or disappearance, of the blue colour
formed in the presence of iodine with starch signals the end point of the titration.
Resources
Interactivity Simulation of a redox titration (int-1225)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 7
The ethanol content in wine can be determined by a redox titration using potassium dichromate.
The ethanol in the wine is oxidised to ethanoic acid, while the orange dichromate ions, Cr2 O7 2− ,
are reduced to green Cr3+ ions. The reaction is therefore self-indicating. The equation for the
reaction is:
+
2Cr2 O2− 3+
7 (aq) + 3CH3 CH2 OH(aq) + 16H (aq) → 4Cr (aq) + 3CH3 COOH(aq) + 11H2 O(l)
In a particular analysis, a 25.00 mL sample of wine was poured into a volumetric flask and
carefully diluted to 250.0 mL. 20.00 mL aliquots were then titrated against 0.150 M potassium
dichromate solution. The average titre obtained was 17.50 mL.
Calculate the concentration of ethanol (in M) of the tested wine.
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the number of moles of the reactant of n(Cr2 O72− )used = cV
known concentration using n = cV. In this case, it is 17.50
= 0.150 ×
the number of moles of dichromate added from the 1000
burette. = 0.0026325 mol
Remember to check the units required.
Concentration is required in moles and volume in
litres so convert mL to L.
n(C2 H5 OH) 3
2. Using the mole ratios from the equation given =
calculate the number of moles of the diluted n(Cr2 O2−
7 )
2
reactant (ethanol) in each 20.00 mL aliquot. 3 × 0.002625
n(C2 H5 OH) =
2
= 0.0039375 mol
3. Calculate the ethanol concentration of the dilute n = cV
ethanol by dividing the number of moles by the n
c=
aliquot volume (0.02000 L). This is the same V
concentration of the entire contents of the 0.0039375 mol
[C2 H5 OHdiluted ] =
volumetric flask. 0.020000 L
= 0.19688 M
4. To determine the original concentration of the c1 V1 = c2 V2
ethanol in moles per litre (M), apply the formula cV
c1 V1 = c2 V2 where c1 is the original concentration, [C2 H5 OHwine ] = 2 2
V1
V1 is the original volume, c2 is the dilute 0.19688 × 250.0
concentration and V2 is the dilute volume. [C2 H5 OHwine ] =
25.00
= 1.97 M

PRACTICE PROBLEM 7
A solution of ethanal (C2 H4 O) was standardised using 0.0557 M potassium permanganate.
A 20.00 mL aliquot of ethanal was placed into a 250.0 mL volumetric flask and made up to the mark
with distilled water.
Three 20.00 mL aliquots of the diluted ethanal were placed in conical flasks and titrated against the
permanganate solution. The average titre was 18.50 mL.
Calculate the molarity of the ethanal solution.
10.7 EXERCISE
1. Which piece of glassware would be used to:
(a) deliver an aliquot
(b) deliver a titre
(c) react the analyte and titrant?
2. State what you would rinse the following items with before a titration.
(a) Burette
(b) Pipette
(c) Conical flask
(d) Volumetric flask
3. Name an indicator suitable for the titration of an unknown concentration of ethanoic acid in a conical flask
against standard 0.10 M NaOH.
4. Explain why a redox titration with K2 Cr2 O7 and ethanol doesn’t require an indicator.
5. The substance potassium hydrogen phthalate, KH(C8 H4 O4 ), is frequently used as a primary standard for
acid–base determinations. Calculate the concentration of a solution that is made by weighing out 10.19 g of
this substance and accurately dissolving it in 500 mL of water.
6. A student standardised a solution of sodium hydroxide as follows: 20.00 mL of the hydroxide solution was
titrated with 0.0921 M hydrochloric acid, using methyl orange as indicator. Titres of 18.67 mL, 18.73 mL and
18.64 mL were obtained.
(a) Write the equation for the reaction occurring during this titration.
(b) Calculate the molarity of the sodium hydroxide solution from the given data.
(c) Why is the methyl orange indicator necessary in this experiment?
(d) Once its concentration is determined, can the sodium hydroxide solution be called a standard solution?
Explain.
7. A student standardised a hydrochloric acid solution as follows: 20.00 mL of a 0.0592 M sodium carbonate
solution was pipetted into a conical flask. When the acid was added from the burette, 19.15 mL was
required to reach the end point.
Given that the equation for the reaction is:
Na2 CO3 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
calculate the accurate concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

8. To analyse a sample of vinegar for its ethanoic acid content, a student began by accurately diluting a
20.00 mL sample of the vinegar to 250.0 mL in a volumetric flask. The student then placed 20.00 mL
samples of this diluted vinegar in conical flasks and titrated them against a 0.0500 M solution of sodium
hydroxide. The average titre obtained was 21.55 mL.
Assuming that ethanoic acid is the only acid present in the vinegar, calculate the concentration of the
ethanoic acid in the vinegar (in g L−1 ).
9. A student was standardising a solution of sodium hydroxide using diprotic 0.100 M oxalic acid. First the
student rinsed the burette and conical flask with water. Next, she filled the burette with the sodium hydroxide
solution. She then placed a 20.00 mL aliquot of 0.100 M oxalic acid in a conical flask with three drops of
methyl orange indicator. She performed the titration and the solution in the conical flask changed from red to
yellow after the addition of 9.50 mL of NaOH.
The reaction between sodium hydroxide and oxalic acid is

C2 H2 O4 (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2 C2 O4 (aq) + 2H2 O(l)
(a) Calculate the mass of oxalic acid powder needed to make 100 mL of standard 0.100 M oxalic acid.
(b) Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide.
(c) State two errors in the student’s procedure and the effect they have on the calculated concentration of
NaOH.
(d) How could the reliability of the student’s titre volumes be improved?

10.8 Review
10.8.1 Summary
Mass spectrometry
• Qualitative analysis finds what substances are present.
• Quantitative analysis measures the quantity of substance present.
• A mass spectrometer (MS) analyses compounds to determine their mass/charge (m/z) ratio. It does this
by analysing the path of ionic fragments of molecules through a magnetic field.
• The output of a mass spectrometer is a mass spectrum that generally looks like a bar graph. Each column
represents an ion with a specific m/z ratio. The height of the column shows the relative abundance of the
ion. The highest peak is known as the base peak and is assigned a value of 100%. Most ions formed have a
single positive charge, so the m/z value is usually equivalent to the mass.
• Another important peak in a mass spectrum of an organic compound is the parent peak (also called the
molecular ion peak). This is the peak that represents the ion formed when an electron is knocked from
the original molecule, leaving it with a positive charge. The relative molecular mass of the compound
is therefore the same as this m/z value.
Infrared spectroscopy
• Infrared (IR) spectroscopy identifies the functional groups and single, double and triple bonds in
organic molecules. This qualitative method measures the characteristic amount of energy that the
bonds in molecules transmit when exposed to radiation in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum.
• The infrared spectrum measures % transmittance on the y-axis (vertical axis) and wave number (cm−1 )
on the x-axis (horizontal axis). Wave number is the reciprocal of the wavelength. The spectrum runs
along the top of the readout when 100% of the light is transmitted and dips down to make an inverted
peak when light is absorbed. Different bonds in an organic molecule have characteristic wave numbers
and produce dips or inverted peaks that allow them to be identified.
• IR spectra usually change scale at 2000 cm−1 . The scale runs backwards.
• The fingerprint region of the spectrum, below 1000 cm−1 , is a crowded series of peaks that can be used
to identify a substance because it is identical in every analysis of that substance.
• In general, the more types of atoms there are in a molecule, the more peaks appear on the IR spectrum,
because these atoms affect the bonding between each other and absorb at slightly different wave
numbers.
• To distinguish between alcohols and carboxylic acids, look at two regions. Alcohols have a peak
between 3200 and 3600 cm−1 but no peak near 1700 cm−1 ; carboxylic acids have a very broad peak
between 2500 and 3500 cm−1 and a strong narrow peak near 1700 cm−1 .

• To distinguish between esters and carboxylic acids, an ester has only one peak, between 1720 and
1840 cm−1 , but a carboxylic acid has two peaks.
NMR spectroscopy
• Uses of NMR include organic synthesis, quality control of medicines, forensic analysis of proteins,
and identification of oil and gas deposits.
• An NMR spectrum is a two-dimensional graph of peak height versus chemical shift, 𝛿 (in ppm).
• Chemical shifts in 13 C NMR correspond to a carbon-13 atom in a particular environment within a
molecule.
• Chemical shifts in 1 H NMR correspond to a hydrogen atom in a particular environment within a
molecule.
• A signal in a low-resolution 1 H spectrum can be split into a set of peaks in the high-resolution
spectrum. The number of peaks in the high-resolution spectrum indicates the number of hydrogen
atoms adjacent to the hydrogen atom that has produced that signal. For simple molecules, the number
of peaks is one more than the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the adjacent carbon atom of that
hydrogen atom. This is often called the n + 1 rule.
• For the high-resolution 1 H NMR spectrum of ethanol (and other alcohols), even though the −OH
and −CH2 groups are separated by four bonds, under most conditions the −OH signal does not show
splitting.
• H nuclei can interact with other 1 H nuclei near them, and the effect can be measured by the number of
1
peaks in the NMR spectrum.

Combining spectroscopic techniques
• The properties of a material have an important bearing on the method chosen to analyse it.
Chromatography
• In all forms of chromatography, separation is achieved when a mobile phase (consisting of the mixture
to be analysed and a solvent) is made to move over a stationary phase. The stationary phase has a large
surface area. Separation occurs due to interactions between the substances in the mobile phase and the
stationary phase. The weaker these interactions, the faster a substance moves through the column.
• High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is an instrumental technique that is based on the
principles of chromatography.
• In HPLC, a high-pressure liquid (eluent) is pumped through a column that is packed with a finely
divided solid. Many organic substances can be separated, identified and quantified using this method.
• Separation on HPLC occurs due to interactions between the substances in the mobile phase and the
stationary phase. The weaker these interactions with the stationary phase, the faster a substance moves
through the column.
• Retention time (of a component), Rt , is an important term associated with HPLC. It is the time from
injection of the sample until the component is detected leaving the column. Components in a mixture
can be identified by their retention times.
• When HPLC is used for quantitative analysis, it is necessary to use standards of known concentration.
The readings produced by these standards are then graphed against their concentrations so that a graph
called a calibration curve can be drawn. The concentration of an unknown sample can then be deduced
from this graph by interpolation.
• HPLC can be used for both qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Volumetric analysis by titration
• Volumetric analysis is a quantitative technique that uses standard solutions and accurately known
volumes to determine the concentration of a solution accurately.
• Common reactions in volumetric analysis are acid–base reactions and redox reactions.
• A standard solution is one whose concentration is accurately known.
• A primary standard is a substance with certain properties that enable it to be weighed and made up into
a solution whose concentration is precisely known.

• A secondary standard is a solution that has been standardised using another standard.
• Titration is the process by which burettes and pipettes are used in the procedure of volumetric
analysis.
• The equivalence point of a titration occurs when the correct stoichiometric amounts of the reactants
involved are mixed in the titration vessel.
• The end point of a titration is the stage at which the chosen indicator changes colour. An indicator is
selected so that its end point approximates the equivalence point of the reaction.
Summary of the applications of instrumental analysis

Type of Method of
Instrument radiation Basis of analysis analysis Type of analysis
Mass − Mass/charge ratio of Mass spectrum Identification of molecular
spectrometer atoms or groups of atoms analysis mass, molecular fragments
and structures
IR spectrometer Infrared Change in vibration of Infrared Identification of double
light molecules when they absorption bonds, triple bonds and
absorb IR radiation spectrum analysis functional groups in organic
molecules
NMR Radio Change in nuclear spin NMR spectrum Identification of structural
spectrometer waves of nuclei of some atoms analysis relationships within organic
when they absorb or emit molecules
radio waves
HPLC − Adsorption to stationary Chromatogram Separation, identification
phase and solubility in and quantification of organic
mobile phase compounds
Resources
exam question booklet (doc-31431)
10.8.2 Key terms
adsorption the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface
aliquot the liquid from a pipette
analytes the components of a sample
base peak the most abundant ion in a mass spectrum
burette a graduated glass tube for delivering known volumes of a liquid, especially in titrations
calibrated ensure an instrument’s accuracy
calibration curves a graph of reading versus concentration
chemical shift the horizontal scale on a NMR spectra
chromatogram a chart that results from analysis by chromatography
concordant describes titres that are within a defined volume of each other, such as 0.10 mL
desorption the removal of a substance from or through a surface; the opposite of adsorption
eluent a substance used as a solvent in separating materials
end point the experimentally determined equivalence point at which the indicator just changes colour or the pH
curve becomes vertical
equivalence point where two reactants have reacted in their correct mole proportions in a titration
fingerprint region the lower end of the infrared spectrum
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography; method used to separate the components of a mixture

indicator a chemical compound that changes color and structure when exposed to certain conditions and is
therefore useful for chemical tests
infrared (IR) describes spectroscopy that deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum
mass spectrometry the investigation and measurement of the masses of isotopes, molecules and molecular
fragments by ionising them and determining their trajectories in electric and magnetic fields
mobile phase the liquid or gas that flows through a chromatography system, moving the materials to be
separated at different rates over the stationary phase
molecular ion whole molecules that produce ions with a peak at the relative molecular mass of the compound
n+1 rule for simple molecules; the number of peaks is one more than the number of hydrogen atoms on the
carbon atom next to that hydrogen atom and chemically different from that hydrogen atom
pipette a slender tube for transferring or measuring small quantities of liquid
primary standard a substance used in volumetric analysis that is of such high purity and stability that it can be
used to prepare a solution of accurately known concentration
qualitative analysis an investigation used to identify the presence or absence of elements, ions or molecules in a
sample
quantitative analysis an investigation used to determine the amount of a given element or compound in a known
weight or volume of material
retention time the time taken for each component of a sample to travel from the injection port to the end of the
column
sample a substance to be analysed
spectroscopy the investigation and measurement of spectra produced when matter interacts with or emits
electromagnetic radiation
standard solution a solution that has a precisely known concentration
stationary phase a solid with a high surface area, or a finely divided solid coated with liquid. It shows different
affinities for various components of a sample mixture when separating them by chromatography.
titrant a solution of known concentration
titration curve curve used to measure the volume of a titrant against pH
titration process used to determine the concentration of a substance by using a pipette to deliver one substance
and a burette to deliver another substance until they have reacted exactly in their mole ratios
titre the volume delivered by a burette
volumetric analysis determination of the concentration, by volume, of a substance in a solution, such as by
titration
Resources
Experiment 10.4
Standardisation of hydrochloric acid
Aim: To determine the accurate concentration of a solution of hydrochloric acid
Resources
Experiment 10.1 Spectroscopy (doc-31272)
Experiment 10.2 Separation of food dyes using chromatography (doc-31273)
Experiment 10.3 Separating mixtures using column chromatography (doc-31274)

10.8 Exercises

1. The tallest peak in a mass spectrum is called the:
A. molecular ion
B. parent peak
C. base peak
D. calibration peak.
2. In the following spectrum, which peak corresponds to the [CH2 F]+ fragment?
100 1
H
2
80 F C H
H
60
40
20
43
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
m/z
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
3. The difference between the infrared spectra of an alcohol and a carboxylic acid is that the alcohol
spectrum:
A. has a peak near 3200–3600 cm−1 and a peak near 1700 cm−1
B. has a peak near 3200–3600 cm−1 but no peak near 1700 cm−1
C. has a peak near 1700 cm−1 but no peak near 3200–3600 cm−1
D. does not have a peak near 3200–3600 cm−1 or near 1700 cm−1 .
4. The proton NMR spectrum of chloroethane consists of:
A. a singlet and a doublet
B. a doublet and a triplet
C. a triplet and a quartet
D. a doublet and a quartet.
5. How many signals does the carboxylic acid (CH3 )2 CHCOOH have in its 1 H NMR and 13 C NMR
spectra?
A. Three 1 H signals and three 13 C signals
B. Three 1 H signals and four 13 C signals
C. Four 1 H signals and four 13 C signals
D. Five 1 H signals and three 13 C signals
6. Which of the following instrumental techniques would be most helpful to identify and quantify the
presence of a known impurity in an illegal drug?
A. MS
B. IR
C. NMR
D. HPLC

7. Which feature of a chromatogram is most useful in qualitatively analysing the components of a
mixture?
A. The time after injection at which the peaks occur
B. The heights of the peaks
C. The wavelengths at which the peaks appear
D. The widths of the peaks
8. Some typical steps for part of a volumetric analysis are shown below in jumbled order.
a. Fill burette with required solution.
b. Rinse burette with water.
c. Perform titration and record final volume.
d. Rinse burette with a small amount of the solution that it is to contain.
e. Take an initial reading.
The only correct order for these steps is:
A. d, a, e, c, b
B. b, d, a, e, c
C. d, b, a, e, c
D. b, d, e, a, c.
In a titration to determine the concentration of some hydrochloric acid, a student pours the acid into a
burette and titrates it against some standardised sodium carbonate solution.
9. If a small amount of water was left in the titration flask before the aliquot of sodium carbonate solution
was added, what effect would this have on the calculated concentration of the hydrochloric acid
solution?
A. The answer would depend on the amount of water left in the flask.
B. The concentration would appear to be higher.
C. The concentration would appear to be lower.
D. There would be no effect on the calculated concentration.
10. After completing this experiment, the student compares her result with those obtained by other
members of her class. She discovers that her result is significantly higher.
A possible reason for this is that:
A. there was still some water in the burette when she filled it with the hydrochloric acid solution
B. she mistakenly used hydrated sodium carbonate instead of anhydrous sodium carbonate to prepare
the standard solution
C. she mistakenly wrote down an initial burette reading of 10.09 mL instead of 10.90 mL
D. she used too many drops of the indicator solution.

1. Consider the following mass spectrum of a ketone, and answer the following questions.
57
100
29
50
86
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
m/z
a. What is the m/z value for the parent ion?

b. What is the m/z value for the base peak?
The peak at m/z = 57 represents the loss of what possible fragment from the molecule?
c.
Suggest a possible structure for the compound.
d.
2. The production of the painkiller aspirin involves the reaction of a hydroxyl group in salicylic acid with
ethanoic acid. However, because this reaction is so slow, another compound, ethanoic anhydride, is
used. The structures of ethanoic acid and ethanoic anhydride are shown below. Refer to particular
bonds and wave numbers to explain how these two compounds could be distinguished using IR
spectroscopy.
H O
H C C
H
O
H
H C C O
H
O H
H
H C C
H O
ethanoic acid ethanoic anhydride
3. Shown below is an NMR spectrum of a molecule with the molecular formula C3 H6 O2 .

(3)
(2)
(1)
12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Identify the peaks using the table of chemical shifts (table 10.5).
a.
How many peaks would you most likely find in the set of peaks for the CH2 group?
b.
c. Sketch the structure of the molecule.
4. Compound A has the molecular formula C3 H8 O.
a. Draw the structural isomers represented by this formula.
Compound A reacts with acidified potassium dichromate solution to form compound B, which has
the molecular formula C3 H6 O. The proton NMR spectrum of compound B shows only one peak, and
its mass spectrum is shown below.
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
m/z
b. Name and draw the structure of compound B. Justify your answer by referring to the NMR
information and mass spectrum.
c. Identify the fragment with m/z = 43.
d. Write an equation showing the formation of the fragment at m/z = 15.
e. How many peaks would you expect in the 13 C NMR spectrum of compound B?

5. In chromatography, why is it important that the stationary phase has a large surface area?
6. A sample containing a complex mixture of substances is analysed using HPLC. A peak of interest
appears at retention time 5.3 minutes. When a control sample of substance X is injected, a peak appears
at 5.3 minutes. Can we say for certain that the original mixture contains substance X? Explain why or
why not.
7. A new brand of throat lozenges called ‘Throat Eze’ makes the claim that each lozenge contains 1.2 mg
of dichlorobenzyl alcohol.
OH
Cl
Cl
Dichlorobenzyl alcohol
To test this claim, a government analyst dissolved the lozenge in a solvent made from water and
ethanol and made it up to 500 mL. A small sample was then injected into a high-performance liquid
chromatograph. A chromatogram containing a large number of peaks was obtained.
The operator then ran a series of dichlorobenzyl alcohol standards of known concentration through
the instrument. Chromatograms for each standard were obtained, as well as a measure of the area under
each of the reference peaks.
a. Explain how the standards would allow the dichlorobenzyl alcohol peak from the original
chromatogram to be identified.
b. What is the purpose of using a set of standards as described and subsequently obtaining the area
under their peaks?
c. The following table shows the results from the standards, together with a measurement for the area
under the peak that was identified as dichlorobenzyl alcohol from the original chromatogram.
Is the claim made by the manufacturer true?
Results from HPLC analysis of dichlorobenzyl alcohol
Concentration of standard (mgL−1 ) Area under peak (arbitrary units)
1.0 83
2.0 160
3.0 241
4.0 315
Lozenge extract 193
8. The following HPLC was obtained when a sample of a mixture was analysed.
B
D E
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min)

Which compound spent the most time in the stationary phase?
a.
Which compound was the least concentrated?
b.
9. Aspirin, CH3 COOC6 H4 COOH, is also known as acetylsalicylic acid. It is a medication used to treat
pain and fever.
a. Write the equation for its reaction with sodium hydroxide.
b. A sample of aspirin is analysed using standardised 0.105 M sodium hydroxide with phenolphthalein
as an indicator. Calculate the mass of aspirin required to give a titration of 22.80 mL of sodium
hydroxide.
10. The level of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in citrus fruits can be determined by titration. The preferred
method involves a redox titration using iodine. Acid–base titration is not used due to the presence of
other acids, most notably citric acid.
The reaction involved produces dehydroacsorbic acid and iodide ions as its products, and starch is
used as an indicator. The equation for this reaction is:
C6 H8 O6 (aq) + I2 (aq) → C6 H6 O6 (aq) + 2I− (aq) + 2H+ (aq)
In an experiment to determine the level of vitamin C in oranges, the juice from a 210 g orange was
carefully collected and strained into a 100.0 mL volumetric flask. It was then made up to the mark with
water. 20.00 mL aliquots of this solution were titrated against a standardised 0.00500 M iodine
solution. The average titre required was 24.80 mL.
a. Calculate the concentration (in M) of vitamin C in the diluted orange juice.
b. Calculate the mass of vitamin C in the volumetric flask.
c. Calculate the level of vitamin C in the orange tested. Express your answer as mg/100 g of fruit.

Esters are produced by the reaction between alcohols and carboxylic acids. One particular ester was
distilled to purify it and remove waste products and unused reactants. The purified mixture was placed into
an infrared spectrometer and produced the following spectrum.
100
90
80
Transmittance (%T)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0.0
4500 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
Wave numbers (cm–1)
Question 1 (1 mark)
The peak at approximately 1300 cm−1 is caused by:
A. C−H
B. C=O
C. O−H
D. C−O.

Question 2 (1 mark)
Which of the following statements is correct?
A. The ester is pure.
B. The ester is impure because the presence of a carboxylic acid is shown.
C. The ester is impure because the presence of an alcohol is shown.
D. The ester is impure because both an alcohol and carboxylic acid are shown.
Question 3 (1 mark)
The number of unique 13 C NMR environments produced by (CH3 )2 CHClCH3 is:
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
Question 4 (1 mark)
Which of the following would be seen in a 1 H NMR spectrum of (CH3 )2 CClCH3 ?
A. Two unique hydrogen environments
B. Two doublets with integration areas in the ratio 6:3
C. A set of seven peaks
D. A singlet
Malic acid, C4 H6 O5 , is used to impart the sour taste in candy. A 10.0 g candy sample was melted and
placed in a 250.0 mL volumetric flask, which was made up to the mark with distilled water. A 25.00 mL
aliquot of the candy/water mixture was placed in a conical flask.
A burette was then filled with 0.0100 M KMnO4 solution and titrated into the dilute candy mixture until
the end point was reached. This was repeated three times until concordant titres were obtained according to
the following reaction.
2 MnO− + 2+
4 (aq) + 5 C4 H6 O5 (aq) + 6 H (aq) → 2 Mn (aq) + 5 C4 H4 O5 (aq) + 8 H2 O(l)
The average titre was 15.50 mL.

a. Calculate the average amount, in mol, of malic acid in the 25.00 mL aliquot. 1 mark
b. Calculate the percentage mass (m/m) of malic acid in the 10.0 g sample. 1 mark
c. Another 10.0 g candy sample was quantitatively analysed for its malic acid content using HPLC.
A suitable procedure was then used to liquefy the entire candy sample into a 50.0 mL volume.
A series of malic acid standards were run through the chromatograph and the peak area at Rt of 3
minutes was recorded and used to produce the following calibration graph.
Peak area vs concentration malic acid
12
10
Peak area (mAu)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Concentration mg L–1

The sample was then run through the column and produced the following chromatogram.
25 Tartaric acid
20
Area mAu
15
10
Malic acid
Citric acid
5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Retention times (mins)
i. What is the concentration of malic acid in the 50.0 mL sample? 1 mark

ii. What is the percentage mass of malic acid in the 10.0 g candy sample? 2 marks
iii. Suggest and justify a reason as to why the results from the titration and HPLC analysis are quite
different. 2 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 1 How can the diversity of carbon

compounds be explained and categorised?
OUTCOME 1
Compare the general structures and reactions of the major organic families of compounds, deduce structures of
organic compounds using instrumental analysis data, and design reaction pathways for the synthesis of organic
molecules.
A 20 20
B 3 30
Total 50
Information:
Resources
SECTION A − Multiple choice questions

1. What is the name of the following molecule?

H H
H H H H
C H C
H H H
C C C H
H C C C
H H H
H H H
A. 1,6-dimethylhexane
B. 2,6-dimethylhaxane
C. 2-methylheptane
D. 6-methylheptane

2. What is the correct semi-structural formula for the following molecule?
H
H O C
H H
H C C C H
C C
H H H
H H
A. CH3 CH2 C(HOH)CH2 CH3
B. CH3 CH2 CH(OH)CH2 CH3
C. CH3 CH2 HCOHCH2 CH3
D. CH3 CH2 HC(OH)CH2 CH3
3. The compound below is:
CH3
H2N CH2 CH2 CH CH3
A. An amino acid
B. An amide
C. An amine
D. A nitroalkane.
4. What type of isomerism is shown?
CH3 CH3
C C
HO H H OH
Cl Cl
A. Chain isomerism
B. Optical isomerism
C. Stereoisomerism
D. Functional isomerism
5. Which of the following is a tertiary alcohol?
A. Pentan-3-ol
B. Pent-2-en-1-ol
C. Propan-2-ol
D. 2-methylpropan-2-ol
6. What is the correct semi-structural formula of 2,4-dimethylpentane?
A. CH3 CH(CH3 )CH2 CH2 CH(CH3 )CH3
B. CH2 (CH3 )CH2 CH(CH3 )CH3
C. CH3 CH(CH3 )CH2 CH(CH3 )CH3
D. CH3 CH(CH3 )CHCH(CH3 )CH3
7. What is the correct name for the following molecule?
O
H3C
O CH3
A. Methyl methanoate
B. Methyl ethanoate
C. Ethyl ethanoate
D. Ethyl propanoate
8. Which of the following can be described as being able to form stereoisomers?
A. Ethene
B. Propene
C. But-1-ene
D. But-2-ene

9. What is the correct name of the molecule with the semi-structural formula CH3 CH2 CH2 CHO?
A. Butan-1-one
B. Butanoic acid
C. Butan-1-ol
D. Butanal
10. H H
H
H C C
C C H + H Cl
H
H H
For the reaction shown, the reaction type and products are, respectively:
A. Addition, 2,3-dichlorobutane
B. Addition, 2-chlorobutane
C. Substitution, 2-chlorobutane
D. Substitution, 2,3-dichlorobutane.
11. Which of the following is likely to be the most soluble in water?
A. Propanoic acid
B. Propanone
C. Methyl methanoate
D. Butan-1-amine
12. 18.6 g of butan-2-one, CH3 COCH2 CH3 , is obtained from the oxidation of 22.5 g of butan-2-ol,
CH3 CH(OH)CH2 CH3 .
The percentage yield is closest to:
A. 82.6%
B. 95.9%
C. 87.3%
D. 86.1%.
13. A mass spectrum is shown below. What molecule is it likely to be produced by?
100
80
60
40
20
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
m/z
A. Methanoic acid
B. Ethanol
C. Ethanal
D. Propane

14. A molecule has the molecular formula C3 H6 O2 . Information about the 1 H NMR spectrum for the molecule is
shown below.
Chemical shift (ppm) Relative peak area Peak splitting

1.3 3 triplet (3)
4.2 2 quartet (4)
9.0 1 single (1)
Based on this information, the molecule is likely to be:

A. Methyl ethanoate
B. Ethyl methanoate
C. Propanoic acid
D. Propan-1,2-diol.
15. How many peaks would be seen on a 13 C NMR spectrum for 1-chlorobutane?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4
16. The infrared spectrum for a molecule is shown below. The molecule is most likely to be:
Absorption
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500

Wavenumber (cm–1)
A. An alcohol
B. An ester
C. An amine
D. A carboxylic acid.
17. Ethanoic acid and methanamine are combined and then heated to 100 °C. The product is:
A. Methylethanamide + water
B. Ethlymethylamide + water
C. Ethanamine + water
D. Aminoethane + water.
18. The peak area in a HPLC chromatogram can be used to determine:
A. The retention time
B. The concentration of the analyte
C. The amount of analyte
D. The polarity of the analyte.

19. A titration curve is shown below. Which would be the best indicator to use for this titration and what colour
change would be observed?
14
pH
7
0
25
volume (mL)
A. Bromophenol blue, yellow to blue

B. Bromophenol blue, blue to yellow
C. Phenolphthalein, colourless to pink
D. Phenolphthalein, pink to colourless
20. A student carried out a redox titration to determine the amount of vitamin C in lemon juice. They standardised
an iodine solution and then titrated this against a diluted lemon juice sample. If the student rinsed their
burette with deionised water, the implication would be:
A. The amount of lemon juice would be calculate too high
B. The amount of lemon juice would be calculated too low
C. There would be no effect on the calculated amount of lemon juice
D. 5.0 mL more lemon juice would be needed to rectify the error.

Propanone and propan-2-ol both contain three carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.
a. Draw the structural formula of:
i. Propanone 1 mark
ii. Propan-2-ol. 1 mark
b. How many peaks would you expect to see on a 13 C NMR spectrum for:
i. Propanone 1 mark
ii. Propan-2-ol? 1 mark
c. Explain how many peaks (the splitting pattern) you would expect to see on a 1 H NMR spectrum for:
i. The R–CH3 in propanone 2 marks
ii. The R–CH3 in propan-2-ol. 2 marks
d. Describe the key difference expected in the IR spectrum of propanone compared to that of
propan-2-ol. 2 marks
e. Identify the peak at m/z = 43 for propanone. 1 mark
f. A student has a bottle labelled ‘P’ that contains either propanone or propan-2-ol. When they react their
unknown compound with acidified dichromate ions, they note a change in odour. Identify the compound in the
bottle labelled ‘P’. 1 mark

Consider the following reaction pathway.

CH3CH2CH2Cl
reagent X
CH3CH2CH2OH
compound A
MnO4–/H+
H2O/H3PO4
compound B
CH3CH2OH
H2SO4
compound C
a. i. Identify reagent X. 1 mark

ii. Identify the type of reaction occurring to convert CH3 CH2 CH2 Cl into CH3 CH2 CH2 OH. 1 mark
iii. Identify the by-product of the reaction forming CH3 CH2 CH2 OH. 1 mark
iv. Calculate the atom economy for this reaction. 1 mark
b. i. Write the semi-structural formula of compound A. 1 mark
ii. Identify the type of reaction occurring to convert compound A into CH3 CH2 OH. 1 mark
c. i. Name the type of reaction that produces compound B. 1 mark
ii. Name compound B. 1 mark
d. i. Draw the skeletal formula of compound C. 1 mark
ii. Calculate the atom economy for the production of compound C. 1 mark
iii. Draw the structural formula of the other product formed when compound C is formed. 1 mark
A student wished to determine the ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH, concentration of a sample of vinegar.
They took a 10.0 mL sample of vinegar and diluted it to 250.0 mL in a volumetric flask. They then took 20.0 mL
samples of this solution and titrated them against a 0.0240 M standardised solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
solution. Their average titre was 21.80 mL.
a. Write the chemical equation for the reaction of ethanoic acid with sodium hydroxide. 1 mark
b. Assuming that ethanoic acid is the only acid present in vinegar, calculate the concentration of ethanoic acid in
the undiluted sample as % v/v. The density of ethanoic acid is 1.049 g mL−1 . 6 marks

ASSESSMENT task – Data analysis

In this task you will analyse chromatogram, peak area data and mass spectra for a sample of vinegar.
Total time: 50 minutes
Analysis of secondary qualitative and quantitative data

Vinegar is a popular condiment produced from the double fermentation of fruit. The first fermentation converts
sugars into ethanol and the further fermentation produces the ethanoic acid that gives vinegar its sour taste.
Spirit vinegars are typically between 5.0 and 20.0% v/v ethanoic acid.
Other organic acids can be formed during the fermentation process and these impart their own characteristics
on the overall flavor, depending on the concentrations. Possible organic acids in spirit vinegars are shown below.
OH O O OH OH O
HO OH
HO OH H3C
OH HO OH
O O
O OH O O OH OH
Tartaric acid Malic acid Citric acid Lactic acid
O O
O O
HO
HO
H3C OH OH
H 3C OH OH O
O
Ethanoic acid Propanoic acid Fumaric acid Succinic acid
Vinegar producers send their spirit vinegar samples to laboratories for qualitative and quantitative analysis
using a technique known as LC–MS (Liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry).
LC–MS is a technique used to determine what is in a mixture when the components are similar. LC works the
same way as HPLC except the mobile phase is not pumped through under high pressure. This slower flow rate
of the mobile phase allows the mass spectrometer to function with high accuracy. The chromatograph separates
the acids in the vinegar, while the mass spectrometer acts as the detector and identifies each component as it
passes through.
One particular vinegar analysis used 20 μL vinegar samples injected onto a reverse-phase liquid
chromatography (RPLC) column at 50 °C. The mobile phase was a mixture of water and methanol with a flow
rate of 1.0 mL/min. The following chromatogram, peak area data and mass spectra were produced.
FIGURE 1 Vinegar sample chromatogram
3
1
4
2
4 6 8 10 12 14
(min)

TABLE 1 Vinegar sample peak area data
Peak Peak area ×10 000 Retention time (mins)
1 5.50 4.7
2 0.68 5.6
3 9.95 5.9
4 3.65 9.7
5 24.40 13.0
FIGURE 2 Vinegar sample Peak 1 mass spectrum
129
100
43
80
87
60 84
40 102
60 111
20
15 147 192
0
50 100 150 200
m/z
76
100
80
60
40
58
29
20 88
43 150
15
0
50 100 150 200
m/z

71
100
43

80
89
60
40
29
20 45
15
116
0
50 100 150 200
m/z
45
100
80
60
40
20 29 43 74
15 90
0
50 100 150 200
m/z
43
100
45
80
60
60
40
15
20
29
0
50 100 150 200
m/z

Analyse the data given to answer the following questions.
1. Using the principles of chromatography, explain how the mixture of organic acids was able to be separated
in this reverse-phase chromatograph.
2. What is the difference between normal-phase and reverse-phase chromatography? What would happen to
the retention times of the organic acids if NPLC was used instead?
3. Explain how mass spectrometry can be used as a qualitative technique and how the peaks on a mass
spectrum are formed.
4. Using the mass spectra, name the two organic acids that were the first and last peaks detected on
the chromatogram. Write equations to show the formation of both molecular ions of the two organic
acids.
5. Which of the listed acids could not produce the mass spectrum corresponding to Peak 3 on the
chromatogram? Justify your answer.
6. How would you change the experimental conditions, chromatograph or procedure to:
(a) Separate Peaks 2 and 3 on the chromatogram
(b) Accurately determine the identity of Peak 4?
7. If propanoic acid was detected, relative to other peaks and their retention times, where on the
chromatogram would you expect it to be shown? Justify your answer.
8. Outline changes and additions you would make to this RPLC procedure to determine the percentage by
volume (% v/v) of ethanoic acid in this sample of spirit vinegar. Include any changes you would make to the
sample. Comment on the data to be collected and show how you would use it to calculate the percentage
by volume (% v/v) of ethanoic acid in the spirit vinegar.
Resources

AREA OF STUDY 2
WHAT IS THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD?
11 Key food molecules

11.1 Overview
11.1.1 Introduction
Sharing food with family and friends is one
FIGURE 11.1 In the future, insects could supply protein in a
of the joys of life. But what are we really balanced diet.
eating? We know that a balanced diet enables
us to stay active and healthy, providing
energy for daily activity, and to allow
growth, repair and regulation of our organs
and body processes. The term ‘diet’ is
referred to as the daily food that is usually
eaten by a person, but what makes up a
balanced diet?
Everything we eat is a chemical, so what
happens to food molecules when we
consume a meal? The proteins we eat are
essential building blocks for an enormous
number of compounds involved in growth
and repair of cells and, if required, energy.
They are usually obtained from animal sources but there are plant sources too. Most of our carbohydrates
come from plants, which provide a source of energy for the many processes occurring in the body. ‘Lipid’
is a general term for fats and oils, which are energy storage compounds. Proteins and carbohydrates are
polymers, large molecules that are made up of repeating units of small molecules called monomers.
Although lipids are relatively large molecules, they are not polymers. The many reactions that occur
between these organic compounds depend on how the molecular structures and various functional groups
interact, and the conditions in the particular part of the body. The structure of the major food molecules is
examined in this topic and the digestion of these molecules is discussed in topic 12.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• proteins: formation of dipeptides and polypeptides as condensation polymers of 2-amino acids; primary
(including peptide links), secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure and bonding; distinction between
essential and non-essential amino acids as dietary components
• carbohydrates: formation of disaccharides from monosaccharides, and of complex carbohydrates
(specifically starch and cellulose) as condensation polymers of monosaccharides; glycosidic links; storage
of excess glucose in the body as glycogen; comparison of glucose, fructose, sucrose and the artificial
sweetener aspartame with reference to their structures and energy content

• fats and oils (triglycerides): common structural features including ester links; distinction between fats and
oils with reference to melting points; explanation of different melting points of triglycerides with reference to
the structures of their fatty acid tails and the strength of intermolecular forces; chemical structures of
saturated and unsaturated (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) fatty acids; distinction between
essential and nonessential fatty acids; and structural differences between omega-3 fatty acids and
omega-6 fatty acids
• vitamins: inability of humans to synthesise most vitamins (except Vitamin D) making them essential dietary
requirements; comparison of structural features of Vitamin C (illustrative of a water-soluble vitamin) and
Vitamin D (illustrative of a fat-soluble vitamin) that determine their solubility in water or oil.

Resources
11.2 Proteins
KEY CONCEPT
• Proteins: formation of dipeptides and polypeptides as condensation polymers of 2-amino acids; primary
(including peptide links), secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure and bonding; distinction between
essential and non-essential amino acids as dietary components
11.2.1 What are proteins?

Virtually all body structures and activities depend on proteins, and eating protein is not just about building
muscles, it provides the raw materials for many structural and functional components in the body. As
enzymes, proteins act as catalysts and have many other roles in the body. Some are antibodies to prevent
infection, some assist with the formation of new molecules by interpreting the genetic information stored in
DNA, and others act as hormones and transmit signals to coordinate biological processes between different
cells, tissues and organs. Proteins provide structural components for cells, they form muscle fibres, which
assist in movement, and they carry atoms and small molecules around the body.
TOPIC 11 Key food molecules 397

FIGURE 11.2 Examples of proteins in the body
Hair is made of the protein keratin.

Skin contains the proteins collagen and keratin.
Blood plasma contains blood proteins, which help fight The enzyme amylase is a protein found in saliva.
infections and transport lipids, hormones, vitamins and
minerals.
The hormone insulin, which helps in carbohydrate

metabolism, is a protein made by the pancreas. The red haemoglobin in blood cells is a protein.
The fibres of nerve cells are surrounded by protein. Muscle fibres are made of different types of proteins
that allow muscles to work in different ways.
Tendons, which join muscles to bones, contain the

protein collagen and a small amount of elastin.
Toenails and fingernails are made of the protein keratin.
All protein molecules contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

FIGURE 11.3 Sources of protein
and nitrogen. Some also contain phosphorus and sulfur.
Plants can make proteins from inorganic compounds such
as nitrates, water and carbon dioxide. Animals cannot
make their own proteins directly from the same inorganic
starting materials that plants do; they depend on plants or
other animals in their food supply for organic compounds
that enable them to obtain or synthesise their own protein.
Sources of protein include meat, fish, poultry, eggs, dairy
products, soy products and beans. The thousands of
proteins in our body are polymers made up of 20 different
amino acids.
11.2.2 Formation of dipeptides and polypeptides

Amino acids: the building blocks of proteins
Proteins are polymers built from monomers
FIGURE 11.4 General structure of an amino acid
called amino acids. These amino acids are
compounds that contain amino (−NH2 ) and
carboxyl (−COOH) functional groups.
Most amino acids have four groups bonded to a 2. 1.
central carbon atom. These are:
• a carboxyl group (−COOH)
• an amino group, −NH2
• a R group (the amino acid side chain)
• a hydrogen atom.
Amino acids used to make proteins are named
amino side carboxyl
2-amino acids because the amino group is attached group chain group
to the second carbon counting from the carboxyl
group (see figure 11.4). They are also called 𝛼-amino acids (‘alpha amino acids’). 𝛼-amino acids contain an
𝛼-carbon, which is the first carbon atom (C1) directly bonded to a functional group, in this case, a carboxyl
group.

TIP: Do not confuse the amino functional group (−NH2 ) with the amide group (−CONH−).
Resources
Interactivity Classifying properties of amino acids (int-1237)
Differences between amino acids

Amino acids differ in the structure of the R side group and it is the nature of the R side group that forms the
classification of 2-amino acids. The R side groups can be one or more of the following.
• Non-polar (hydrophobic)
• Alkyl, for example −CH3 in alanine
• Aromatic, for example, cyclic hydrocarbon in phenylalanine
• Polar (hydrophilic)
• Neutral, for example −CH2 OH in serine
• Acidic (proton donors), for example the acidic carboxyl group −CH2 COOH in aspartic acid
• Basic (proton acceptors), for example the basic −CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 NH2 in lysine.
The simplest 2-amino acids are glycine, where the R group is just a hydrogen atom, and alanine, where
the R group is a methyl group (see figure 11.5).
FIGURE 11.5 Structures of glycine and alanine
H H
O O
H2N C C H2N C C
O H O H
H CH3
Glycine (Gly)(G) Alanine (Ala)(A)

non-polar non-polar
C2H5NO2 C3H7NO2
Hundreds of amino acids are known, but only 20 have been found in proteins in the human body. These
2-amino acids are the building blocks of thousands of proteins and are shown in table 11.1, with the three-
letter abbreviation for their names. Amino acids can also be identified by a single letter but this is not used
in VCE Chemistry.
Amino acids are the monomers that form a protein polymer.
TABLE 11.1 2-amino acids (𝛼-amino acids)
Name Symbol Structure
Alanine Ala CH3
H2N CH COOH
Arginine Arg NH
CH2 CH2 CH2 NH C NH2
H2N CH COOH
(continued)

TABLE 11.1 2-amino acids (𝛼-amino acids) (continued)
Name Symbol Structure
Asparagine Asn O
CH2 C NH2
H2N CH COOH
Aspartic acid Asp CH2 COOH
H2N CH COOH
Cysteine Cys CH2 SH
H2N CH COOH
Glutamic acid Glu CH2 CH2 COOH
H2N CH COOH
Glutamine Gln O
CH2 CH2 C NH2
H2N CH COOH
Glycine Gly H2N CH2 COOH
Histidine His N
CH2 N
H
H2N CH2 COOH
Isoleucine Ile CH3 CH CH2 CH3
H2N CH COOH
Leucine Leu CH3 CH CH3
CH2
H2N CH COOH
Lysine Lys CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 NH2
H2N CH COOH
Methionine Met CH2 CH2 S CH3
H2N CH COOH
Phenylalanine Phe CH2
H2N CH COOH

Proline Pro COOH
HN
Serine Ser CH2 OH
H2N CH2 COOH
Threonine Thr CH3 CH OH
H2N CH COOH
Trytophan Trp HN
CH2
H2N CH2 COOH
Tyrosine Tyr
CH2 OH
H2N CH2 COOH
Valine Val CH3 CH CH3
H2N CH COOH
Source: VCE Chemistry Written Examination Data book (2018) extracts © VCAA; reproduced by permission.
TIP: The name, symbol and structure of the 2-amino acids can be found in table 17 of the VCE
Dipeptides and polypeptides

Amino acids react to form peptides. The carboxyl group of one molecule reacts in a condensation
polymerisation reaction with the amino group of another amino acid molecule to form a peptide or amide
link between them. This link is called a peptide link if it is in a peptide or protein. The general term ‘amide
link’ can be used for any compound that contains the −CONH− link.
Water is produced when a peptide link is formed, so this reaction between amino acids to form peptides
is an example of a condensation reaction. When two or more amino acids combine to form a peptide, what
remains of each amino acid in the peptide is called an amino-acid residue.
FIGURE 11.6 Formation of a peptide link
H H
H H O
N + C N
C + H2O
O
O
amino group carboxyl group peptide or

of one amino acid of another amino acid amide

Amino acids combine to form peptides in a condensation reaction.
When two amino acids combine, a dipeptide is produced. Two

FIGURE 11.7 Two amino
possible dipeptides can be made depending on the initial alignment of acid residues
the amino acids. Glycine and alanine can combine in two ways.
The end of the peptide that has a free amino group is described as O O
the N-terminal. This is usually drawn on the left. The end with a free HN CH C NH CH C
carboxyl group is called the C-terminal. This is important because
CH3 CH2SH
Ala-Gly has a different structure from Gly-Ala, as shown in figure 11.8.
amino acid amino acid
residue residue
FIGURE 11.8 Two different dipeptides produced during the condensation reaction between glycine and
alanine
H H H H H H O H O
O O
N C C N C C N C C N C C + H2O
H OH H OH H H H CH3 OH
H CH3
Glycine Alanine N-terminal end dipeptide C-terminal end
H2O released peptide link
H H H H H H O H O
O O
N C C N C C N C C N C C + H2O
H OH H OH H CH3 H H OH
CH3 H
Alanine Glycine N-terminal end dipeptide C-terminal end
H2O released
TIP: Remember to include the water molecule as a product when writing equations for
condensation reactions
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Show the structure of the dipeptide formed from the condensation reaction of two alanine
molecules.
THINK WRITE
1. Draw the two alanine molecules, with the H CH3 O H CH3 O
carboxyl functional group of one molecule next N C C N C C
to the amino functional group of the other. O H O H
H H H H
2. Circle the −O−H of the carboxyl group and the H CH3 O H CH3 O
−H from the amine group. This is the water N C C N C C
molecule that is removed in the condensation O H O H
H H H H
reaction.

3. Join the remaining half bonds between the H CH3 O CH3 O
carbon atom and the nitrogen atom. N C C N C C + H2O
O H
H H H H
4. Draw the structure of the dipeptide with the H CH3 O CH3 O
double bond to the oxygen and the single bond N C C N C C + H2O
from the hydrogen to the nitrogen vertically. O H
H H H H
Include the water molecule produced if an
equation is required.
Check that a peptide link has been formed
(−CONH−).
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Show the structure of a dipeptide formed from the condensation reaction of a serine and valine
molecule.
Depending on the number of amino acid residues per molecule, the peptides formed from the
condensation reactions of amino acids are known as dipeptides, tripeptides and so on until we reach
polypeptides, which are the result of condensation polymerisation reactions. Note that, when drawing
segments of proteins, it is necessary to show the open bonds at each end by using dashes where the
next amino acid residue would be attached. Peptides of molar mass up to about 5000 g mol−1 (about 50
amino acid units) are known as polypeptides; even larger peptides are called proteins. The peptide chain
of covalently bonded nitrogen and carbon atoms is referred to as the backbone, and the R-groups are
described as side chains.
Amino acids combine in condensation reactions to form polypeptides.
FIGURE 11.9 Formation of a polypeptide
R O R O R O R O
H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH
H H H H H H H H
peptide link
R O R O R O R O
... N C C N C C N C C N C C ... + H2O
H H H H H H H H
TIP: Remember to use open bonds on each end when drawing a section of a polymer.
Resources
Video eLesson Condensation of amino acids (med-0354)

11.2.3 Structure of proteins
The structure of a protein is critical to its function. There are four levels of organisation that contribute to a
protein’s structure: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.
Primary structure of proteins

The simplest level of protein structure is the order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain and is referred to
as its primary structure. This is composed of the amino acid residues covalently bonded with peptide
links. This sequence is unique for each particular protein and determines how the chain will be arranged
in the next level of structure. For example, insulin consists of two amino acid chains: chain A has
21 amino acids and chain B has 30 amino acids. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that helps
the cells in the body receive glucose from the blood and use it for providing energy.
FIGURE 11.10 Primary structure showing the order of amino acids in human insulin
NH2 Phe
Val
1 Asn
Gln
Gly Ile Val Glu
His
NH2 Gln
Cys Leu
Cys
Leu Gln Tyr Leu Ser Cys Cys
Gly
Glu
Ile Thr
Asn Ser Ser
Tyr His
Leu
21
Cys Val
Asn Glu
Val Leu Tyr Leu Ala
COOH Cys
Gly
Glu
30
Arg
Gly Phe Phe Tyr Thr Pro Lys Thr COOH
Glu Chain A Cys Chain B
The primary structure of proteins is the order of the amino acid residues covalently bonded
in a polypeptitde chain. The amino acid residues are covalently bonded with the peptide
links.

Secondary structure of proteins
Hydrogen bonds play a significant part in the secondary structure of proteins. The secondary structure
of proteins refers to sections where the amino acid chain is organised into folded arrangements, usually
𝛼-helices and 𝛽-pleated sheets.
In 𝛼-helices, hydrogen bonds are formed between an oxygen atom of a C=O bond and a hydrogen
atom of a N−H bond that is four amino acids away on the same chain (see figure 11.11). All C=O and
N−H bonds are involved but R-groups are not included. A rigid, stable coiled structure is formed with the
R-groups pointing to the outside. For example, these long thin protein structures make up the protein
keratin, which is found in hair, skin and nails.
With 𝛽-pleated sheets, two sections of the peptide chain line up and are held together in a sheet-like
structure by hydrogen bonds between one oxygen atom of a C=O bond and a hydrogen atom of a N−H
bond in the parallel or anti-parallel sheet (see figure 11.11). The arrows at the ends of the ribbons point
towards the carboxyl end of the chain. Silk thread has been shown to consist of a fibrous protein with a
significant proportion of 𝛽-sheets.
Even though they are not involved in this level of structure, the R-groups influence the type of
arrangements because of their size and shape. Amino acid residues with ring structures in side groups are
more likely to be found in sheets because more space is available.
Some protein structures consist of more than a thousand atoms in complex arrangements with a multitude
of intermolecular interactions, so they are sometimes represented by computer generated models, such as
figure 11.11, The sections of 𝛼-helices and 𝛽-pleated sheets are linked by thin sections showing random
coils and loops.
FIGURE 11.11 Secondary structure of a protein shown in a computer representation
The secondary structure of proteins is the arrangement of the amino acid chain into
𝛼-helices and 𝛽-sheets. These structures result from hydrogen bonding within the
sequences.

Tertiary structure
The three-dimensional structure of a protein is critical to its function and involves almost all common types
of intermolecular interactions. Bonding between R-groups, the side chains, of the amino acids results in
a complex three-dimensional shape called the tertiary structure. This may involve hydrogen bonding,
ionic bonding or disulfide bridges. A covalent bond between two cysteine molecules is known as a disulfide
bridge. These stabilise protein structures and keep them in particular conformations. Non-polar R-groups
are hydrophobic and gather on the inside of the protein, leaving hydrophilic R-groups on the surface to
interact with the aqueous environment in cells.
The tertiary structure involves interactions between R-groups as hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding
or disulfide bridges.
Cysteine is the only amino acid that can form disulfide bonds.
TIP: Both the secondary and tertiary structures involve hydrogen bonding.
In the secondary structure the hydrogen bonds are within the same peptide chain.
In the tertiary structure the hydrogen bonding is between R-groups.
FIGURE 11.12 Types of bonding present in the tertiary structure of proteins
polypeptide backbone
CH2
CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 NH3 + –
O C CH2
ionic bond O
hydrogen H
bond
O
C NH2
CH CH2
disulfide
H3C CH3 linkage
H3C CH3
CH S
S
hydrophobic
interactions
Resources
Weblink Tertiary structure: the overall 3-dimensional shape of a protein

Quaternary structure
Some proteins consist of two or more folded peptide chains combined. When individual protein molecules
link together in a particular spatial arrangement, a quaternary structure is formed. These proteins can be
the same or different, and form a larger protein complex. This complex is stabilised by interactions similar
to the tertiary structure, including hydrogen bonding, disulfide links and ionic attractions. An example is
haemoglobin, the oxygen transport protein, which has four chains: two identical 𝛼 chains and two identical
𝛽 sheets (see figure 11.13a). Collagen, the main structural protein found in skin and tendons, has three
polypeptide chains wound around each other (see figure 11.13b).
FIGURE 11.13 Models of (a) human haemoglobin molecule (globular) and (b) a collagen molecule (fibrous)
(a) (b)
The quaternary structure refers to interactions between peptide chains.
Resources
Weblink Human Complex DNA-binding protein 3D view
Summary of protein structures

Proteins contain four levels of structure.
• The primary structure is the sequence of amino acid in the molecule.
• The secondary structure is characterised by the hydrogen bonding between oxygen atoms in the C=O
bond and the hydrogen atom in the N−H bond from the functional groups in a particular peptide
chain.
• In the tertiary structure all of the main types of bonding between R-groups are involved in forming the
3D arrangement of the protein.
• The quaternary structure comprises the interactions between folded peptide chains for some proteins.
The four protein structures are visually presented in figure 11.14. The formation and performance of
proteins within the human body results from energy generated at the cellular level. The proteins formed
can be fibrous (keratin, collagen) or globular (haemoglobin, most enzymes) in structure. Fibrous proteins
are long, narrow strands and are insoluble in water. They are structural proteins. Globular proteins have a
compact rounded shape and are usually soluble.

FIGURE 11.14 Four levels of protein structure
HO O primary structure
C
H H covalent
N bonding
H
secondary structure C C
N
..
H O C
H O H O H
H N C
N C C
C N C N C N O
C— C— N —C— C— N —C— C C
— — — — —
O
..
C
—
C
— H
.........
H C N H
O O H O CC
..
..
..
..
..
O O N H bonding
H O H H C
..
C —C O
C— N —C N —C between
— —
N C N C —C H H
C— C— N —
— —
N C
—
C
— —
H N C C carboxyl
O H O O O
C H O
..
H and amino
..........
CN C
beta pleated sheet C N groups
O
..
O
alpha helix
tertiary structure ‘side-group’ interaction,

including H bonding,
ionic bonding,
dipole–dipole interactions
and disulfide bridges
H bonding, ionic bonding,

quaternary
disulfide bridges and
structure
dipole–dipole interactions
11.2.4 Essential and non-essential amino acids

Humans can only produce 11 of the 20 amino acids necessary to make proteins. These proteins made in the
body are classified as non-essential amino acids. Amino acids found in proteins that cannot be synthesised
by animals from the other materials in their diets and must therefore be supplied directly in the diet are
known as essential amino acids. Unlike carbohydrates and fats, amino acids cannot be stored in the body
and must be obtained from daily food intake. High-protein food is necessary in animal diets so that all of
the amino acids necessary for the body to manufacture protein can be obtained. Essential amino acids vary
from species to species. Essential and non-essential amino acids for humans are shown in table 11.2.
TABLE 11.2 Essential and non-essential amino acids
Essential Non-essential
1. Histidine 1. Alanine
2. Isoleucine 2. Arginine
3. Leucine 3. Asparagine
4. Lysine 4. Aspartic acid
5. Methionine 5. Cysteine

6. Phenylalanine 6. Glutamic acid
7. Threonine 7. Glutamine
8. Tryptophan 8. Glycine
9. Valine 9. Proline
10. Serine
11. Tyrosine
Protein sourced from animal-based FIGURE 11.15 Quinoa supplies the essential amino acids
food (meat) contain all the essential
amino acids, but plant-based proteins,
with the exception of quinoa and soy,
do not include all essential amino acids.
While it is not necessary to eat essential
and non-essential proteins at every meal,
our bodies’ inability to make essential
amino acids means it is important to have
a balanced intake each day. Vegetarians
and vegans are able to consume all of
the necessary amino acids by including
foods from a variety of plant sources
(including legumes, soy products, grains,
nuts and seeds) as part of a their daily
intake. Particular care is required to
ensure adequate intake of lysine and methionine because these are found in smaller quantities in some
plant foods. Tempeh, tofu, lentils and legumes are good sources of lysine, and grains, Brazil nuts and seeds
supply methionine.
11.2 EXERCISE
1. (a) Name three foods that have a high protein content.
(b) State three functions of proteins in the body.
2. Which structure defines the three-dimensional shape of a protein?
3. Name and draw the structures of the two functional groups present in amino acids.
4. State two examples of amino acids with basic side chains.
5. (a) Draw a possible dipeptide formed between alanine and aspartic acid.
(b) Circle the peptide link.
(c) Name the type of reaction.
(d) Use the appropriate three-letter abbreviations to label these dipeptides.
(e) Calculate the molar mass of the dipeptide formed.
6. Refer to the insulin molecule in figure 11.10.
(a) State the abbreviations for the first three amino acids.
(b) Name the first three amino acids in chain A.
(c) State the name of the link (bond) and type of bonding that is present between these amino acids
(d) State the name of the link (bond) and type of bonding occurring between the cysteine residues.
7. How many distinct tripeptides can be formed from one valine molecule, one alanine molecule and one
glycine molecule?
8. Which type of bonding is found in both the secondary and tertiary structures of proteins?

9. What type of intermolecular attraction could involve two residues of glutamic acid spaced along a
polypeptide chain?
10. (a) Explain the difference between essential and non-essential amino acids.
(b) Give an example of an essential and a non-essential amino acid.

11.3 Carbohydrates
KEY CONCEPT
• Carbohydrates: formation of disaccharides from monosaccharides, and of complex carbohydrates
(specifically starch and cellulose) as condensation polymers of monosaccharides; glycosidic links; storage
of excess glucose in the body as glycogen; comparison of glucose, fructose, sucrose and the artificial
sweetener aspartame with reference to their structures and energy content
Athletes sometimes use sports drinks to give

FIGURE 11.16 Energy drinks contain the sugar, glucose
them a boost of energy while exercising or
playing sport. Vigorous exercising can result
in the rapid loss of fluids, particularly if the
weather is hot; sports drinks can help replace
the lost water, sugar and salt. Research tells us
that ordinary water provides adequate hydration
for everyone except elite athletes, but sports
drinks continue to be popular despite problems
with excess sugar intake. What is in these sports
drinks that is absorbed quickly and readily
provides energy?
11.3.1 Introduction to
carbohydrates
The sugar in sports drinks and in so many other foods helps replace the fuel that your body uses during
exercise. The sugar is a simple carbohydrate, glucose, that is stored in the liver or muscles. It is readily
available because it requires less oxygen to react than either protein or fat. Carbohydrates are molecules
made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Their general formula can be represented as Cx (H2 O)y .
Most carbohydrates in our food originate from plants, in the form of glucose, and are produced through
the process of photosynthesis.
chlorophyll
6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O (1) →C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) ∆H = +2820 kJ mol−1
sunlight

The glucose formed during photosynthesis can FIGURE 11.17 Sources of carbohydrates
be used by the plant to form complex carbohydrates
through polymerisation reactions. When an animal
eats a plant, it can use the plant’s carbohydrates
as an energy source. Carbohydrates provide the
greatest proportion of energy in the diets of most
humans. The energy is required for muscle movement
and the functioning of the central nervous system.
Carbohydrates are also essential parts of other
important molecules such as DNA. In addition, they
have a number of beneficial effects on the taste and
texture of foods.
11.3.2 Formation of disaccharides from monosaccharides

Carbohydrates are classified into three groups according to their molecular structure: monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides (sometimes called simple sugars) are the basic
building blocks of all carbohydrates. The most important monosaccharides are those containing five carbon
atoms (pentoses) and those containing six carbon atoms (hexoses). They are not broken-down during
digestion.
FIGURE 11.18 Structures of some common monosaccharides
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O H
O O
H H OH H
H H
H OH
OH H OH H OH CH2OH
OH OH H OH
H OH H OH OH H
glucose galactose fructose
Monosaccharides are white crystalline solids that

FIGURE 11.19 Fructose is a monosaccharide and
are soluble in water. Their solubility is due to the is the main carbohydrate in fruit
presence of several polar hydroxyl (−OH) groups in
the molecular structures. These can form hydrogen
bonds with water molecules and are also strong
reducing agents.
Monosaccharides can be in straight-chain and
cyclic forms. In aqueous solution, the cyclic
form predominates. The most abundant and most
important of these monosaccharides is glucose,
which circulates in the blood — this is why it is
known as blood sugar. It is readily available as
an energy source and provides fuel for the body,
especially the brain.

Formation of glucose
Glucose is found as a number of stereoisomers. The D-glucose molecule in figure 11.20a has four chiral
centres. The isomer designated as the D-isomer occurs in nature, but the L-isomer, which is a mirror image,
does not. Assigning an isomer as D- or L- is based on the arrangement of the groups in the molecule and
not on the direction of rotation of polarised light. However, the two enantiomers rotate light in opposite
directions by the same amount.
The naturally occurring sugars discussed in this topic are D-isomers so when glucose is discussed from
this point on remember that it is the D-isomer that is being referred to.
FIGURE 11.20 Straight-chain and cyclic forms of (a) D-glucose and (b) D-fructose
(a) (b)
1CH
1CHO 6CH OH 2OH
2 6CH OH
2C 2
H 2C
OH H 5 O H O O H
H 3C
3C 4 1 HO H 2
HO H OH H 5
H OH
1CH
H 4C
OH OH OH H 4C
OH OH 2OH
3 2
4 3
H 5C OH H OH H 5C
OH OH H
6CH OH 6CH
2 2OH
The formation of glucose ring structures from straight-chain glucose, the CH2 OH group on C5, ends up
above the plane of the ring (see figure 11.21). As the ring closes, a new chiral centre is produced at C1, with
−OH adopting one of two possible orientations:
• −OH below the plane of the ring (i.e. on the opposite side of the ring to CH2 OH) ⇒ 𝛼-glucose
(𝛼-D-glucose) (see figure 11.21a)
• −OH above the plane of the ring (i.e. on the same side of the ring as CH2 OH) ⇒ 𝛽-glucose
(𝛽-D-glucose) (see figure 11.21b).
The orientation of the hydroxyl group on C1 differentiates the two molecules.
FIGURE 11.21 Structure of (a) 𝛼-glucose and (b) 𝛽-glucose
(a) (b)
6 CH2OH 6
CH2OH
5 O 5 O
H H H OH
H H
4 1 4 1
OH H OH H
HO OH HO H
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
The carbohydrates in food are commonly made up of one or more of three simple monosaccharides:
glucose, galactose and fructose. Monosaccharides can be joined to form disaccharides (two
monosaccharides), oligosaccharides (from three to about ten monosaccharides) or polysaccharides (up to
thousands of monosaccharides). Carbohydrates containing fewer than five monosaccharides are sometimes
called simple carbohydrates while polysaccharides may be called complex carbohydrates.
Polysaccharides are polymers made up from monosaccharide or disaccharide monomers.

FIGURE 11.22 Two monosaccharides can form a disaccharide in a condensation reaction; water is produced as a
by-product
(a)
glycosidic link
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
H O H H O H H O H H O H
H H H H
+ + H2O
OH H OH H OH H OH H
OH OH OH OH OH O OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH
α-D-glucose α-D-glucose maltose water
(b) (c)
CH2OH
CH2OH O
CH2OH H H
H O O H
H H CH2OH
OH H
OH H H HO OH O O OH
OH O CH2OH H
H OH
OH H
H OH OH H H
H
sucrose H OH lactose
Disaccharides are made of two

FIGURE 11.23 Sucrose (table sugar) is a disaccharide.
monosaccharides through a condensation
reaction that occurs between the hydroxyl
group on C1 of one glucose molecule and
the hydroxyl group on C4 of an adjacent
glucose molecule. A molecule of water is
eliminated as a glycosidic link (a special
case of ether link), is formed. The three
disaccharides found most commonly in
food are sucrose (found in fruits), maltose
(the end-product in the malting of barley
during beer manufacture and also in starch
digestion in the human gut) and lactose
(found in milk). Table sugar is actually
the disaccharide sucrose. However, all of
these small carbohydrates are classified as
sugars, and their names have the suffix −ose.
The glucose monomers in polysaccharides are held together by glycosidic links (−O−).
TIP: The formula of some biomolecules can be found in section 10 of the VCE Chemistry Data
Book.
11.3.3 Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are carbohydrates of high molar mass. Unlike monosaccharides and disaccharides, they
are non-crystalline, generally insoluble and tasteless. Polysaccharides are polymers that consist of large

numbers of monosaccharide monomers that have
FIGURE 11.24 Iodine can be used as a test for
combined in condensation polymerisation reactions. starch. The brown colour of iodine becomes
They are sometimes called complex carbohydrates. blue/black in the presence of starch.
Starch, glycogen and cellulose are important
polysaccharides in plant and animal systems.
Starch
Starch is a white granular polysaccharide that
is the major storage form of glucose for plants.
It is found in corn, wheat, seeds and the fleshy
part of vegetables and fruit, and is the second
most common organic compound. Starch is a
condensation polymer of 𝛼-glucose and is made
up of two polymers: amylose and amylopectin.
The proportion of each of these polymers present is
dependent on the type of plant food.
The three test tubes shown in figure 11.25
demonstrate a positive test for three different FIGURE 11.25 Testing different concentrations of
starch solutions
concentrations of starch solutions. Moving from
left to right, the starch concentrations decrease
by a factor of 10: they are 1%, 0.1% and 0.01%.
The amylose portion of the starch molecule can
trap iodine in its coiled structure. The iodine then
appears to take on a purple colour, and even appears
black at high concentrations.
Amylose comprises about 20% of starch
and consists of 50–300 𝛼-glucose units in a
continuous chain formed from C1–C4 linkages
only. Because the hydroxyl groups on C1 and C4
are both below the plane of the ring and all the
molecules are aligned the same way, polymerisation
is straightforward. This results in a long chain
molecule that forms tightly packed spirals due to hydrogen bonding along its length. Much of the hydrogen
bonding is within the coil so fewer water molecules can form hydrogen bonds. This makes amylose
insoluble in water.
FIGURE 11.26 Section of amylose polymer
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O O
H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H
4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1
O O O O O O
H OH H OH H OH H OH H OH
Amylopectin is a polymer much larger and more loosely branched than amylose. It consists of 300–5000
𝛼-glucose units. The branching occurs as a result of C1–C6 linking between smaller segments of the
C1–C4-linked straight chain. Amylopectin is water soluble because the open branched structure allows
hydrogen bonding with water. It has a more open and less rigid structure than amylose, and a reddish colour
is seen when it is mixed with iodine.

FIGURE 11.27 Section of amylopectin polymer
CH2OH CH2OH
O O
H H H H
H H
4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1
O O O C1– C6 link
H OH H OH
CH2OH CH2OH 6 CH2 CH2OH CH2OH
O O 5
O O O
H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H
1 4
4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H OH H 1 4 OH H 1
O O O O O O
3 2
C1– C4 link
Starch is the energy storage molecule in plants and consists of amylose and amylopectin
polymers.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
Calculate the molar mass of a starch molecule made from 500 glucose monomers.
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the mass of 500 glucose Molecular mass of glucose:
monomers. C6 H12 O6 = (6 × 12) + (12 × 1) + (6 × 16)
= 180 g mol−1
Mass of 500 glucose monomers = 500 × 180
= 90 000 g mol−1
2. Determine how many water molecules 500 −1 = 499 water molecules lost between 500
are lost. monomers in this condensation reaction.
3. Calculate mass of 499 water Mass of 499 water molecules = 499 × 18.0
molecules. = 8982 g mol−1
4. Calculate the molar mass of starch. Molar mass of starch = 90 000 − 8982
= 81 018
= 8.10 × 104 g mol−1
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Calculate the molar mass of a starch molecule made from 650 glucose monomers.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 11.1 Studying starch – starch in food (doc-31277)
Teacher-led video Experiment 11.1 Studying starch – starch in food (tlvd-0763)

Glycogen
Three monosaccharides, glucose, fructose and galactose, are derived from the hydrolysis of carbohydrates
and are absorbed from the digestive tract. They pass to the liver, which converts fructose and galactose to
glucose, using specific enzymes. If glucose is not immediately required by the body as an energy source, it
is stored in the liver (and, to a lesser extent, in the body tissues) as glycogen. The liver reconverts glycogen
to glucose by hydrolysis for use by the body. In this way, the liver keeps the glucose concentration of the
blood relatively constant. If the body needs energy in a hurry or when the body is not getting glucose from
food, glycogen is broken down to provide the needed glucose.
Glycogen has a similar structure to amylopectin but is even more highly branched. In glycogen, as
in amylopectin, the branching is due to C1–C6 linkages. However, in glycogen, these linkages occur
approximately every 8–12 glucose units compared with every 25–30 glucose units in amylopectin. The
many ends of the molecule are readily available to react and release energy during respiration.
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) + (energy)
FIGURE 11.28 Structures of polysaccharides
glycogen amylopectin amylose
Glucose provides energy to animals. It is stored in the liver as glycogen if not immediately
required and is reconverted to glucose by hydrolysis.
Cellulose
Cellulose is a natural polymer found in the cell walls of plant materials such as wood, paper, linen and
cotton. Food sourced from plants including grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes and nuts all contain cellulose.
Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide and is a linear polysaccharide also formed by condensation
polymerisation of the 𝛽-glucose monomer. For the glycosidic bond to form between C1 and C4 in
𝛽-glucose, alternate glucose molecules must be inverted, which is the case for cellulose. As with starch,
this reaction occurs in plants using the glucose they form during photosynthesis.
There is no branching in a cellulose molecule. The arrangement of 𝛽-glucose units and the extensive
hydrogen bonding between the unbranched chains provides strength to the rigid cell walls in plants.

FIGURE 11.29 Structure of part of a cellulose polymer FIGURE 11.30
Arrangement of
CH2OH H OH CH2OH H OH 𝛽-glucose units
O O in cellulose
H O H H O H
H OH H H OH H
OH H H OH H H
H H O O H H O O
H OH CH2OH H OH CH2OH
TIP: The monomer for cellulose is 𝛽-glucose but the monomer for starch and glycogen is
𝛼-glucose.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 11.2 Constructing models of carbohydrates (doc-31278)
11.3.4 Structures and energy content

Simple sugars and artificial sweeteners
The simple sugars discussed in section 11.3.3 have different levels of sweetness and effects on blood
glucose levels. The effect of a particular carbohydrate on blood glucose levels can be compared using the
glycaemic index (GI). Many people enjoy sweet food, but these foods contain mainly sugar and very few
other nutrients. Eating excess sugar can lead to obesity and possibly diabetes, so many people have turned
to artificial sweeteners, particularly in soft drinks.
One of the most commonly used artificial sweeteners is aspartame, which can be identified on food
labels as additive 951. It is a white, odourless, soluble crystalline powder, a dipeptide methyl ester and
chemically known as methyl l-𝛼-aspartyl-l-phenylalaninate. A scientist who inadvertently licked his
finger in the lab (a procedure that is definitely not recommended in a chemistry laboratory!) discovered
it accidently. Aspartame is used extensively because it combines well with different foods. It can break
down under conditions of high temperature or high pH, so it is not used for baking and the shelf life of
foods containing aspartame is limited. A comparison of the relative sweetness of some simple sugars and
aspartame is shown in table 11.3.
TABLE 11.3 Sweetness, energy and glycaemic index of sugars and aspartame
Relative Glycaemic
Sugar/sweetener Notes sweetness Energy Index
Lactose Disaccharide composed of glucose and 0.15 16.7 kJ/g 45

galactose; naturally occurring sugar found in
milk
Glucose Monosaccharide also known as dextrose; can 0.74 16.7 kJ/g 100
cause glucose levels in blood to rise quickly
(continued)

TABLE 11.3 Sweetness, energy and glycaemic index of sugars and aspartame (continued)
Relative Glycaemic
Sugar/sweetener Notes sweetness Energy Index
Sucrose Disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; 1.0 16.7 kJ/g 65

also known as table sugar, castor sugar, cane
sugar and beet sugar
Fructose Monosaccharide usually found combined with 1.6–1.9 16.7 kJ/g 19

glucose in sucrose in honey and fruit juice; bees
hydrolyse sucrose into glucose and fructose
Aspartame An artificial, non-saccharide sweetener used as a 150–250 16.7 kJ/g 0

substitute for sugar in some foods and drinks
FIGURE 11.31 Structures of (a) sucrose and (b) aspartame
(a) (b)
CH2OH
CH2OH
H O O
H H
O
OH H H HO
OH O CH2OH H 2N O
N
H OH OH H CH3
sucrose
HO O
H
O
aspartame
TIP: Make sure you can identify the functional groups in aspartame.
Aspartame is about 200 times sweeter than sugar, which

FIGURE 11.32 Less aspartame is required
means that less aspartame than sucrose is needed to achieve to provide the same sweetness as sucrose.
the same level of sweetness. In the body, aspartame is
hydrolysed to aspartic acid, phenylalanine and methanol.
The effects of these products are minimal compared with
the intake from other food sources.
• Aspartic acid is a non-essential amino acid, and is
important as a component of DNA and in the
production of urea. It also acts as a neurotransmitter
in the brain. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that
transfer impulses from one nerve cell to the next.
• Phenylalanine is an essential amino acid needed for the
synthesis of some neurotransmitters and is involved in
energy metabolism, although people with the genetic disorder phenylketonuria (PKU) cannot
metabolise phenylalanine. Phenylketonuriacs need a special diet to avoid brain damage caused by the
build-up of phenylalanine.
• Very small amounts of methanol are found in many foods and are poisonous only if consumed in large
quantities. Methanol is absorbed and oxidised into methanal and then to methanoic acid.
• It is interesting to note that aspartame has two chiral carbon atoms, resulting in one isomer that is
sweet and the other that is bitter.

STEVIA: ANOTHER SUGAR ALTERNATIVE
Stevia is also gaining popularity as a natural sweetener, which is derived from the leaves of the plant species
Stevia rebaudiana. It has 30–50 times the sweetness of sugar and as the body cannot metabolise the glycosides
it has both zero kilojoules and a zero glycaemic index.
11.3 EXERCISE
1. What is the molecular formula and molecular mass of glucose?
2. (a) List three sources of carbohydrates in the diet.
(b) What is the major function of carbohydrates in the body?
3. (a) Identify the monosaccharides from which sucrose, maltose and lactose are formed.
(b) Write a balanced equation (showing structural formulas) for the formation of maltose.
(c) Name the type of reaction involved in the production of a disaccharide.
(d) Name and label the link formed in the reaction between the two monosaccharides.
(e) Name the functional groups taking part in the reaction.
4. Describe the similarities and differences between galactose and lactose.
5. Calculate the molar mass of two strands of cellulose each made from 400 glucose monomers.
6. Compare the structures of the three polysaccharides: glycogen, starch and cellulose.
7. Name the polysaccharide that matches each of the descriptions below.
(a) It is the energy storage molecule in plants.
(b) It is made from 𝛽-glucose monomer units.
(c) If excess glucose is present in the body, it is first stored in muscle and the liver in this form.
(d) It is made up of two polymers: one branched and the other unbranched.
(e) It is the most abundant polysaccharide.
8. State and draw the functional groups that are present in:
(a) glucose
(b) sucrose
(c) aspartame.
9. Aspartame has the same number of kilojoules per gram as sucrose, so why is it used in diet foods?
10. Aspartame is not a carbohydrate. What type of compound is it? Why is it used in diet foods?

11.4 Fats and oils

KEY CONCEPT
• Fats and oils (triglycerides): common structural features including ester links; distinction between fats and
oils with reference to melting points; explanation of different melting points of triglycerides with reference to
the structures of their fatty acid tails and the strength of intermolecular forces; chemical structures of
saturated and unsaturated (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated) fatty acids; distinction between
essential and nonessential fatty acids; and structural differences between omega-3 fatty acids and
omega-6 fatty acids

11.4.1 Structural features of fats and oils
Fats and oils belong to a group of compounds called lipids,
FIGURE 11.33 Fats are solid at room
which also include a small number of other compounds such as temperature and oils are liquid
waxes, fat-soluble vitamins, monoglycerides and diglycerides.
Our bodies need lipids because, as well as their function as an
energy store, they form components in cell membranes and are
important for hormone production, insulation, protection of vital
organs and transport of fat-soluble vitamins. Fats and oils contain
the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In this respect, they
are similar to carbohydrates, but fats and oils have a smaller
percentage of oxygen and are not polymers. They are found in
fish, dairy products, oils, fried foods, seeds and nuts.
TIP: Fats contain a lower proportion of oxygen

atoms than carbohydrates.
Fats and oils are called triglycerides because they are formed
by a condensation reaction between glycerol and three fatty
acids. The fatty acids can be the same or different. Glycerol is
an alcohol, a non-toxic, colourless, clear, odorless and viscous
liquid that is sweet-tasting and has the semi-structural formula
CH2 OHCH(OH)CH2 OH. Fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic
acids usually containing an even number of 12–20 carbon atoms.
Examples of fatty acids include stearic acid and oleic acid, which have eighteen carbon atoms in their
chains. The carboxyl groups in the fatty acids react with the three hydroxyl groups in the glycerol to form
three ester links, −COO−, and water is a product of the reaction. Triglycerides are hydrophobic and less
dense than water because of the large sections of non-polar, hydrophobic sections of the molecules.
FIGURE 11.34 Reaction of glycerol and three fatty acids to form a triglyceride
H H H H H H H H
O
H H H H H H H H
H C OH + C C C C C C C C H
HO C C C C C C C C
H C OH H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C OH
H2O fatty acid × 3
H (palmitic acid)
glycerol
ester link
H O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C H + 3H2O
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H C O C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
fat molecule (triglyceride)

Fats and oils are formed by a condensation reaction between glycerol and three fatty acids.
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

The presence of C=C double bonds affects the
FIGURE 11.35 Sources of saturated fats
melting and boiling points of the triglycerides
in fatty acids. Fatty acids can be classified as
saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fatty
acids have C−C single bonds and straight
chains that pack close together to form saturated
fats and allow dispersion forces to more
effectively operate between the fatty acids
and hold them together. Triglycerides that
consist of mainly saturated fatty acids are
usually solids at room temperature, 25 °C.
Saturated fats are very stable and less likely
to be oxidised. They generally originate from
animal products including meat, butter and
cheese. It is recommended that they be limited in our diet because they can increase blood cholesterol
levels, one of the major factors in heart disease.
FIGURE 11.36 Example of a saturated and an unsaturated fatty acid
O
H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
OH
stearic acid (a saturated fatty acid)
H H H H H H H H
O
C C C C C C C C C
H
OH
C
H
H H H H H H H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
H
C
H
oleic acid (a mono-unsaturated fatty acid)
Oils contain a higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids than fats. Unsaturated fatty acids may contain
monounsaturated fatty acids, with one C=C double bond, or polyunsaturated fatty acids with a number
of C=C double bonds. The double bonds cause bends in the fatty acid chains, which disrupt the dispersion
forces between the molecules and prevent close packing of these molecules. The consequence of this is
that oils have a lower melting point and are liquid at room temperature. The hydrogen atoms and groups
either side of a double bond can be found in the cis or trans configuration. Naturally-occurring fatty acids
generally have the cis configuration. The structure of a trans-fat configuration is closer to a straight line.

FIGURE 11.37 Cis- and trans-fatty acids FIGURE 11.38 Weak
interactions between
long-chain branched
lipids in olive oil
means it is liquid at
room temperature.
Elaidic acid (trans-d9)
Oleic acid (cis-d9)
Naturally occurring fatty acids generally have the cis configuration.
TIPS:
• Remember to refer to unsaturated fatty acids as having one or more carbon to carbon
double bonds.
• Trans-fatty acids have a linear (non-bent) structure, which means that they have higher
melting points than cis-fatty acids.
Hydrogen can be reacted with unsaturated fatty acids to convert them to saturated fatty acids in a process
called hydrogenation but this increases the amount of trans-fats, which are less healthy. The amount
of hydrogen added determines the melting point of the triglyceride. Unsaturated triglycerides, whether
monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, reduce cholesterol and so are preferable in the diet. The iodine
number is used to measure the degree of unsaturation. The iodine number is the mass of iodine that reacts
with 100 g of a fat or oil. Iodine reacts with the carbon to carbon double bonds so the more double bonds
there are, the higher the iodine number.
TABLE 11.4 Some common carboxylic acids found in fats and oils
Number
Common of carbon Example Degree of
name atoms Semi-structural formula of source unsaturation
Palmitic acid 16 CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH Palm oil Saturated
Stearic acid 18 CH3 (CH2 )16 COOH Animal fats Saturated
Oleic acid 18 CH3 (CH2 )7 CH=CH(CH2 )7 COOH Peanut oil Monounsaturated
Linoleic acid 18 CH3 (CH2 )4 CH=CHCH2 CH=CH(CH2 )7 COOH Vegetable Polyunsaturated

oils
• Saturated fatty acids have only single C−C bonds.

• Monounsaturated fatty acids contain one C=C bond.
• Polyunsaturated fatty acids contain more than one C=C bond.

Essential and non-essential fatty acids
Normal functioning of the body requires some essential fatty acids (EFAs). Deficiency can affect the
liver, kidneys, blood, immune system and condition of the skin. EFAs are fatty acids that must come from
our diet because the body cannot produce them. They are often called omega fatty acids. Examples are
alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic acid (LA). ALA is found in flaxseed oil, canola oil, linseed, tuna,
trout and salmon, whereas LA is present in oils such as soybean, sunflower, corn and safflower, as well as
nuts and seeds. Non-essential fatty acids are still needed by humans but can be synthesised from foods.
Examples of non-essential fatty acids include stearic acid and palmitic acid.
TIP: Take care recognising the two acids linolenic and linoleic acids. Their names are very
similar.
Structural differences between omega-3 and omega 6-fatty acids

Linolenic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid, and linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid. The position of the
double bond is critical to the function of the fatty acid because the body’s enzymes cannot react with double
bonds near the methyl end. The names arise from the number of the carbon atom in the double bond that
is closest to the methyl end, rather than the carboxyl end. Omega (symbol 𝜔) is the last letter of the Greek
alphabet.
Humans can synthesise longer omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids from LA and ALA. The human body
can transform LA into other fatty acids including arachidonic acid (AA) and ALA into eicosapentaenoic
acid (EPA), both of which contain 20 carbon atoms. These are important fatty acids that are needed to make
chemicals for the process of inflammation and the nervous system.
FIGURE 11.39 Omega fatty acids
Linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid (first double bond after omega-6 carbon atom).
Alpha-linolenic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid (first double bond after omega-3 carbon atom).
omega-1 carbon = carbon = oxygen = hydrogen
TABLE 11.5 Formulas of some fatty acids
Name Formula Semi-structural formula
Lauric C11 H23 COOH CH3 (CH2 )10 COOH
Myristic C13 H27 COOH CH3 (CH2 )12 COOH
Palmitic C15 H31 COOH CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH

(continued)

TABLE 11.5 Formulas of some fatty acids (continued)
Name Formula Semi-structural formula
Palmitoleic C15 H29 COOH CH3 (CH2 )4 CH2 CH=CHCH2 (CH2 )5 CH2 COOH
Stearic C17 H35 COOH CH3 (CH2 )16 COOH
Oleic C17 H33 COOH CH3 (CH2 )7 CH=CH(CH2 )7 COOH
Linoleic C17 H31 COOH CH3 (CH2 )4 (CH=CHCH2 )2 (CH2 )6 COOH
Linolenic C17 H29 COOH CH3 CH2 (CH=CHCH2 )3 (CH2 )6 COOH
Arachidic C19 H39 COOH CH3 (CH2 )17 CH2 COOH
Arachidonic C19 H31 COOH CH3 (CH2 )4 (CH=CHCH2 )3 CH=CH(CH2 )3 COOH
TIP: The formulas of the fatty acids in table 11.5 can also be found in table 9 of the VCE
11.4 EXERCISE
1. Refer to table 11.5 and give an example for each of the following.
(a) Saturated fatty acid
(b) Monounsaturated fatty acid
(c) Polyunsaturated fatty acid
2. What is the molecular formula of:
(a) glycerol
(b) stearic acid?
3. Which fatty acid in table 11.5 contains the most double bonds?
4. Explain why ethanoic acid is soluble in water but myristic acid is not.
5. For each of the following pairs, explain which will have the higher melting point.
(a) Cis- or trans-fatty acids
(b) Saturated or unsaturated fatty acids
(c) Longer or shorter fatty acids
6. Write names and formulas of fatty acids used to produce the following triglyceride.
H2C O C (CH2)14CH3
O
HC O C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
O
H2C O C (CH2)7CH CHCH2CH CH(CH2)4CH3
7. (a) Write the molecular formula of a saturated fatty acid containing 12 carbon atoms.
(b) Write the semi-structural formula of a polyunsaturated fatty acid containing 18 carbon atoms and two
double carbon to carbon bonds.
8. Sketch the structural formula of a triglyceride formed from the reaction between glycerol, one molecule of
stearic acid, one molecule of oleic acid and one molecule of myristic acid
9. Explain what an essential fatty acid is and provide an example.

10. Write the name for this omega fatty acid and say what type of omega acid it is.
CH3
O OH

11.5 Vitamins
KEY CONCEPT
• Vitamins: inability of humans to synthesise most vitamins (except Vitamin D) making them essential dietary
requirements; comparison of structural features of Vitamin C (illustrative of a water-soluble vitamin) and
Vitamin D (illustrative of a fat-soluble vitamin) that determine their solubility in water or oil.
11.5.1 Vital vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in minute quantities on a regular basis as part of a healthy
diet. Thirteen vitamins are required but they cannot be synthesised by humans, except for vitamin D.
However, if vitamins are present in excess or are deficient, diseases such as beriberi, scurvy, anaemia,
rickets and skin disorders can occur. Some vitamins can act as coenzymes, which enable a particular
enzyme to catalyse a reaction (see topic 13 for more about coenzymes). Vitamins can be divided into two
groups: water-soluble and fat-soluble.
11.5.2 Water-soluble vitamins

Water-soluble vitamins include eight different B-group vitamins and vitamin C. They are absorbed directly
into the bloodstream and generally operate in cells to help catalyse cellular reactions. These vitamins do
not remain in the body and are excreted through the kidneys in urine if excessive amounts are consumed.
They are also more easily destroyed by heat, oxygen and light, or lost in water when boiled than fat-soluble
vitamins. Therefore, water-soluble vitamins must be obtained from food on a regular basis because they
cannot be stored. They contain functional groups containing oxygen and nitrogen. This makes them polar
molecules and explains their solubility; they can form hydrogen bonds with water. Other elements that may
be present include sulfur; cobalt is found in vitamin B12.
The B-group vitamins assist in breaking down and releasing energy from food. They are required for
healthy skin, hair, eyes and liver. The nervous system relies on B-group vitamins to function effectively.
Chemical and various refining processes reduce the amount of these vitamins in food, which explains why
brown sugar, rice and flour are more nutritious than their white forms. Vitamins play an essential part in
metabolism in the body, often by combining with enzymes (protein catalysts) (see topic 12).

FIGURE 11.40 Sources and structure of vitamin C
O
O
HO
CH OH
CH2
HO
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
TABLE 11.6 Functions and sources of water-soluble vitamins
Vitamin Function Sources
B1 (thiamin) Assists in breaking down and releasing Wholegrain cereals, seeds, nuts, pork
energy from food; supports nerve
function
B2 (riboflavin) Assists in releasing energy from food Dairy products, wholegrain breads and
and red blood cell formation; supports cereals, egg white, leafy vegetables,
healthy skin, eyes and nervous system meat, yeast, liver and kidney
B3 (niacin) Assists in energy production; supports Meats, fish, poultry, milk, eggs,
skin health and nervous and digestive wholegrain breads and cereals, nuts,
systems mushrooms
B5 (pantothenic acid) Metabolises food; assists in production Liver, meats, milk, kidney beans, corn,
of red blood cells and hormones legumes
B6 (pyroxidine) Metabolises food; assists in production Poultry, meats, fish and shellfish, seeds
of red blood cells and hormones; and nuts, fish, liver, beans and legumes
supports nervous system and immunity
B7 (biotin) Assists in energy production; involved in Peanuts, leafy vegetables, egg, liver,
metabolism of fat chicken, yeast, mushrooms
B9 (folic acid) Assists in production of red blood cells, Leafy vegetables, legumes, seeds, liver,
development of foetal nervous system poultry, eggs
and DNA synthesis
B12 (cyanocobalamin) Supports nervous system and Meat, liver, fish, cheese, eggs
production of DNA and red blood cells
C (ascorbic acid) Maintains healthy immune system; Red peppers, citrus fruits, kiwi fruit,
assists in wound healing; helps cantaloupe, broccoli and Brussels
production of collagen (protein in skin, sprouts
cartilage, tendons, ligaments, teeth and
blood vessels)

11.5.3 Fat-soluble vitamins
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K. They can be absorbed in the intestines and moved via
the lymphatic system, and are stored in fat deposits and within the liver, where they can accumulate. The
body converts the antioxidant beta-carotene from orange or dark green vegetables into vitamin A, or it can
be obtained from dairy products, fish or liver. Vitamin D is made by the enzyme-catalysed action of sunlight
on cholesterol and can also be sourced from foods including fatty fish, cheese and eggs. Vitamin K can be
produced in small amounts in the intestine by the action of bacteria. Fat-soluble vitamins mainly consist
of carbon and hydrogen and consequently form non-polar molecules. This means they contain few, if any,
polar groups and are more soluble in non-polar solvents such as fats and oils.
FIGURE 11.41 Some sources and the structures of vitamin D
(a) (b) CH3
H3C CH CH CH3 H3C CH2 CH2 CH3
CH CH CH CH2 CH
CH
CH3 CH3 CH3
CH3
CH CH
CH CH
CH2 CH2
HO HO
Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) Vitamin D3 (ergocalciferol)
TABLE 11.7 Functions and sources of fat-soluble vitamins
Vitamin Function Sources
A Important for vision and immunity Sweet potatoes, carrots, spinach, pumpkin,
liver, fish
D Helps calcium and phosphorus Sunshine, cod liver oil, salmon, sardines, milk,
absorption tuna, mushrooms
E Cell membrane protection Sunflower seeds, almonds, spinach,

asparagus, avocado, peanuts, tofu
K Helps blood clot Kale, spinach, spring onions, Brussels

sprouts, broccoli, parsley
ACTIVITY: A BERIBERI BAD EXPERIMENT

Christiaan Eijkman, a Dutch doctor living in Java, had a problem. The disease beriberi was becoming more
common; it caused nerve damage in victims and eventually heart failure. His research involved injecting chickens
with infected blood. Surprisingly, it was not just the injected chickens that died, but those in the control group as
well. Thinking the whole area was contaminated, he moved new chickens to a different location and was

pleased to observe that these chickens survived.
FIGURE 11.42 Vitamins are found in the husks of
He discovered that it was not the new location that
brown rice
improved the survival rate but that these chickens
were being fed unpolished rice rather than the usual
white rice. It was not until some years later that
it was established that the water-soluble vitamin
thiamin in the husks of the brown rice had improved
the health of the chickens and provided protection
from beriberi.
1. Describe one aspect of Dr. Eijkman’s original
experiment that was good practice.
2. What was the flaw in experimental technique
for his second experiment that still led to
a solution to his problem?
3. What is another name for thiamin?
4. What must be present in this vitamin for it
to be described as water-soluble?
5. Describe what Dr. Eijkman might have done to improve the experimental design of this experiment.
11.5 EXERCISE
1. What are vitamins?
2. Why are vitamins essential in the human diet?
3. Name the vitamin that is able to be produced by humans.
4. State two food sources of:
(a) vitamin C
(b) vitamin D.
5. Why is it necessary to eat foods containing water-soluble vitamins every day, but not necessary for
fat-soluble vitamins?
6. Explain why it is more likely that an excess of fat-soluble vitamins rather than water-soluble vitamins will
cause health problems.
7. Compare the functional groups present in vitamin C and those present in vitamin D2 .
8. Are the following vitamins water-soluble or fat-soluble? Give reasons for your answers.
(a) H3C CH3 CH3 CH3
OH
CH3
(b) OH
OH
OH
N CH3
9. What is the molecular formula of vitamin C?
10. What is another name for vitamin C?


11.6 Review
11.6.1 Summary
Proteins
• Proteins are made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Some also contain sulfur.
• Proteins are formed by the condensation polymerisation of amino acid units. The amino functional
group of one amino acid reacts with the carboxyl functional group of another, and water is eliminated.
• Amino acids contain amino (−NH2 ) and carboxyl (−COOH) functional groups together with a
hydrogen atom and a R-group that identifies the amino acid.
• There are 20 amino acids in biological systems in the body.
• Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by animals from other materials in their diet; they must be
supplied by the diet.
• Non-essential amino acids can be synthesised within the body from other materials in the diet.
• Proteins have four structural levels.
• Primary structure: the number, sequence and type of the amino acids in the chains. Only strong
covalent bonds are involved.
• Secondary structure: the helices, folds and pleats due to hydrogen bonding with non-R-group
nitrogen and oxygen in small segments of the peptide chain
• Tertiary structure: the three-dimensional shape of the protein, which is the result of interactions
between different side-chain groups and involves dispersion forces, hydrogen bonding, ionic
bonding and disulfide bridges
• Quaternary structure: the way the constituent protein branches are held together in space when
separate polypeptide chains interact with each other. This involves hydrogen bonding, disulfide
bridges, ionic bonding and dipole–dipole interactions.
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and have the general formula Cx (H2 O)y .
• Carbohydrates can be classified into three groups according to their molecular structures:
monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Glucose is a monosaccharide that has a number of isomers including 𝛼-D-glucose and 𝛽-D-glucose.
Naturally-occurring glucose is the D-form.
• In aqueous solution, monosaccharides can exist in equilibrium in both straight-chain and cyclic forms.
It is the major energy source for the body.
• Glucose is formed from water and carbon dioxide during photosynthesis.
• Two monosaccharide units can undergo a condensation reaction to form a disaccharide. The hydroxyl
(−OH) functional group from each monomer unit reacts to form water as a by-product.
• Aspartame is an artificial sweetener that is 200 times sweeter than sucrose.
• Starch is a polysaccharide formed from the condensation polymerisation of 𝛼-glucose from
photosynthesis. It is the major storage form of glucose in plants, and is made up of amylose and
amylopectin.
• Amylose is smaller than amylopectin and consists of compacted linear chains arranged in a helical
structure. It is not soluble in water.
• Amylopectin is a longer, more loosely branched molecule that is soluble in water.
• Glycogen is the major storage form of glucose in animals. It is more highly branched than
amylopectin. Excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen.
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide formed from the condensation polymerisation of 𝛽-glucose from
photosynthesis in plants. Cellulose is the major structural component of cell walls in plants.
• Humans do not have the enzyme to digest cellulose.

Fats and oils
• Fats and oils are part of a group of nutrients called lipids; they are made up of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.
• Fats and oils are large esters called triglycerides made from the condensation reaction of one molecule
of glycerol and three long-chain carboxylic acids called fatty acids.
• Saturated fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids that do not contain a C=C double bond.
• Monounsaturated fatty acids contain one C=C double bond, and polyunsaturated fatty acids contain
more than one C=C double bond.
• Unsaturated fats can be converted to saturated fats by the addition of hydrogen.
Vitamins
• Vitamins are a group of organic compounds that are essential for growth and nutrition and are required
in small quantities in the diet because they cannot be synthesised by the body.
• Vitamins are categorised according to their solubility in water or fat; this is explained by the functional
groups present.
• Water-soluble vitamins are the B-group vitamins and vitamin C. They cannot be stored in the body so
need to be regularly ingested. They are unlikely to be toxic because they are excreted in urine. B-group
vitamins can be converted to coenzymes.
• Fat-soluble vitamins, such as A, D, E and K, are stored in the liver. They can become toxic due to build
up and are more stable to heat than water-soluble vitamins.
Resources
11.6.2 Key terms
𝛼-helices hydrogen bonds are formed between an oxygen atom of a C=O bond and a hydrogen atom of a N−H
bond that is four amino acids away on the same chain
𝛽-pleated sheets two sections of the peptide chain line up and are held together in a sheet-like structure by
hydrogen bonds between one oxygen atom of a C=O bond and a hydrogen atom of a N−H bond in the
parallel or anti-parallel sheet
amide link formed when a carboxyl group reacts with an amino group in a polymerisation reaction
amino acids molecules that contain an amine and a carboxyl group
amylopectin consists of 300–5000 𝛼-glucose units; combines with amylose to form starch
amylose consists of 50–300 𝛼-glucose units in a continuous chain formed from C1–C4 linkages only; combines
with amylopectin to form starch
aspartame a common artificial sweetener
backbone a peptide chain of covalently bonded nitrogen and carbon atoms
C-terminal the end of a peptide chain with a free carboxyl group
carbohydrates general name for a class of carbon compounds that include sugars, starch and cellulose.
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
cellulose the most common carbohydrate and a condensation polymer of 𝛽-glucose. Humans cannot hydrolyse
cellulose, so it is not a source of energy.
condensation polymerisation step-growth polymerisation in which two monomers combine and a smaller
molecule is eliminated
condensation reaction a reaction in which molecules react and link together by covalent bonding with the
D-glucose an isomer that occurs in nature
dipeptide formed when two amino acids combine

disaccharides two sugar molecules (monosaccharides) bonded together
essential amino acids amino acids that cannot be synthesised by animals from materials in their diets and
therefore must be supplied directly in the diet
essential fatty acids fatty acids that must come from our diet because the body cannot produce them; often
called omega fatty acids
fatty acids long-chain carboxylic acids usually containing an even number of 12–20 carbon atoms
fibrous describes long fibres in proteins that serve a structural role in the body; insoluble in water
globular describes proteins with a compact rounded shape and are usually soluble
glucose a simple carbohydrate stored in the liver or muscles
glycaemic index (GI) a figure representing the relative ability of a carbohydrate food to increase the level of
glucose in the blood
glycerol an alcohol; it is a non-toxic, colourless, clear, odorless and viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and has
the semi-structural formula CH2 OHCH(OH)CH2 OH
glycogen the storage form of glucose in animals. It has a similar structure to amylopectin but is even more highly
branched
glycosidic link a particular type of ether bond
hydrogenation the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated compounds, such as fatty acids
hydrophilic describes a molecule more likely to interact with water and other polar substances
hydrophobic describes non-polar molecules that repel water molecules
iodine number used to measure the degree of unsaturation. The iodine number is the mass of iodine that reacts
with 100 g of a fat or oil.
lipids substances such as a fat, oil or wax that dissolve in alcohol but not in water
monosaccharides the simplest form of carbohydrate, consisting of one sugar molecule
monounsaturated describes fatty acids containing only one double carbon to carbon bond
N-terminal the end of the peptide that has a free amino group
non-essential amino acid the 11 of the 20 amino acids necessary to make proteins that humans can produce
non-essential fatty acid fatty acids that humans can synthesise from food
oligosaccharides three to ten monosaccharides bonded together
omega-3 fatty acid polyunsaturated fatty acids with a carbon to carbon double bond on the third carbon from
the methyl end
omega-6 fatty acid polyunsaturated fatty acids with a carbon to carbon double bond on the sixth carbon from
the methyl end
peptide formed when amino acids react
peptide link formed when a carboxyl group reacts with an amino group in a polymerisation reaction
polypeptides many amino acid residues bonded together
polysaccharides more than 10 monosaccharides bonded together
polyunsaturated describes fatty acids containing more than one double carbon to carbon bond
primary structure the order of amino acids in a protein molecule
proteins large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids
quaternary structure structure formed when individual protein molecules link together in a particular spatial
arrangement
residue what remains when two or more amino acids combine to form a peptide
saturated describes fatty acids containing only single carbon to carbon bonds
secondary structure structure formed from hydrogen bonding between carboxyl and amino groups in a protein
molecule
side chain R group attached to an amino acid
starch a condensation polymer of 𝛼-D-glucose that is made up of two polymers: amylose and amylopectin
tertiary structure structure formed from side-group interaction, including hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding,
dipole–dipole interactions and disulfide bridges, in a protein molecule
triglycerides fats and oils formed by a condensation reaction between glycerol and three fatty acids
unsaturated compound containing one or more carbon to carbon double or triple bonds
vitamins organic compounds that are needed in minute quantities on a regular basis as part of a healthy diet
Resources

Experiment 11.1
Studying starch
Aim: To test for starch in foods
Resources
Experiment 11.2 Constructing models of carbohydrates (doc-31278)
11.6 Exercises

1. The −NH2 functional group is:
A. an amino group
B. a hydroxyl group
C. a peptide group
D. an amide group.
2. Which functional groups are involved in forming peptide bonds?
A. The carboxyl group on two amino acids
B. The carboxyl group on one amino acid and the amino side chain on another
C. The amino group on both amino acids
D. The amino group on one amino acid and the carboxyl group on another
3. What does the primary structure of a protein refer to?
A. The covalent bonds that hold the protein in a particular shape
B. The hydrogen bonds between sections of the amino acid side chains
C. The amino acid sequence of the protein
D. Whether it is globular or fibrous
4. The most common covalent cross-links are sulfur–sulfur bonds that form between two amino acids.
Which amino acid has this side chain?
A. Glycine
B. Methionine
C. Cysteine
D. Proline
5. Two 2-amino acids that contain sulfur atoms are:
A. cysteine and serine
B. cysteine and threonine
C. methionine and cysteine
D. methionine and serine.

6. What is the strongest form of intermolecular bonding that could be formed involving the residue of the
amino acid valine?
A. Ionic bond
B. Hydrogen bond
C. Dispersion forces
D. None of the above
7. Which of the following terms refers to the sequence of different amino acids in a protein?
A. Primary structure
B. Secondary structure
C. Tertiary structure
D. Quaternary structure
8. What is the main function of carbohydrates?
A. To repair body tissues
B. To fight infection
C. A source of energy
D. To speed up chemical reaction
9. Two monosaccharides are joined by a:
A. peptide bond
B. glycosidic bond
C. hydrogen bond
D. ester bond.
10. Starch consists of:
A. unbranched amylopectin and branched amylose
B. unbranched amylose and branched amylopectin
C. branched amylopectin and branched amylose
D. unbranched amylose and unbranched amylopectin.
11. Fatty acids without double carbon to carbon bonds are said to be:
A. saturated
B. monosaturated
C. polyunsaturated
D. unsaturated.
12. Lipids are formed by a condensation reaction between fatty acids and:
A. an alcohol
B. an amino acid
C. an ester
D. a monosaccharide.
13. Which of the following fatty acids would have the highest melting point?
A. Stearic acid
B. Linoleic acid
C. Oleic acid
D. Linolenic acid
14. Which group of compounds do triglycerides belong to?
A. Carboxylic acids
B. Alcohols
C. Ketones
D. Esters
15. Which reaction is used to convert an oil into a fat?
A. Esterification
B. Dehydration
C. Hydrogenation
D. Hydrolysis

1. What are the structural features of all amino acids found in naturally-occurring proteins?
2. Describe the differences in structure between glutamine and glutamic acid.
3. The amino acids cysteine and serine can react with each other to form a dipeptide.
a. State the type of reaction occurring when amino acids react together, and identify the products of the
reaction.
b. Draw the structures of the two possible dipeptides formed in the reaction between one molecule each
of cysteine and serine.
4. Polypeptides and proteins are formed by the condensation reactions of amino acids.
a. Draw the structural formula of threonine, and label the carboxyl and amino groups.
b. Give the structural formula of a dipeptide formed by the reaction of glycine and threonine. State the
other substance formed during this reaction.
c. State two functions of proteins in the body.
5. When many amino acid molecules react together, a protein is formed. These proteins have primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures.
a. State the type of intermolecular force responsible for maintaining the secondary structure.
b. State two other ways in which the tertiary structure of the protein is maintained.
6. Suppose you want to synthesise tripeptides using the amino acids alanine, glycine and aspartic acid.
a. How many different tripeptides can be prepared using each amino acid only once?
b. How many different tripeptides can be prepared using any of the three amino acids in any of the
three positions if you can use each more than once?
c. Write a balanced equation for the formation of a tripeptide, indicating which functional groups react
and which by-products are formed.
7. Draw the structural formula of the polar amino acid with formula C3 H7 NO3 showing all bonds.
8. The molecular formula of glucose, a monosaccharide, is C6 H12 O6 . What is the molecular formula of
maltose, a disaccharide formed from two molecules of glucose?
9. Starch is an important nutrient in the human diet. Describe the similarities and differences in the
structures and properties of the two components that make up starch.
10. A cellulose molecule contains 640 glucose units. If the molar mass of glucose is 180 g mol–1 , what is
the molar mass of the cellulose molecule?
11. Aspartame is soluble in water. Identify the atoms in the following structure that can form hydrogen
bonds with water.
OH
C O
CH2 O CH2 O
H2N C C N C C
O CH3
H H H
12. The structure of palmitoleic acid, a fatty acid found in olive oil, is shown below.
OH
CH3(CH2)5CH CH(CH2)7COOH
a. Palmitoleic acid is described as a monounsaturated fatty acid. Explain how each of the three
italicised words relates to the structure of palmitoleic acid.

Use structural formulas to show how three molecules of palmitoleic acid can form a triglyceride
b.
when reacted with one molecule of glycerol.
c. Why is the formation of a triglyceride often described as an esterification reaction?
13. Write an equation showing the hydrolysis of the following triglyceride.
H2C O C CH2(CH2)11CH3
HC O C CH2(CH2)13CH3
H2C O C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
14. Explain, in terms of their chemical structures, the differences in solubility in water of carbohydrates and
fats.
15. List the similarities and differences between the structures, properties and susceptibility to oxidation of
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
16. An unsaturated fat can be converted into a saturated fat by reacting it with hydrogen gas using a metal
catalyst. If 16.8 g of hydrogen gas reacts with 1.40 moles of the unsaturated fat, determine the number
of carbon to carbon double bonds present in each molecule of the unsaturated fat.
17. The following molecule is alpha-linolenic acid. It is described as an essential fatty acid and also an
omega-3 fatty acid. Explain the reasons for this description.
OH
18. Indicate which of the following are omega-3 and which are omega-6 fatty acids. Explain your choices.
HO
O
Eicosapentaenoic acid
HO
O
Docosahexaenoic acid
HO
O
Arachidonic acid
19. Explain why vitamin C is soluble in water and why vitamin D is insoluble. What implications does this
have on the possibility of deficiency or excess vitamins in the body?

20. Explain whether this vitamin would be soluble in water or fat.
OH
HO
OH
OH
H3C N N O
NH
H3C N

Question 1 (1 mark)
Amino acids can be formed in humans by the digestion of proteins in the food that is eaten. Which of the
following is true of most amino acids?
A. The amino acids found in the human body can all be classified as essential, rather than non-essential,
amino acids.
B. Amino acids can act as both acids and bases.
C. Amino acids can undergo addition polymerisation, forming polypeptides.
D. Amino acids are highly soluble in non-polar solvents.
Question 2 (1 mark)
The percentage of oxygen by mass in the amino acid glutamine is 32.9%. In a polypeptide formed from
glutamine, the percentage of oxygen by mass is:
A. 32.9%
B. greater than 32.9%
C. less than 32.9%
D. unable to be determined from the information provided.
Question 3 (1 mark)
Sucrose is a disaccharide consisting of glucose and:
A. fructose
B. glucose
C. maltose
D. galactose.
Question 4 (1 mark)
Aspartame is an artificial sweetener. It contains:
A. a hydroxyl group
B. a lower energy content per gram than sugar
C. a glycosidic link
D. two chiral carbons.
Question 5 (1 mark)
Vitamins are required in small amounts in a healthy diet. Vitamin C:
A. is soluble in water
B. is stored in the fatty tissues in the body
C. can be obtained from eating meat and fish
D. can be manufactured in the body.

Circle and label the peptide links in the following structure, and name the amino acids used to produce
the tripeptide.
O O
H
H2N N
N OH
H
CH3 O
The disaccharide sucrose is common table sugar, obtained from sugar cane and added to a wide range of
foods. Most of us eat more than the recommended level. The structure of sucrose is shown below.
CH2OH
CH2OH
O O
OH HO
OH O CH2OH
OH OH
a. Name the two monosaccharides that combine to form sucrose. 1 mark

b. Draw the structure of the monosaccharide with the 5-carbon ring. 1 mark
c. What type of reaction is involved in the formation of sucrose? 1 mark
d. Name the other molecule that is produced in this reaction. 1 mark
e. Name the types of functional groups present in sucrose. 1 mark
f. How does the sweetness of sucrose compare with that of the two monosaccharides? 1 mark
g. State the molecular formula of this disaccharide. 1 mark
A section of a starch molecule has a mass of 2.75 × 105 g mol–1 . Calculate the number of glucose
residues that would be present.

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
12 Metabolism of food in the

human body
12.1 Overview
your digital formats, eBookPLUS and learnON at www.jacplus.com.au.
12.1.1 Introduction
Our bodies are like a giant chemical
FIGURE 12.1 Enzymes help break down the proteins,
laboratory with thousands of chemical carbohydrates, and fats and oils in this meal.
reactions occurring at the same time.
These reactions are referred to as the
metabolism of food, and affect how nutrients
are digested and how proteins, carbohydrates
and fats and oils are broken down into their
component parts. When we eat food, the
body breaks down the large molecules into
smaller molecules, which either provide
energy or are built up into different
substances that are required by the body.
This topic focuses on hydrolysis reactions
as water is a reactant. Hydrolysis allows
the breakdown of proteins to amino acids,
and fats and oils to glycerol and fatty acids.
The carbohydrate starch, when digested, is
broken down into glucose monomers whereas cellulose, another polysaccharide, is unable to be digested by
humans. An explanation for this and why some people are also unable to break down lactose are discussed.
These reactions depend on the functional groups present, conditions in the particular part of the body, and
often the presence of enzyme catalysts, that speed up reactions so they can occur in fractions of seconds.
The effectiveness of enzymes can be limited by factors including temperature and pH, which can alter the
shape, and therefore the function, of proteins. This process is referred to as denaturation and is different
from hydrolysis.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• metabolism of food as a source of energy and raw materials: general principles of metabolism of food
involving enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions with reference to the breakdown of large biomolecules in
food by hydrolytic reactions to produce smaller molecules, and the subsequent synthesis of large
biologically important molecules by condensation reactions of smaller molecules

• enzymes as protein catalysts: active site; modelling of process by which enzymes control specific
biochemical reactions (lock-and-key and induced fit models); consequences of variation in
enzyme-substrate interaction (lock-and-key mechanism) due to the behaviour of a particular optical isomer;
explanation of effects of changes in pH (formation of zwitterions and denaturation), increased temperature
(denaturation) and decreased temperature (reduction in activity) on enzyme activity with reference to
structure and bonding; action of enzymes in narrow pH ranges; and use of reaction rates to measure
enzyme activity
• the distinction between denaturation of a protein and hydrolysis of its primary structure
• hydrolysis of starch in the body: explanation of the ability of all humans to hydrolyse starch but not
cellulose, and of differential ability in humans to hydrolyse lactose; glycaemic index (GI) of foods as a
ranking of carbohydrates based on the hydrolysis of starches (varying proportions of amylose and
amylopectin) to produce glucose in the body
• hydrolysis of fats and oils from foods to produce glycerol and fatty acids; oxidative rancidity with reference
to chemical reactions and processes, and the role of antioxidants in slowing rate of oxidative rancidity
• the principles of the action of coenzymes (often derived from vitamins) as organic molecules that bind to
the active site of an enzyme during catalysis, thereby changing the surface shape and hence the binding
properties of the active site to enable function as intermediate carriers of electrons and/or groups of atoms
(no specific cases required).
Resources
12.2 Metabolism of food

KEY CONCEPT
• Metabolism of food as a source of energy and raw materials: general principles of metabolism of food
involving enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions with reference to the breakdown of large biomolecules in
food by hydrolytic reactions to produce smaller molecules, and the subsequent synthesis of large
biologically important molecules by condensation reactions of smaller molecules.
12.2.1 Review of digestion

The digestion of food begins in the mouth where both mechanical and chemical breakdown occurs.
Mechanical digestion is the physical break down of food, by teeth. Chemical digestion also commences
in the mouth, where the mere thought of food causes enzymes to be released by salivary glands. This will
begin the digestion of carbohydrates and some fats. The process of peristalsis pushes the food down the
oesophagus to the stomach, where gastric enzymes and hydrochloric acid work together to break down
protein and some fats. The partly digested food then travels to the alkaline conditions of the small intestine
TOPIC 12 Metabolism of food in the human body 439

where more enzymes from the liver, FIGURE 12.2 The human digestive system
pancreas and small intestine break the
food molecules down further. Bile,
produced in the liver, assists in the
digestion of fats and oils. In the small
intestine, food molecules have been tongue
sufficiently reduced in size to be absorbed
salivary glands
into the bloodstream ready to be used to
produce energy or be built up into the oesophagus
molecules body needs. Undigested food
passes into the large intestine where water, diaphragm
minerals and some vitamins are absorbed.
12.2.2 The chemical stomach

liver
process of digestion pancreas

gall bladder
In this section, we will examine the

chemical breakdown (digestion) duodenum
small large intestine
jejunum
of the large biomolecules in the intestine
ileum
hamburger shown in figure 12.1 into
smaller molecules, and the subsequent appendix
reassembly into larger molecules that
rectum
the body needs to function effectively.
These chemical processes are referred
to collectively as metabolism. Each process is described in more detail in the following subtopics. The
reactions in which complex carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are broken down into smaller molecules is
hydrolysis, which can also be referred to as a hydrolytic reaction. In hydrolysis, water is a reactant and
occurs in the presence of an enzyme. The products of these reactions are then synthesised by condensation
reactions into large significant biological molecules that are required for general well-being.
FIGURE 12.3 Metabolism of food in the body
provide energy
in the body
hydrolysis when oxidised
carbohydrates monosaccharides
enzymes
absorption
into
hydrolysis bloodstream co
proteins amino acids pol nd
enzymes en ym
en risation
zy
sat
e
me
ion
s
hydrolysis glycerol and

fats reassemble into
enzymes fatty acids
large molecules
(glycogen, proteins, fats)
digestion for storage
The bread in the hamburger is made from wheat and consequently has a high proportion of starch, which
is a polysaccharide. During digestion, starch is hydrolysed to the disaccharide maltose and then hydrolysed
to monosaccharides. The monosaccharides are converted to glucose, which is used as an energy source to
power body cells including the brain, muscles and red blood cells. This process is called respiration, which
uses the following equation.
C6 H12 O6 (aq) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) ∆H = −2803 kJ mol−1

Glucose that is not used immediately is converted into glycogen, (C6 H10 O5 )n , another polysaccharide, in
a condensation polymerisation reaction. Glycogen is stored in the liver (see subtopic 11.3.1).
Despite their bad publicity, fats and oils (lipids) have many essential roles in the body. In the hamburger,
the fats in the cheese and meat are processed in various parts of the digestive system to hydrolyse them
into the simpler molecules of glycerol and fatty acids. After these substances are passed through the wall
of the small intestine they are resynthesised into triglycerides in condensation reactions and carried into
the organs of the body through the lymphatic system, where they are stored for energy, and growth and
development. Fats and oils store energy and are used when carbohydrates, which are easier to break down,
are not available. Every cell membrane is made up of lipids, which also make up hormones, store vitamins
and insulate and protect vital organs.
The hydrolysis of proteins in the cheese and meat in the hamburger begins in the stomach and produces a
mixture of polypeptides. However, these polypeptides are still too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream
at this point. After partial digestion in the stomach, proteins are further hydrolysed to form amino acids
when they reach the small intestine. The amino acids then pass into the bloodstream and are carried to
tissues where they can be reassembled to form new protein. The enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis reactions for
the digestion of protein are the reverse of the condensation reactions by which they were formed originally.
• Hydrolysis reactions occur when compounds are broken down by reaction with water.
• Proteins are digested by enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis reactions.
• These reactions are the reverse of the condensation reactions by which they were formed.
12.2 EXERCISE
1. Why do molecules of starch, protein and fat need to be digested?

2. Draw simplified flow charts to show the metabolism of each of the following food molecules. Where
possible, include the type of reaction and state the main use of the final product.
(a) Carbohydrates
(b) Fats and oils
(c) Protein
3. (a) What is a hydrolysis reaction? Give an example
(b) What is condensation reaction? Give an example
4. Identify the following as either condensation or hydrolysis reactions.
(a) Water produced
(b) Disaccharide to polysaccharide
(c) Dipeptide to amino acid
(d) Glucose to starch
(e) Maltose to glucose
(f) Water consumed
(g) Triglyceride to glycerol and fatty acids
5. What are the products of the hydrolysis of:
(a) Fat
(b) Starch
(c) Protein
(d) Maltose
(e) Oil
(f) Glycogen

12.3 Enzymes as protein catalysts

KEY CONCEPT
• Enzymes as protein catalysts: active site; modelling of process by which enzymes control specific
biochemical reactions (lock-and-key and induced fit models); consequences of variation in
enzyme-substrate interaction (lock-and-key mechanism) due to the behaviour of a particular optical isomer;
explanation of effects of changes in pH (formation of zwitterions and denaturation), increased temperature
(denaturation) and decreased temperature (reduction in activity) on enzyme activity with reference to
structure and bonding; action of enzymes in narrow pH ranges; and use of reaction rates to measure
enzyme activity.
12.3.1 What are enzymes?

Hydrolysis reactions and condensation reactions both
FIGURE 12.4 Activation energy
require enzymes for the reactions to proceed. Most profile for enzyme-catalysed and
metabolic processes require enzymes to ensure that non-enzyme-catalysed reactions
reactions occur fast enough to maintain life. Enzymes
are proteins that act as biological catalysts. Catalysts
are substances that increase the rate of a reaction
without enzyme
without being changed in the reaction. In chemical
reactions, for two molecules to react, they must collide
with enzyme
Energy
with one another with the correct orientation and

sufficient energy to overcome the energy barrier to the reactants
reaction. This is called the activation energy. Figure
12.4 shows how enzymes lower the activation energy
of a reaction to enable the reaction to proceed. Like products
inorganic catalysts, enzymes speed up reactions by

providing an alternative reaction pathway of lower Reaction course
activation energy (see topic 5).
Enzyme names usually end in -ase, except for pepsin, FIGURE 12.5 Pineapples contain
rennin and trypsin. For example, lactase breaks down bromelain, an enzyme that is used to
lactose, which is a milk sugar, sucrase breaks down digest proteins.
complex sugars, amylase breaks down starch, protease
digests proteins, and lipase breaks down fats. Amazingly,
reactions with enzymes occur up to millions of times faster
than reactions without enzymes. They do this at body
temperature, about 37 °C, and at a specific pH depending on
the part of the body in which they function. Each enzyme
catalyses a particular type of reaction so there are many
different enzymes working in our bodies.

Most inorganic catalysts are not selective and can speed up many different chemical reactions, but
enzymes are very specific. Each enzyme generally catalyses one specific reaction. The specificity lies in the
shapes of the enzyme molecules. Like all catalysts, enzymes remain unchanged at the end of the reactions
they catalyse. Enzymes alter the rates of reactions but not the position of the equilibrium. Bromelian is
an example of an enzyme and is found in pineapples. It has a sweet taste and contains many minerals and
vitamins. Bromelain is used as a meat tenderiser because it starts to break down the proteins in meat and
makes it easier to digest.
Enzymes lower the activation energy by providing an alternative pathway.
12.3.2 Enzymes and optical isomers

Every enzyme has a unique three-dimensional shape, which is determined by the nature of the bonding and
side chains of the amino acid residues in the protein. As a result of their structure, many enzymes have an
active site, which is a region into which the reactant molecule, called a substrate, is maneuvered.
The active site of each type of enzyme is unique, and is where the
substrate is converted to product molecules. In addition, except for glycine, FIGURE 12.6 Enantiomers
amino acids are enantiomers due to their chiral centres. This means that of alanine
they are either the L- or D-form, according to the arrangement of groups COOH HOOC
around the chiral carbon atom. They are mirror images of each other and
C H H C
have different optical activity. It is remarkable, and as yet unexplained, that
H3C NH2 H2N CH3
almost all plant and animal proteins are L-amino acids. This means that
L-alanine D-alanine
enzymes, which are proteins, catalyse reactions only between molecules
with the appropriate stereoisomerism. The D-form is found in simple
organisms, such as bacteria, and in some antibiotics that can destroy bacteria by interfering with the
proteins required by the bacteria.
12.3.3 Enzyme models

There are two models proposed to explain the action of enzymes: the lock-and-key model and the induced
fit model.
Lock-and-key model
In the lock-and-key model, only molecules with
FIGURE 12.7 The lock-and-key model: the substrate
complementary shapes can react with the enzyme. and enzyme active site have complementary shapes.
The binding of the substrate to the enzyme is
the result of reactions where bonds break in the
substrate and are formed with the enzyme to
create a enzyme–substrate complex, and then substrate
new products are released. The products move
from the active site and the enzyme is unchanged
at the end of the reaction. Enzyme action may
active site
be compared to a key fitting into a lock. Only a
key with a particular shape can open the lock.
It is important to remember that enzymes are enzyme
three-dimensional and chiral, so they are highly enzyme–substrate complex
stereoselective. Only one enantiomer can fit into

the active site of the enzyme and react.

Enzyme catalysed reactions are stereospecific so only substrates with the correct shape will fit into
the active site.
Induced fit model

FIGURE 12.8 Induced fit model: the enzyme active
The induced fit model was proposed because the site forms a complementary shape to the substrate
lock-and-key model does not adequately explain after binding.
all experimental evidence. The induced fit model
suggests that the shape of the enzyme is more
flexible and, in the presence of the substrate, the
substrate
active site of the enzyme may change in order to
fit the substrate’s shape after the substrate and
enzyme join. That is, the shape of the active site
is not an exact match but may change shape in active site
the presence of a specific substrate to become
complementary. The enzyme-substrate complex
formed may have better binding properties, but enzyme
enzyme–substrate complex
after the release of the products, the active site
will return to its original shape.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 12.1 Enzymes as protein catalysts (doc-31279)
12.3.4 Factors affecting denaturation and the function of enzymes

As already discussed, the structure of a protein is fundamental
FIGURE 12.9 Denaturing a protein, if
to its function and if this is altered it will become inactive. mild, can be reversed.
Denaturation of proteins refers to disruption of interactions
in the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures, where S
I
S
the 𝛼-helix and 𝛽-sheets uncoil and change their shape. The S
active site I
primary structure is not affected because covalent bonds are S
S
much stronger than hydrogen bonds and less easily broken. I
S
During denaturation, coagulation of the protein commonly

denature lower pH etc.
occurs. You may have noticed this effect when cooking an egg.
The ‘white’ of a raw egg is clear and runny, but after heating it
SH
becomes white and solid. This transformation shows that it has SH
SH
been denatured and the protein has formed different interactions no activity
SH
when coagulating. SH SH
As well as heating, denaturation can also be caused by a

change in pH. This alters the shape of an enzyme, thereby renature normal pH etc.
altering the enzyme’s active site and destroying its catalytic
S
activity. If the changes are mild and the original conditions I
S
restored, the protein may regain its former shape but this does not active site
S
I
S
occur often. Some proteins are more susceptible to denaturation S
I
than others depending on the strength of the interactions. The S
type of disruption also impacts on the extent of the denaturation

process — changing the pH will affect the interactions between acidic and basic groups but the disulfide
links will not be disturbed.

Factors that affect enzyme activity include increased temperature and change in pH, substrate
concentration, radiation or the presence of alcohol or heavy metal salts. The skin on curdled milk is caused
by denaturing of milk protein by acidic conditions. Agitation can also have an effect (e.g. whipping cream
or egg white).
TIP: Make sure you refer to the different levels by name when discussing protein structure
12.3.5 Effect of changes in pH on enzyme activity

Although amino acids are commonly shown as containing an amino group and a carboxyl group,
H2 NCHRCOOH, certain physical and chemical properties, including melting points, solubilities and
acid–base properties, are not consistent with this structure.
Zwitterions
The acid–base properties of carboxyl and amino groups have an effect on amino acid structure. The
weakly acidic proton of the carboxyl group easily transfers to the amino group, forming a zwitterion or
dipolar ion.
FIGURE 12.10 An amino acid and its corresponding zwitterion
R R
H O H O
N C C H N+ C C
H O H H O−
H H
amino acid zwitterion
A zwitterion is a molecule with a net charge of zero but negative and positive charges on individual
atoms in its structure. In the pure solid state and in aqueous solutions with an approximately neutral pH,
the amino acids exist almost completely as zwitterions.
Amino acids can behave as both acids and bases (that is, they are amphoteric) and can exist in several
forms, depending on the pH of the solution. Consider glycine: it can lose or gain a H+ ion. The form of
glycine shown in the middle of figure 12.11 is a zwitterion because it has equal numbers of positive and
negative groups, but its net charge is zero.
FIGURE 12.11 Glycine in solution
+ H+ – H+
+H N +H N
3 CH2 COOH 3 CH2 COO− H2N CH2 COO−
acid form zwitterion form basic form

cationic form anionic form
In an acidic environment, the zwitterion behaves as a base because the carboxyl groups combine with
the increasing concentrations of H+ to form uncharged −COOH groups. The remaining ammonium group
then gives the molecule a net positive charge (cationic form). In a basic environment, the zwitterion behaves
as an acid because the ammonium group loses H+ when the concentration of H+ is lowered, leaving an
uncharged amino group. The molecule then has a net negative charge from the remaining carboxyl group
(anionic form).

FIGURE 12.12 The form of an amino acid varies with pH. This graph shows the fraction of glycine present as the
zwitterion plotted against pH values. The fraction not present as a zwitterion exists as a cation in acidic solutions
(left) and as an anion in basic solutions (right).
1.0
0.8
Fraction in form
0.6
acid form zwitterion form base form
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
pH
Resources
Video eLesson Glycine — amphoteric behavior (eles-2593)
Enzymes and pH
Enzymes are affected by pH due to uptake and release of protons (H+ ), which influence whether they
participate in hydrogen bonding. This changes the attractions between sections of the peptide chain.
Changes in pH affect the interactions in both the enzyme and the substrate. Most enzymes have an
optimum pH necessary for maintaining the structure of the enzyme.
Consider the example shown in figure 12.13. If the pH is at the optimal pH level the ionic interaction will
occur between the −COO– and the NH3 + groups in the enzyme and the substrate as shown in figure (a). If
the conditions become acidic, the pH will lower and the −COO will accept a proton to become −COOH as
shown in figure (b). In this case, ionic bonds cannot form and the reaction will not be catalysed.
FIGURE 12.13 (a) At optimal pH, ionic interactions occur between the −COO− and the NH3 + groups. (b) In acidic
conditions, ionic bonds cannot form between the substrate and the enzyme.
(a) (b)
substrate substrate
+ +
NH3 NH3
COO– COO– COOH COOH
+ +
NH3 NH3
active site active site
Different enzymes have different optimum pH levels because of the carboxyl or amino functional groups
on the side chains of the amino acids present. Enzymes begin to denature if the pH of their environment
goes outside their optimum range. For example, pepsin works best in the acid conditions of the stomach.
Table 12.1 lists some of the enzymes in the digestive system and their different optimum pH values.

FIGURE 12.14 Different enzymes have TABLE 12.1 Optimum pH levels for some
different optimum pH levels enzymes in the digestive system.
Enzyme Optimum pH
Lipase 8.0
salivary
pepsin amylase
Pancreatic protease 7.5–8.0
Rate of reaction
(trypsin)
Salivary amylase 6.8
Stomach protease (pepsin) 1.5–2.0
Sucrase 6.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
pH
Resources
Interactivity Classifying the effect of pH on amino acids (int-1238)
12.3.6 Effect of changes in temperature on enzyme activity

Enzymes can operate effectively only at body temperatures.
FIGURE 12.15 Rate of reaction over
Each enzyme has an optimum temperature and pH range for different temperatures
maximum activity. Below body temperature, the rate of reaction
is very slow because of a low frequency of collisions between
the particles. As temperature increases, reacting molecules gain Optimal temperature
more kinetic energy and increase their chances of successful

Rate of reaction
collisions, thereby increasing the rate of a reaction. However,

for an enzyme, there is a temperature at which it performs its
catalytic activities most quickly. This is known as the optimum
temperature.
For most enzymes in the human body, the optimum
temperature is approximately 37.5 °C, but different organisms
have different optimum temperatures depending on the
10 20 30 40 50
environment in which they live. As the temperature continues
Temperature (ºC)
to rise, the stronger vibrational energy increases a strain on
the interactions holding the enzyme in its shape. When this
happens, weak interactions such as hydrogen bonding and
hydrophobic interactions are disrupted, and the secondary, FIGURE 12.16 The protein in egg
tertiary and quaternary structures of the protein are destroyed. As white is denatured when the egg is
demonstrated in figure 12.15, the rate of reaction starts to decline heated.
as the temperature rises above optimum temperature.
Denaturing can be irreversible, as in the case of frying
an egg. The albumen protein in the egg white denatures and
becomes insoluble when heated. Eggs are poached in water
with vinegar added because the vinegar helps denature the
protein on the egg surface to prevent it falling apart before it
coagulates. Another example is when instruments are sterilised
by heating them in boiling water. This denatures the proteins
in any bacteria present.

Low temperatures slow reaction rates and high temperatures can denature the enzyme.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 12.2 Investigating proteins (doc-31280)
12.3.7 Use of reaction rates to measure enzyme activity

Investigating enzyme activity in the laboratory can help provide useful information about how they
function. The rate of an enzyme-catalysed reaction can be observed by measuring the rate of disappearance
of the substrate or appearance of the product over time. Laboratory investigations examining the factors
previously discussed could involve changing the pH or temperature of the reaction as the independent
variable. The dependent variable could include measuring the volume of gas produced over a given time or
using simple observations, colour changes or colorimetry to measure a colour change over time. A glucose
monitor that allows measurement of glucose levels within the blood is useful to obtain quantitative results.
Some possible experiments are shown in table 12.2.
TABLE 12.2 Possible experiments to measure enzyme activity
Enzyme Substrate Products Possible measurement
Amylase Starch Maltose and some Iodine (for starch)

glucose Benedict’s solution
Glucose test strips
Glucose meter
Catalase Hydrogen peroxide Oxygen (O2 ) and Count bubbles

(H2 O2 ): byproduct of water (H2 O) Gas syringe
respiration
Lactase Lactose Glucose and galactose Benedict’s solution

Glucose test strips
Glucose meter
Lipase Lipid in milk Fatty acids and glycerol Phenolphthalein
Pectinase Pectin Simple sugars Volume of liquid
Pepsin Protein Short polypeptides Observation of egg white
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose and fructose Benedict’s solution

Glucose test strips
Glucose meter
MEASURING ENZYME ACTIVITY AND THE EFFECT OF pH AND TEMPERATURE

To measure the effect of pH on enzyme activity, an experiment might measure the reaction times of amylase
and starch to determine the optimum pH of the reaction. The pH of the solution is varied by using two different
concentrations of sodium carbonate solution (base) and ethanoic acid (acid). The presence of starch can be
observed by using iodine, which changes to a blue-black colour in the presence of starch.
Independent variable: pH for colour change
Dependant variables: Time
Constants: Temperature, volumes and concentrations of enzyme (amalyse) and substrate
To begin the experiment, place two drops of iodine in each well of a tray. Place the 5 mL of starch in a test tube
and add 2 mL of sodium carbonate solution. Start timing as 1 mL of amylase is added. Every 15 seconds remove
a sample of the mixture using a clean dropping pipette and place in order in the tray.

The iodine will change colour to blue-black in the initial wells but at a particular time there will not be a
change in colour. Note this time. If possible, repeat this experiment twice more, record the results in a table and
determine an average time.
Repeat the procedure using clean equipment and solutions of different pH (e.g. ethanoic acid), including pure
water as shown in figure 12.17. Observe the pH at which the reaction took place in the least amount of time to
find out the optimum pH for this reaction to occur at the fastest rate.
FIGURE 12.17 Experiment to investigate the effect of pH on an enzyme reaction
2 mL sodium 1 mL sodium
carbonate carbonate solution 1 mL ethanoic acid 2 mL
solution + 1 mL pure water 2 mL pure water + 1 mL pure water ethanoic acid
1 2 3 4 5
5 mL starch
solution in
each tube
note the
time and
add 1 mL
amylase to
test
each
samples
with iodine
rinse the pipette

between samples
This experiment could be repeated to find the effect of temperature on enzyme activity. By using the optimum
pH as determined above, all solutions would be placed in a water bath for 10 minutes before mixing. The
experiment would be carried out at different temperatures: at very low temperature, room temperature and then
at higher temperatures. This variation would find the optimum temperature for enzyme effectiveness. All other
factors must be kept constant.
Another experiment could measure the activity of catalase. The catalase reacts with hydrogen peroxide and
produces oxygen bubbles, which can then be measured. This experiment would also be carried out using water
baths at different temperatures. The rate of reaction is monitored by the rate of appearance of the product
oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of many chemical reactions in the body but is toxic if it builds up in
cells and so must be removed.
⃯
catalase
2H2 O2 (aq) 2H2 O (l) + O2 (g)
12.3 EXERCISE

1. Enzymes affect the activation energy of a reaction. On the diagram, label the activation energy with an
enzyme and the activation energy without the enzyme.
2. On the diagram, label the products, enzyme–substrate complex, active site, enzyme and substrate.
3. What type of interaction might occur between a −CH3 group in a substrate and a functional group in an
enzyme’s active site?
4. Explain why glycine does not have an optical isomer.
5. Explain the difference between the lock-and-key model of enzyme action and the induced fit model.
6. (a) What is denaturation?
(b) What conditions can cause a protein to be denatured?
7. Draw the structure of aspartic acid at a pH of 9.
CH2 COOH
H2N CH COOH
8. Why will a sample of amylase taken from the mouth not work effectively if placed in a solution of stomach
juice but function in a solution of small intestine juice?
9. (a) What does the word ‘optimum’ mean when referring to enzyme temperature?
(b) State the optimum temperature and pH of the enzyme shown in the graphs below.
Relative rate of
enzyme action
Relative rate of
enzyme action
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Temperature (°C) pH
10. Consider the experiments described in the green box ‘Measuring enzyme activity and the effect of pH and
temperature’ in section 12.3.6.
(a) Why is it important to repeat the experiment and find an average value for the time measurements?
(b) In the experiment investigating the effect of pH on enzyme activity, identify the control.
(c) Name the polymer in starch that reacts with the iodine to produce the colour change.
(d) What factors must be controlled in the experiment measuring enzyme activity and temperature?
(e) Explain what you would expect the value of the optimum temperature and optimum pH to be for
amylase.


12.4 Denaturation and hydrolysis of proteins

KEY CONCEPT
• The distinction between denaturation of a protein and hydrolysis of its primary structure
12.4.1 Denaturation and coagulation of proteins

As explained in subtopic 12.3,
denaturation is the loss of biological FIGURE 12.18 Protein denaturation and coagulation
activity of the protein by the action of
heat, pH changes, radiation, presence
of particular organic compounds,
or heavy metal ions. Destruction of
the secondary, tertiary or quaternary
structure can occur by disrupting
bonding interactions including
hydrogen bonding, salt bridges,
disulfide bonds, and non-polar
hydrophobic interactions. The tertiary
helical proteins denatured precipitated
interactions are damaged and the in solutions proteins proteins
protein uncoils to become just a long
strand of amino acids again. However, the process of denaturation is not strong enough to break the peptide
bonds in the primary structure and so it remains intact. When denaturation occurs, the unraveled protein
strands can stick together, resulting in precipitation or coagulation of the protein.
12.4.2 Hydrolysis of proteins

Digestion of proteins in the body requires both FIGURE 12.19 Protein rich foods
denaturation and hydrolysis.
This process occurs as follows:
• Proteins are hydrolysed by an enzyme
called pepsin. Unlike most protein-digesting
enzymes, pepsin works efficiently in the
acidic environment of the stomach.
• In this hydrolysis reaction, water is added
across the peptide link, which breaks the
covalent bonds between the amino acids
in the primary structure.

• This denaturing and hydrolysis of the proteins occurs in the stomach and produces a mixture of
polypeptides.
• Further hydrolysis occurs in the small intestines to break the polypeptides into amino acids. Pepsin
becomes inactive in the alkaline environment of the intestine.
• These newly formed amino acids then pass into the bloodstream and are carried to tissues where they
can be reassembled to form new protein.
• The enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis reactions for the digestion of protein are the reverse of the
condensation reactions by which they were formed originally.
In summary, at the molecular level when hydrolysis occurs, the functional groups on the amino acid
residues form covalent bonds with the atoms from the water, resulting in breakage of the peptide link
to produce amino and carboxyl groups as shown in figure 12.20. If this hydrolysis was carried out in a
laboratory it would be necessary to heat the protein with 6 M hydrochloric acid at over 100 °C for about
24 hours.
FIGURE 12.20 Enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis of proteins
CH3 H CH2OH H
H H H
C C N C C N
N C C N C
O H O H
H O H H H O H
H H
H H
O O O O
Enzymes
CH3 H CH2OH
H C OH H C OH H C OH
C + C + C
N N N
H H H
H O H O H O
Alanine Glycine Serine
• Denaturation can disrupt the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures.

• Hydrolysis destroys the primary structure of a protein.
• The enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis reactions for the digestion of protein are the reverse
of the condensation reactions by which they were formed originally.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Show the structure of the amino acids formed from the hydrolysis reaction of this dipeptide.
H CH3 O H CH3
O
N C C N C C
H O H
H H

THINK WRITE
1. A hydrolysis reaction requires water, so H CH3 O H CH3
O
add water.
N C C N C C + H2O
H O H
H H
2. Circle the peptide link and draw a

CH3 O H CH3
vertical line through the middle to H O
indicate separation of the two parts of N C C N C C + H2O
the molecule. H O H
H H
3. Separate the two parts of the molecule. H CH3 O H CH3

O
N C C N C C
H O H
H H
4. Remember that each amino acid needs H CH3 O H CH3
O
to have a carboxyl group and an amino N C C O H H N C C
group. The −O−H from the water is
H O H
added to the C=O side and the −H from H H
the water is attached to the nitrogen
atom to form an amino group.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1 SH OH
Show the structure of the amino acids formed from the CH2 O H CH2
hydrolysis reaction of this dipeptide. H O
N C C N C C
H
H H O H
Resources
Video eLesson Hydrolysis of proteins (med-0355)
12.4 EXERCISE
1. What types of interactions in proteins are disrupted by:
(a) denaturation?
(b) hydrolysis?
2. (a) Write an equation for the hydrolysis of the following polypeptide.

H3C CH3
H O H O CH2 O CH
H O
N C C N C C N C C N C C
H
OH
CH2SH H CH3 H H H H
(b) Name the amino acids produced.

3. Describe the level of protein structure not disrupted when protein denaturation occurs. Explain why.
4. Name the functional group that is lost when a protein is hydrolysed.
5. Name the functional groups that are produced when a protein is hydrolysed.
6. What are the products of the complete hydrolysis of a protein?
7. For the following polypeptide Cys-Ala-Gly-Gly-Ala, state:
(a) the number of peptide linkages present
(b) the number of different amino acids produced by complete hydrolysis
(c) the number of possible different dipeptides produced by partial hydrolysis
(d) the number of possible different tripeptides produced by partial hydrolysis
(e) the number of possible different tripeptides produced by denaturation.
8. Use an example to explain the process of coagulation.

12.5 Carbohydrates
KEY CONCEPT
• Hydrolysis of starch in the body: explanation of the ability of all humans to hydrolyse starch but not
cellulose, and of differential ability in humans to hydrolyse lactose; glycaemic index (GI) of foods as a
ranking of carbohydrates based on the hydrolysis of starches (varying proportions of amylose and
amylopectin) to produce glucose in the body
12.5.1 Starch and cellulose

Starch
The most important complex carbohydrate digested by humans is starch. Starch is initially hydrolysed in
the mouth by an enzyme present in the saliva called salivary amylase. Salivary amylase does not completely
hydrolyse starch to glucose, but it can split the bonds between every second pair of glucose units, producing
maltose, a disaccharide. Hydroxyl functional groups form from the glycosidic (ether) linkages that are broken.
salivary
amylase
2(C6H10O5)n + nH2O nC12H22O11
starch maltose

FIGURE 12.21 Enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis of starch
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

O O O O O
H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H
4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1 4 OH H 1
O O O O O O
starch
(amylose)
salivary nH O
2
amylase
6 6
CH2OH CH2OH
5 O 5 O
H H H H
n 4 H 1 4 H 1
OH H OH H
HO O OH
3 2 3 2
H OH H OH
maltose
Food stays in the mouth for only a short time, so the salivary amylase has little chance to work there.
Digestion by saliva continues in the stomach for about 20 minutes, until the action of the enzyme is stopped
by the acidic gastric juices. The optimal pH for salivary amylase is about 6, whereas the pH in the stomach
is about 1.5. This is a case of pH causing denaturation of the enzyme, so only a small percentage of the
starch in food is digested by salivary amylase. The major enzyme for breaking down starches is pancreatic
amylase, which can convert any unchanged starch (cooked or raw) to maltose.
Carbohydrate digestion is completed in the ileum (the last part of the small intestine) where the
disaccharides maltose, lactose (milk sugar) and sucrose (cane sugar) are changed by the enzymes maltase,
lactase and sucrase respectively, into their constituent glucose, fructose and galactose monosaccharides.
These monosaccharides can then pass through the intestinal villi into the bloodstream. The equation for the
hydrolysis of maltose to glucose by maltase is:
⃯
maltase
C12 H22 O11 + H2 O 2C6 H12 O6
maltase glucose
The formation of glucose eliminates the glycosidic linkages and creates two hydroxyl functional groups.
FIGURE 12.22 Enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis of maltose
6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH 6 CH2OH
5 O 5 O 5 O 5 O
H H H H H2O H OH H OH
H H H + H
4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1
OH H OH H maltase OH H OH H
HO O OH HO H HO H
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
H OH H OH H OH H OH
maltose α-D-glucose
TIP: The formulas for many biomolecules can be found in section 10 of the VCE Chemistry Data
Book.

Resources
Digital document 12.3 Studying starch - Hydrolysis of starch (doc-31281)
Teacher-led video Experiment 12.3 Studying starch - Hydrolysis of starch (tlvd-0767)
Cellulose
Cellulose, a polysaccharide, is the main
FIGURE 12.23 Green vegetables provide fibre, which is
structural component of the cell wall in plants. an important component of our diet.
Brussels sprouts, cabbage, celery and kale are
all high in cellulose. Both starch and cellulose
are condensation polymers of glucose but in
cellulose the monomer is 𝛽-glucose. This
differs from 𝛼-glucose in that the C1 and C4
hydroxyl groups are on opposite sides of the
ring plane (see figure 12.22). For the glycosidic
link to form in 𝛽-glucose, alternate glucose
molecules must be inverted. Humans cannot
hydrolyse cellulose as we do not have the
enzyme to hydrolyse the 𝛽-C1 to C4 glycosidic
link, hence cellulose cannot be utilised as a
source of energy for humans. Nevertheless,
cellulose known as fibre or roughage is still
important in the human diet because it assists the passage of food through the digestive system. Some
herbivorous animals, such as cows, horses and koalas, have particular bacteria in their digestive systems
to digest cellulose.
12.5.2 Lactose intolerance

FIGURE 12.24 Structure of the
Milk is a source of many nutrients including proteins, lipids and lactose molecule
carbohydrates; it also provides minerals and vitamins. These nutrients
are important for strong bones and teeth and also play a part in nerve CH2OH
and muscle function, digestive enzymes and the immune system. For O
some people, milk can cause discomfort due to their inability to digest CH2OH OH
lactose, sometimes called milk sugar. Lactose, which is a disaccharide, O O OH
HO
is found in milk produced by mammals to feed their young. The OH
lactose molecule consists of a molecule of galactose and a molecule OH
of glucose.
People who are lactose intolerant may have low levels of, or lack, OH
α-lactose
the enzyme lactase, which is required in the hydrolysis of lactose. This
deficiency means lactose cannot be absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine. The intolerance
can be permanent or temporary as a result of certain digestive diseases. Undigested lactose passes into the
large intestine, where anaerobic bacteria break down the lactose into small carboxylic acids and then to
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and methane. The symptoms of lactose intolerance include cramps, diarrhoea,
flatulence and nausea. Symptoms can be minimised by adapting the diet, or lactase enzyme tablets can
be taken before meals. Lactose intolerant people can consume some products including yoghurt, which
contains live bacteria, because the bacteria that converts milk to yogurt help digest the lactose.
Lactose intolerance is not an allergic reaction, because the immune system is not involved. The ability to
produce lactase declines from childhood. People of Asian, African, South American, southern European
and Australian Aboriginal heritage are more likely to become lactose intolerant than people of northern
European descent. To test for lactose intolerance, blood glucose levels are measured every 15 minutes

for two hours after having a lactose drink. Alternative methods of testing include measuring the amount of
hydrogen in the breath or acidity in stools.
FIGURE 12.25 Lactose intolerance occurs when the

small intestine lacks lactase.
intestine
lactase
lactose galactose glucose
Degradation and
absorption of
lactose
intestine Bacterial fermentation

causes lactose intolerance
symptoms
bacteria
lactose
12.5.3 Glycaemic index of foods

Carbohydrates supply us with glucose (also known as blood sugar) to provide energy for our bodies to
function and for physical activity, but some carbohydrates are more effective than others at providing
energy. The most efficient carbohydrates come from fruits, vegetables and whole grains. Glucose levels rise
and fall as we eat, exercise, rest and sleep. Optimal health requires a slow increase in glucose, rather than
fluctuations to extreme levels.
The glycaemic index (GI) is used to indicate how quickly various
FIGURE 12.26 Changes in
carbohydrates influence glucose levels. Our bodies perform better glucose levels brought about
when our blood sugar is kept relatively constant. Diets rich in high- by high-GI and low-GI foods
GI foods, which include white bread, potatoes, white rice and sugary
cereals, have been linked to an increased risk of diabetes, heart disease
High GI
Blood glucose level
and obesity. Extremes in glucose levels can affect people differently.

If the glucose level of a diabetic becomes too low (hypoglycaemia),
they can have an increased heartbeat, feel dizzy and hungry, or even
lapse into a coma. If it becomes too high (hyperglycaemia) more of the
Low GI
hormone insulin is released to lower the level, and the diabetic person
can become thirsty or hungry, and have headaches and vision problems.
If treatment is not sought, then more severe health issues will arise. All
diets should be balanced and include a range of foods in moderation, 1 2
Time (hours)
but it is worth remembering that low-GI foods help you feel full for
longer.

The GI is determined by giving a group of people a particular mass of carbohydrate (usually 50 g) and
measuring their glucose levels over three hours. These readings are then compared with eating pure glucose.
Glucose is assigned a GI value of 100. The greater the GI, the greater the increase in blood glucose levels.
The glycaemic index (GI) is used to indicate how quickly carbohydrates influence glucose
levels in the blood.
How quickly and easily food is digested depends on a number of factors. The factors include how refined
the carbohydrate is, how well-cooked it is, and the chemical and physical structure of the carbohydrates.
Processed food often has some or all of the fibre removed, which means cooking time is shorter and the
food is also more easily broken down to glucose. The sugar in fruit, fructose, is not as easily digested as
glucose and so has a lower GI. White bread has a relatively high GI because the high surface area of the
flour used, together with the low density of the bread, results in easier digestion. Having fat or acid in the
stomach also slows down digestion. Ripe fruit has a higher GI than fruit that is not ripe because some of the
starch has already been converted to sugar. Other factors affecting the rate of digestion of carbohydrates are
listed in table 12.3.
TABLE 12.3 Factors affecting the rate of digestion of carbohydrates
Factor Explanation
Ripeness of fruit Changes in the structure of starch as fruit ripens
Bran (the outer coating of wheat Limits the ability of enzymes to reach the starch
grains)
Fibre (cellulose) Takes up space in the stomach and slows rate of digestion
Sugars Have different ability to be hydrolysed; fructose has a lower GI than other
sugars
Proteins, fats and oils Slow down time for stomach to empty
Food processing Smaller particles have greater surface area for reaction; bran is removed
Cooking method Food swells and softens
Acidity of food Acidic fruit slows down stomach emptying
Starch is the most important source of

FIGURE 12.27 Glycaemic index of common fruits
carbohydrates in our diet. It consists of amylose
(20–30%) and amylopectin. Amylose is digested
more slowly because it consists of closely packed
linear chains of 𝛼-glucose monomers arranged in
a helical structure, which is less available to the
enzyme 𝛼-amylase. Amylopectin is a longer, more
loosely branched molecule that has many free ends
that can be easily hydrolysed. Therefore, foods
with a greater amount of amylose have a lower GI.
Foods that are high in amylose include seeds, nuts,
legumes and some bread products. Foods like white
rice and white potatoes contain more amylopectin
and are digested faster. The chemical interactions in
amylopectin are disrupted in the cooking process at
high temperatures thus beginning digestion.

Limitations on using the glycaemic index
The glycaemic index does not take into account the following factors:
• other nutrients present in the food
• the portion size
• the effect of eating different combinations of food
• foods with the same glycaemic index that produce different amounts of the hormone insulin, making
the effects on health different.
Glycaemic load
Another measurement, glycaemic load (GL), takes into account how much carbohydrate a food contains.
For example, carrots, bananas, watermelon and wholemeal bread have a high GI but a low glycaemic load
because their available carbohydrate content is small. These foods have minimal effect on glucose levels.
The available carbohydrate is the proportion of carbohydrate that can be hydrolysed by enzymes in our
body and absorbed directly, supplying energy. The glycaemic load does not include fibre, which cannot be
digested.
The glycaemic load is calculated by multiplying the number of grams of carbohydrate in a serving by
the GI, and dividing by 100. For example, a 120 gserving of watermelon (GI = 72) has 6.0 g of available
72
carbohydrate, so its glycaemic load is 6.0 × = 4.3, which is quite low.
100
In a healthy diet, it is recommended that you eat moderate amounts of food, with a focus on foods that
are high in fibre, low in kilojoules, naturally occurring and minimally processed. Use only small amounts
of oils, drink lots of water, and enjoy the occasional treat. A healthy and varied diet includes the following
nutrient groups in the approximate proportions:
• 30% grain foods
• 30% vegetables and legumes/beans
• 17% lean meats, poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds and legumes/beans
• 13% dairy products
• 10% fruit.
CONTROLLING BLOOD SUGAR IN PEOPLE WITH DIABETES

Plants have an amazing ability: they can capture sunlight and use it to turn carbon dioxide and water into
glucose, a molecule that is critical for life. Another name for glucose is blood sugar; it is an essential energy
source not just for the muscles but also for the brain. Glucose levels vary during the day, but the body regulates
the levels so that the change is not excessive.
After we eat, the glucose level in the
blood rises and the pancreas releases
a hormone, insulin, which is necessary
to convert glucose to energy. Unhealthy
levels of glucose in the blood can lead
to health problems.
People with type 1 diabetes cannot
produce insulin and need to carefully
monitor their blood glucose levels. Only
10 to 15% of diabetics have type 1
diabetes. Type 2 diabetes develops
with age and occurs when the body
becomes resistant to the effects of
insulin or loses the ability to produce
enough insulin. While the cause of type
2 diabetes is unknown, it is associated
with genetic predisposition and with risk
factors such as high blood pressure,
being overweight or obese, not enough
physical activity or a poor diet.

Blood glucose levels, which are measured in mmol−1 (mM), can be controlled by taking insulin (either as an
injection or through a pump), eating a healthy diet with accurate carbohydrate counts, and maintaining regular
physical activity. Insulin cannot be taken as a tablet because it would be broken down before absorption.
Excessively high glucose in the bloodstream is a condition called hyperglycaemia, whereas too little glucose is
known as hypoglycaemia.
12.5 EXERCISE
1. (a) Describe the similarities in structure between starch and cellulose.
(b) Describe the differences in structure between starch and cellulose
2. Explain why cellulose is not able to be digested by humans but cows can digest cellulose in grass.
3. Write equations for the hydrolysis of maltose, lactose and sucrose. For these reactions include structural
formulas and the enzymes required.
4. Lactose is a small and polar molecule.
(a) Explain why it is more likely to be soluble in milk than in butter or cheese.
(b) Write the molecular formula of lactose.
5. (a) What type of reaction results in the formation of two monosaccharides from lactose?
(b) Name the two monosaccharides formed.
6. Explain why some people experience symptoms of cramps and bloating after drinking milk products.
7. What is the glycaemic index and how is it measured?
8. Suggest two reasons why low-GI foods are beneficial in the diet.
9. Explain why glucose is used as the standard when determining GI level.
10. The recommended glucose level is about 5.0 mM. Another unit used is mg dL–1 (1 decilitre (dL) = 100 mL).
Calculate the recommended glucose level in mg dL–1 .
12.6 Fats and oils

KEY CONCEPT
• Hydrolysis of fats and oils from foods to produce glycerol and fatty acids; oxidative rancidity with reference
to chemical reactions and processes, and the role of antioxidants in slowing rate of oxidative rancidity
12.6.1 Hydrolysis of fats and oils

Digestion of lipids mostly takes place in the alkaline conditions of the small intestine, where the lipid
is mixed with bile. Bile is made by the liver and released from the gall bladder. Lipids are insoluble so
they clump together in an aqueous environment and bile is an emulsifier, which means that it increases
the surface area of the fat by breaking it into smaller droplets (see figure 12.28). Bile molecules have a
hydrophobic end that dissolves in fat and a hydrophilic end that dissolves in water and prevents the droplets
from recombining. These droplets of fat combine with the surfacant bile molecules to form droplets of
micelles, and it is the accompanying increase in surface area that helps fat react faster.

FIGURE 12.28 Bile breaks down fat globules into smaller droplets to enable faster digestion.
hydrophobic hydrophilic end

end
bile salt
micelles
(emulsified
droplets)
fat globule
FIGURE 12.29 Triglycerides are hydrolysed to produce glycerol and three fatty acids
water adds to ester bonds
CH2 O C (CH2)14CH3 H+ CH2 OH

O or O
lipase
CH O C (CH2)14CH3 + 3H2O CH OH + 3HO C (CH2)14CH3
O
CH2 O C (CH2)14CH3 CH2 OH

glycerol
glyceryl tripalmitate 3 palmitic acid
(tripalmitin) molecules
Once emulsified, the fat undergoes hydrolysis,

FIGURE 12.30 In this X-ray of a finger, the
catalysed by the water-soluble lipase enzymes from subcutaneous fat layer is visible as the yellow
the pancreas. This produces glycerol, free fatty layer under the skin and around the bone. This fat
acids and monoglycerides, which are absorbed by stores triglycerides.
cells lining the small intestine and converted back
into triglycerides. These enter the body’s lymphatic
system and eventually the bloodstream for transport
around the body. Excess fats not needed for energy
production are stored as triglycerides in adipose
tissues until needed as a source of energy.

12.6.2 Oxidative rancidity
You may have had the unfortunate experience of finding out that something that you were about to eat was
‘off’, the horrible smell emanating from the food confirming your realisation. This is what happens when
some foods react with oxygen in the air. The presence of light, particularly UV radiation, can speed up the
process.
Oxidative rancidity is the deterioration of lipids by atmospheric oxygen. Unsaturated fats are less stable
and are more susceptible to oxidation than saturated fats, because the oxygen reacts across the double bonds
in unsaturated fats. This results in the food going rancid and becoming unpalatable. The more carbon-to-
carbon double bonds there are, the faster the rate of rancidity.
When certain molecules interact with oxygen, they can form free radicals. These are atoms or groups of
atoms with unpaired electrons, which make them very reactive. These free radicals can then start a chain
of destructive chemical reactions. The smaller volatile molecules produced when food deteriorates, such
as aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids, can give it unpleasant smells and flavours. For example, the
flavour of rancid butter is due to the presence of butanoic acid.
Preventing rancidity
Antioxidants play an important
FIGURE 12.31 (a) Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and
part in slowing down oxidation and
(b) dehydroascorbic acid
preventing food from spoiling. They
can be natural or synthetic and are (a) (b)
HO HO
reducing agents, which means they are HO OH O O
CH
O 2 CH
O 2
preferentially oxidised. An example C C C C
CH
O CH
O
of a natural antioxidant is vitamin C
HO O
C C HO O
C C
(ascorbic acid), which reacts to form
H O O H O O
dehydroascorbic acid by losing two
hydrogen atoms from the ring section
of the molecule (see figure 12.33).
Citric acid and vitamin E are other
FIGURE 12.32 Potato chip packaging prevents light and moisture
natural antioxidants. Citric acid from entering. Nitrogen is pumped into the bags to eliminate
helps flavour food and increases the oxygen.
effectiveness of other antioxidants;
vitamin E is a fat-soluble antioxidant
found in seeds, nuts, whole grains,
green leafy vegetables, soya beans and
vegetable oils. Synthetic antioxidants,
such as butylated hydroxytoluene
(BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole
(BHA) and propyl gallate, can be
added to food to prevent deterioration.
Bread, vegetable oils and cheese all
have antioxidants added.
Other methods of preventing
rancidity include vacuum packaging
or using nitrogen, filling containers up
to the lid, storing food in the dark and
cold places, and using dark containers
or, in the case of the similar process of photoxidation, opaque containers.

12.6 EXERCISE
1. (a) Write the molecular, semi-structural and skeletal formula for glycerol.
(b) What family of organic compounds does glycerol belong to?
2. (a) Provide a chemical equation for the hydrolysis of the fat with the following formula
O
H 2C O C (CH2)14CH3
O
HC O C (CH2)14CH3
O
H 2C O C (CH2)14CH3
(b) Identify the functional groups involved in this reaction.

3. What is oxidative rancidity?
4. Explain why unsaturated fats are more susceptible to becoming rancid than saturated fats.
5. Name three types of molecules responsible for the unpleasant compounds formed as a result of rancidity
and show the functional group present for each of them.
6. What are antioxidants? Give an example of a synthetic and natural antioxidant.
7. (a) Write the half-equation for the formation of dehydroascorbic acid, C6 H6 O6 , from ascorbic acid, C6 H8 O6 .
(b) Explain whether this is an oxidation or reduction reaction.
(c) Which functional groups are affected in ascorbic acid and what type of functional group is formed?
8. Explain why cooking oil should not be stored in clear, colourless bottles near the cooktop in the kitchen.
9. Describe three methods food manufacturers use to prevent foods from becoming rancid and explain why
they are effective.

12.7 Coenzymes
KEY CONCEPT
• The principles of the action of coenzymes (often derived from vitamins) as organic molecules that bind to
the active site of an enzyme during catalysis, thereby changing the surface shape and hence the binding
properties of the active site to enable function as intermediate carriers of electrons and/or groups of atoms
(no specific cases required).
12.7.1 Coenzyme principles

Some enzymes need help in order to act as catalysts and this assistance is provided by coenzymes.
Coenzymes are small, organic, non-protein molecules that are required to temporarily and loosely bind
with the active site in the protein molecule (apoenzyme) to form the active enzyme (holoenzyme) and
accommodate a substrate.
The removal or addition of electrons, atoms or groups can change the shape of the coenzyme, allowing
it to bind to or be removed from an enzyme it is helping. Coenzymes are considered secondary substrates
because they are changed by the reaction. Unlike primary substrates, they then reform and return to their

initial structure in subsequent reactions and can be reused several times. They also act to transfer energy, as
with ATP (adenine triphosphate), or act as intermediate transporters of electrons, particular atoms (such as
H) or functional groups that are transferred in the final reaction. Once the reaction is completed, coenzymes
detach and move away.
FIGURE 12.33 A coenzyme assists the enzyme in its role as a biological catalyst.
coenzyme substrate
apoenzyme cofactor holoenzyme

(protein portion), (nonprotein portion), (whole enzyme),
inactive activator active
Consider the first stage in a series of reactions where ethanol is oxidised to ethanoic acid. The enzyme
required is alcohol dehydrogenase. Both the coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and the
ethanol substrate are bound together and to the active site of the enzyme. The overall effect is the transfer of
electrons carried by NADH from substrate 1 (S1) to substrate 2 (S2).
FIGURE 12.34 A coenzyme acting as an electron carrier
CH3CH2OH + NAD+ CH3CHO + NADH + H+
The substrate The coenzyme, The products leave the active site.
(S1), ethanol, is NAD+, is the
oxidised by the oxidising agent. It is
NAD+. reduced, gaining H+ Ethanal is then oxidised to The coenzyme NADH
and 2e–. CH3COOH by NAD+ and a binds to a different
different enzyme. NADH substrate (S2) to reform
acts as an electron carrier. NAD+.
substrate(S2) + NADH + H+ reduced substrate + NAD+
The same coenzyme can be used by different enzymes. For example, NAD+ is used by many enzymes.
Most, but not all, coenzymes are derived from vitamins (see table 12.4).
TABLE 12.4 Examples of coenzymes and their sources
Vitamin Coenzyme Role
B1, thiamin Thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP) Transfers aldehydes
B2, riboflavin Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) Oxidising agent (transfers electrons)
B3, niacin Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ ) Oxidising agent (transfers electrons)
B5, pantothenic acid Coenzyme A (CoA) Transfers acetyl group (CH3 CO—)
B12 Coenzyme B12 Transfers alkyl groups
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) Transfers phosphate

Coenzymes are unable to function on their own and if an enzyme is denatured the coenzyme can no
longer attach to the active site.
Coenzymes can have a number of roles. They:
• can alter the structural conformation of an enzyme to accommodate the shape of the substrate
• are able to transfer electrons, particular atoms or functional groups from one reaction to another
• can take part in redox reactions. For example, NAD+ can act as an oxidising agent and undergo
reduction to NADH by the addition of H+ and 2 electrons
• act as antioxidants and prevent free radicals from damaging cells
• assist in the immediate transfer of energy within cells (ATP).
TABLE 12.5 Differences between an enzyme and a coenzyme
Enzyme Coenzyme
Type of compound Mainly globular proteins Non-protein organic molecule
Size of molecule Large Small
Derived from Condensation of peptides Many formed from vitamins but not all
Function Biological catalyst Binds to some enzymes to enable catalytic

activity, acts as carrier
Is structure altered at Maintains original structure Structure is altered but is regenerated in

the end of the reaction? subsequent reactions
Specificity Specific to a particular reaction Less specific
Interaction between Loosely bound and easily Loosely bound and easily removed
enzyme and coenzyme removed
Example Alcohol dehydrogenase NAD+
Stability Disrupted by heat or high Stable to heat and/or temperature

temperature
12.7 EXERCISE
1. What are coenzymes?
2. Explain how coenzymes work with enzymes to catalyse reactions.
3. Are coenzymes changed during the catalytic reaction?
4. Name a type of substance that is an important source of many coenzymes.
5. Name two examples of coenzymes.
6. Describe the differences in the general structure of enzymes and coenzymes.
7. Is NADH an oxidising or reducing agent? Explain.
8. State three examples of entities transferred by coenzymes.


12.8 Review
12.8.1 Summary
Digestion of food
• Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats and oils are broken down into smaller molecules in the digestive
system by enzyme-catalysed hydrolysis.
• Proteins are sensitive to extremes in pH, heat and some chemicals. Proteins denature by unfolding
when subjected to changes in pH or extreme conditions. They can become insoluble or lose biological
activity.
Enzymes as protein catalysts
• Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts for the chemical reactions occurring in living things. They
are highly specific, with each different type of enzyme catalysing only one type of chemical reaction.
• Each enzyme has an active site at which the reaction is facilitated.
• Amino acids form a dipolar ion called a zwitterion, due to the acid–base properties of the carboxylic
acid and amino functional groups.
• A zwitterion is a molecule with a net charge of zero but negative and positive charges on individual
atoms in its structure.
• Amino acids are amphoteric: they can behave either as an acid or as a base, depending on the pH of the
solution. In aqueous solutions with an approximately neutral pH, amino acids exist as zwitterions.
• Enzymes operate in mild conditions. Extremes of temperature and pH denature the enzyme, altering
the active site and leading to a loss of activity.
• Amino acids that form proteins are the L-form, so alternate optical isomers do not fit in the active site
of enzymes in the body.
• There are two models proposed to explain the action of enzymes: the lock-and-key model and the
induced fit model.
Denaturation and hydrolysis of proteins
• Digestion of proteins involves hydrolysis reactions where peptide bonds in the primary structure are
broken.
• Denaturing involves the disruption of weak interactions present in the secondary, tertiary and
quaternary structure of a protein.
• Denaturing does not affect the primary structure of a protein due to the strong covalent bonds in the
polypeptide chain.
Carbohydrates
• Starch is a polysaccharide formed from the condensation polymerisation of 𝛼-glucose formed during
photosynthesis.
• Starch is the major storage form of glucose in plants. It is made up of amylose and amylopectin.
• Amylose is smaller than amylopectin and consists of compacted linear chains arranged in a helical
structure and so is insoluble.
• Amylopectin is a longer, more loosely branched molecule.
• Glycogen is the major storage form of glucose in animals. It is more highly branched than
amylopectin.
• Excess glucose is stored in the liver as glycogen. It may also be converted to fat.
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide formed from the condensation polymerisation of 𝛽-glucose from
photosynthesis.
• The arrangement of glucose monomers in cellulose is different from that in starch. Cellulose is the
major structural component of cell walls in plants.
• Humans do not have the enzyme to digest cellulose.
• Lactose intolerance is caused by having insufficient enzyme lactase to hydrolyse the disaccharide
lactose.

• The glycaemic index (GI) is a scale used to describe how quickly the carbohydrate in a food is broken
down and absorbed into the bloodstream.
Fats and oils
• Saturated fatty acids are long-chain carboxylic acids that do not contain a C=C bond.
• Mono-unsaturated fatty acids contain one C=C bond, and polyunsaturated fatty acids contain more
than one C=C bond.
• During digestion, fats and oils are hydrolysed to glycerol and fatty acids, which can be reassembled
into triglycerides.
• Unsaturated fats are less stable and are more susceptible to oxidation.
• Antioxidants slow down the oxidation of food.
• Coenzymes are organic non-protein molecules that assist the functioning of enzymes. They are often
derived from vitamins.
Resources
To access key concept summaries and past VCAA exam questions download and print the studyON: Revision and past VCE
12.8.2 Key terms

active site a region on an enzyme that binds to a reactant molecule (substrate) during a reaction
adipose a form of fatty tissue used to store energy
amphoteric describes amino acids that can behave as both acids and bases
antioxidants a substance that slows oxidation
bile a liquid produced by the liver to aid digestion through emulsification
cellulose the most common carbohydrate and a condensation polymer of D-glucose. Humans cannot hydrolyse
cellulose, so it is not a source of energy.
coagulation the process of turning a liquid into a solid
coenzyme an organic non-protein molecule required to temporarily and loosely bind with the protein molecule to
form an active enzyme
denaturation change in the structure or function of a large molecule, such as a protein
dipolar ion an ion containing equal positive and negative charges
emulsifier a substance that increases the surface area of fat by breaking it into smaller droplets
enzymes proteins that catalyse chemical reactions
glycaemic index (GI) a figure representing the relative ability of a carbohydrate food to increase the level of
glucose in the blood
hydrolysis a hydrolytic reaction; the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water
induced fit model a model of enzyme action where, in the presence of a substrate, the active site may change in
order to fit the substrate’s shape
lactose milk sugar
L-amino acids the stereoisomer of amino acids that is found in proteins in organisms. Enzyme-catalysed
reactions occur only between molecules with this particular stereoisomerism
lock-and-key model model of enzyme action where only molecules with complementary shapes can react with
the enzyme
metabolism the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
micelle a group of surfactant molecules surrounding a fat droplet with the hydrophobic ends dissolved in the fat
and polar ends dissolve in the water
nutrients food molecules that organisms need to make energy, grow, reproduce and maintain a healthy life.
These are: proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats and carbohydrates.

optimum pH the pH at which enzymes function best
optimum temperature the temperature at which enzymes function best
oxidative rancidity the deterioration of lipids by atmospheric oxygen
respiration when monosaccharides are converted to glucose, which is used as an energy source to power body
cells including the brain, muscles and red blood cells
stereoisomerism where two or more compounds differ only in the spatial arrangements of their atoms
surfactant molecule a molecule that has a polar (hydrophilic) and a non-polar (hydrophobic) end, for example, a
detergent molecule
substrate the substance on which an enzyme acts
zwitterion a dipolar ion containing equal positive and negative charges
Resources
Digital document: Key terms glossary – Topic 12 (doc-31421)
Experiment 12.3
Studying starch - Hydrolysis of starch
Aim: To demonstrate the hydrolysis of starch by hydrochloric acid
Resources
Experiment 12.1 Enzymes as protein catalysts (doc-31279)
Experiment 12.2 Investigating proteins (doc-31280)
12.8 Exercises

1. A balanced diet should:
A. include the 12 essential amino acids
B. contain large amounts of vitamins
C. provide essential carbohydrates
D. include essential fatty acids.

2. Foods that provide the requirements for metabolism are called:
A. proteins
B. vitamins
C. nutrients
D. enzymes.
3. The formation of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in the human body requires numerous enzymes.
Which of the following statements about enzymes is incorrect?
A. Enzymes operate within narrow pH ranges.
B. The catalytic action of enzymes increases with increasing temperatures up to 100 °C.
C. Enzymes specifically catalyse particular chemical reactions.
D. Enzymes are proteins.
4. Select the best definition of an enzyme.
A. An enzyme is an amino acid that speeds up chemical reactions.
B. An enzyme is a protein that is consumed in the diet and aids in chemical reactions.
C. Enzymes are proteins that speed up metabolic reaction and are consumed in the process.
D. Enzymes are proteins that speed up metabolic reaction but are not consumed in the process.
5. All of the following interactions occur in proteins. Which interaction is significantly stronger than the
others?
A. hydrogen bonds
B. dispersion forces
C. ionic interactions
D. peptide bonds.
6. A protein with an 𝛼-helix secondary structure was mixed with orange juice and formed clumps. The
change in the protein structure is due to:
A. oxidation
B. hydrolysis
C. denaturation
D. polymerisation.
7. Identify the incorrect statement about protein denaturation.
A. It is a shape change.
B. It is always irreversible.
C. It can be caused by a pH change.
D. It could result from a temperature change.
8. Which process causes the primary structure of a protein to be destroyed?
A. Hydrolysis
B. Denaturation
C. Polymerisation
D. Condensation
9. Hydrolysis of proteins using a catalyst involves:
A. adding water to amino acids to form proteins
B. adding water to proteins to form amino acids
C. water forming hydrogen bonds in the secondary structure of proteins
D. water forming hydrogen bonds in the tertiary structure of proteins.
10. When an egg is hard boiled the protein in the egg white, ovalbumin, is denatured. Which of the
following is least changed?
A. The primary structure of ovalbumin.
B. The secondary structure of ovalbumin.
C. The tertiary structure of ovalbumin.
D. The quaternary structure of ovalbumin.

11. Which enzyme is missing in the small intestine of a person who is lactose intolerant?
A. Dipeptidase
B. Lipase
C. Lactase
D. Maltase
12. Which one of the following is a correct statement about the hydrolysis of a protein?
A. Hydrolysis is characterised by the combining of amino acids.
B. Water is a product of hydrolysis.
C. Hydrolysis involves disruption of only bonds in the tertiary structure.
D. The primary structure is disrupted when hydrolysis occurs.
13. Symptoms of lactose intolerance include:
A. coughing
B. intestinal gas
C. a runny nose
D. rashes.
14. Lactose intolerance:
A. is common in most people of all ages, from newborn to adulthood
B. is most common in people of northern European descent
C. is an allergic reaction
D. is not a problem if drinking soy milk.
15. The glycaemic index indicates the:
A. amount of nutrients in food
B. amount of fats in food
C. effect of food on blood glucose levels
D. glycogen stores in the body.
16. Which of the following would have the lowest glycaemic index?
A. Greek yoghurt
B. A banana
C. Kidney beans
D. Chocolate
17. In the process of oxidative rancidity:
A. saturated compounds are more likely to be involved than unsaturated compounds
B. oxygen attacks the double bond in a compound
C. less volatile compounds are produced
D. light is never involved.
18. A water-soluble vitamin that is also an antioxidant is:
A. vitamin B
B. vitamin C
C. vitamin D
D. vitamin E.
19. Coenzymes are:
A. proteins that assist in enzyme function
B. organic compounds that catalyse specific reactions
C. proteins that catalyse specific reactions
D. organic compounds that assist in enzyme function.
20. A function of coenzymes during cellular metabolism is to:
A. accept electrons and pass them to other molecules
B. catalyse chemical reactions
C. emulsify fats
D. denature proteins.

1. Enzymes are organic catalysts that operate in living things to facilitate chemical reactions essential to
life. They are often referred to as ‘biological catalysts’. List the differences between enzymes and
inorganic catalysts. Include reference to influence on rate of reaction, specificity and the conditions
under which they are employed.
2. Newborn babies are tested for phenylketonuria (PKU), which is a genetic disorder that prevents the
breakdown of the amino acid phenylalanine, which then builds up in the body. Brain development can
be limited if treatment is not provided. The structure of the phenylalanine molecule is:
CH2
H2N CH COOH
a. Draw the structure of phenylalanine in a solution of pH 3.

b. Draw the structure of phenylalanine in a solution of pH 10.
c. At a pH of about 5.9 phenylalanine is ionised but is not attracted to either the positive or negative
electrodes of an electrolytic cell. Draw the structure of phenylalanine at pH 5.9.
a. Enzyme b. Enzyme specificity c. Active site d. Coenzyme
4. a. Explain why the mechanism of action of an enzyme is sometimes referred to as a ‘lock-and-key’
mode of operation.
b. Imagine you want to use a catalyst to speed up the reaction: A + B → C + D. Draw a diagram that
shows how an enzyme can facilitate this reaction. Label the substrate and active site.
5. Define the term ‘denaturation’.
6. Describe two ways in which an enzyme may be denatured.
7. Milk that has gone past its use-by date curdles and develops a sour taste. This is caused by the
production of lactic acid by the lactose-fermenting bacteria naturally present in milk. This increased
acid production leads to a decrease in pH, which causes the milk protein caseinogen to first denature
and then coagulate.
a. Explain how caseinogen is denatured.
b. Explain why the secondary structure of caseinogen is affected whereas the primary structure is
unaffected.
8. Digestive enzymes can be incorporated into washing powders. Instructions recommend that clothes are
allowed to soak overnight in cool water and that hot water should be avoided.
a. Explain the reason for the recommendation regarding effective use of the powder.
b. Explain why digestive enzymes would be used.
c. Describe the action of an enzyme.
9. Why can fresh bloodstains be easily removed in cold water but not in hot water?
10. Meat and fish can be marinated (soaked) in fruit juices such as lime or pineapple juice to make them
more tender.
a. Explain how some fruit juices can tenderise meat.
b. Suggest why the juice from canned pineapples does not tenderise meat.
11. List the variables that need to be considered when designing an experiment to measure enzyme activity.
12. Write an equation showing the hydrolysis of the following peptide.
H H CH3 H CH2OH
NH2 CH C N CH C N CH COOH
O O
13. Starch is an important nutrient in the human diet. Describe the similarities and differences in the
structures and properties of the two components that make up starch.

14. The percentage of amylose in food A is 28% and percentage of amylopectin 72%. In food B the
percentage of amylose is 16% and percentage of amylopectin is 84%. Explain what GI is and explain
which of the two foods would have the higher GI value.
15. A student comments that, after ingestion of dairy products, he experiences bloating, cramps and
sometimes diarrhoea. With this information, it is reasonable to think that the student is intolerant to
lactose. What is lactose intolerance and which age group and population are more likely to be lactose
intolerant?
16. Describe the chemical structure of cellulose and explain why humans cannot digest it. Why is it still
necessary in the human diet?
17. Write an equation showing the hydrolysis of this triglyceride.
H2C O C CH2(CH2)11CH3
HC O C CH2(CH2)13CH3
H2C O C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
18. List the similarities and differences between the structures and susceptibility to oxidation of saturated
and unsaturated fatty acids.
19. a. What is rancidity?
b. What name is given to compounds that limit oxidative rancidity in foods?
c. Canola oil contains vitamin E as a natural component. Explain how this prevents the oil becoming
rancid.
d. Explain three other methods of limiting oxidation of foods.
20. Describe the differences between enzymes and coenzymes.

Question 1 (1 mark)
Humans cannot digest cellulose because:
A. cellulose is insoluble in water
B. humans lack the necessary enzymes
C. cellulose is too branched
D. no organisms can digest cellulose.
Question 2 (1 mark)
Foods with a high glycaemic index would have a high proportion of:
A. sugars
B. fats
C. polysaccharides
D. cellulose.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ ) is an important coenzyme found in cells. It is essential for
energy production and is involved in the conversion of ethanol, CH3 CH2 OH, to ethanal, CH3 CHO. NAD+
is converted to NADH.
a. Write the half-equation for the oxidation reaction. 1 mark
b. Write the half-equation for the reduction reaction. 1 mark
c. The ethanal is then converted into ethanoic acid. Write the half-equation for this reaction. 1 mark
d. A different enzyme is used for the reaction in question 3c. Explain why this is the case. 1 mark

Lipase is an enzyme mainly produced in the pancreas and is important in the body because it catalyses the
hydrolysis of fats and oils into their components. Lipase is soluble in water but the lipid molecules from
food form clumps in aqueous solutions. When a sample of lipase is heated to more than 60 °C this enzyme
is no longer effective.
a. Explain the process that occurs in the digestion of fats and oils that enables them to be digested in
aqueous solution by lipase. 2 marks
b. Name the products of the digestion of fats and oils. 2 marks
c. What is the function of the lipase enzyme? 1 mark
d. Explain why lipase is ineffective at high temperatures. 2 marks
e. Why is the functioning of lipase closely related to its tertiary structure? 1 mark
f. Lipase and co-lipase combine to catalyse a reaction. Describe how this occurs. 2 marks
Explain why alanine is described as an enantiomer.
H
H H C H
O
N C C
H O H
H

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2
13 Energy content of food

13.1 Overview
13.1.1 Introduction
The food we eat supplies the energy we need to power
FIGURE 13.1 When exercising, muscles convert
all of the billions of chemical reactions happening in glucose into energy using oxygen in the blood
our bodies every second. Where does this energy come in the process of respiration.
from, how do we get it and how can we measure the
energy in food?
The energy in food can be traced back to the sun,
where the process of photosynthesis converts the sun’s
energy into simple carbohydrates like glucose. Through
condensation reactions these glucose molecules are
turned into starch, a carbohydrate, and cellulose.
Carbohydrates, fats and proteins in the food we eat
provide the energy our bodies need. Carbohydrates are
broken down to provide glucose, which releases energy
in the process of respiration. The amount of energy a
person needs depends on how active the individual is and whether the person is still growing. This energy
is used for digestion, maintaining the heartbeat, breathing, brain function, nervous system movement, heat
generation and maintaining constant body conditions. But how much energy is supplied by each food type
and how readily available is it?
This topic explores the amount of energy in major food groups and demonstrates how the energy in
foods can be measured using a process of calorimetry. Simple solution calorimeters will be investigated,
as will bomb calorimeters. Associated calculations to measure energy content will be explained.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• the comparison of energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils
• glucose as the primary energy source, including a balanced thermochemical equation for cellular respiration
• the principles of calorimetry; solution and bomb calorimetry, including determination of calibration factor
and consideration of the effects of heat loss; and analysis of temperature-time graphs obtained from
solution calorimetry


Resources
13.2 Energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and

fats and oils
KEY CONCEPT
• The comparison of energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils
13.2.1 Comparing energy values of foods

The food and drinks that we consume provide energy. In Australia, this energy is measured in
kilojoules (kJ). Another measurement that you may see on labels is calories.
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 Joule
The energy that we obtain from food depends on the amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils
in the meal and how much of each nutrient is eaten. Different nutrients have different energy values. The
available energy content when used in the body is measured in kilojoules per gram.
The energy values of food are:

• carbohydrate: 16 kJ g−1
• protein: 17 kJ g−1
• fat: 37 kJ g−1 .
Not all of the energy in the food ingested is available to the
FIGURE 13.2 What type of foods
body because it is not completely digested and absorbed, and provide the most energy? What else
some is converted to heat. The energy values given above have must be considered when choosing
been adjusted to reflect this. Not all food molecules are a source food?
of energy, including water, minerals, vitamins and fibre, but
they are all necessary for good health. While carbohydrates,
fats and proteins are a source of energy, some produce energy
more readily than others. Carbohydrates are easily broken
down to glucose, which is converted into energy using oxygen
in the blood. Excess carbohydrates are stored as glycogen
(see topic 12). Once all carbohydrates in the body, including
glycogen, are consumed, the body starts to break down fat. Fat
is not as efficient at providing energy as carbohydrates. Protein
is not stored and is usually only used as an energy source in
situations of starvation. The body can break down excess amino
acids to produce glucose or fat if required.
TOPIC 13 Energy content of food 475

Not all energy in food is available for bodily functions because some food is not completely digested
or absorbed, or not oxidised, and some energy is converted to heat.
Fats provide about 80% of the body’s energy storage in adipose (fatty) tissue. They are used when food is
scarce, when you haven’t eaten for a while or when you are ill and don’t feel like eating. While the brain is
dependent on glucose, the liver, muscle and fat cells derive their energy from fat.
Fats are broken down in a complex series of steps that break the bonds in the long fatty acid carbon
chains and separate the oxygen atoms in the oxygen molecules; the atoms then recombine to produce
carbon dioxide and water. The overall reaction is an exothermic oxidation process in which the fats react
with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. This reaction is similar to a combustion reaction. An
example would be the oxidation of linoleic acid (LA), a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid.
C17 H31 COOH + 25O2 → 18CO2 + 16H2 O ∆H = −8382 kJ mol−1
TIP: Always check that the oxygen atoms are equal on both sides of the equation. There are 2
oxygen atoms in the fatty acid. If you require half an oxygen molecule on balancing an oxidation
reaction, just double all coefficients.
Fats are a more concentrated energy reserve than carbohydrates but do not break down as easily. To break
down fat molecules, more oxygen and more time is required than to break down carbohydrates, but more
energy is released per gram. You can find out the energy in different foods by checking the nutrition labels
on packaged foods.
FIGURE 13.3 Energy production from food molecules
food intake
complex
proteins carbohydrates triglycerides
glycogen storage
in liver and
skeletal muscle
amino acids glucose glycerol and
fatty acids
cannibalisation breakdown
of muscle tissue
protein of stored fat
(starvation lipid synthesis
synthesis Energy and storage
(weight loss)
response)
production
breaking down building up

reactions reactions

Nutrition labels
All packaged foods must feature a nutrition label, which lists how much of each nutrient is present in the
food. The ingredients on nutrition labels are listed in descending order according to mass. The overall value
of food energy stated on packaging is obtained by multiplying the energy values by the mass of protein, fat
and carbohydrate, and then adding all these results together.
For example, the ingredients for 100 g of tomato sauce are:
Protein: 1.6 g
Fat: 0.20 g
Carbohydrate: 30.2 g.
Therefore, the energy content per 100 g of the sauce is:
Protein: 1.6 g × 17 = 27.2 kJ

Fat: 0.20 g × 37 = 7.4 kJ
Carbohydrate: 30.2 g × 16 = 483.2 kJ
Total energy in 100 g = 517.8 kJ
A serving size is how much of a food the

FIGURE 13.4 Learning how to read and understand
manufacturer recommends consuming in a food labels can help you make healthier choices.
serving, but it is important to remember that these
are often not based on dietary recommendations
and may not be the amount that you consume. It
is better to compare the quantity per 100 g when
making food choices. Official standard serves
vary depending on the type of food but in general
you should aim for:
• less than 10 g of total fat, which includes all
of the different types of fats (it is healthier
to choose less saturated fat where possible)
• less than 10 g of sugar. The total
carbohydrate figure includes starches
and sugars, but be aware that sugars may be
listed under other names, often ending in -ose. Foods with no added sugar could contain a large
amount of natural sugar, and low-fat foods can also contain large quantities of sugar.
• less than 400 mg salt
• 3–6 g of fibre in breads and cereals.
13.2 EXERCISE
1. List five uses of the energy that is received by the body from cellular respiration.
2. In 100 g of tomato sauce, the energy was determined to be 548.0 kJ. The suggested average serve is 15 g.
Calculate the amount of energy supplied in this serving.
Questions 3 to 7 refer to the ingredients of a nut bar containing 27.1 g protein, 25.7 g fat and 30.6 g
carbohydrate per 100 g.
3. Calculate the total energy provided per 100 g.
4. Included in the fat component in the ingredients list is 5.0 g of saturated fat. Explain what a saturated fat is
and give an example.
5. Also present is 10.3 grams of dietary fibre. Name the compound most likely to be contributing to this
ingredient.

6. The carbohydrate ingredients include 11.7 g sugar. What type of compounds would be included in this
11.7 grams?
7. (a) On the front of the packet is a label stating that the sugar content is less than 4 g per bar. Confirm if this
is a correct statement, given that each bar is 33 g.
(b) A similar product includes berries in the bar and contains 24.1 g protein, 29.8 g fat and 28.6 g
carbohydrate per 100 g. How does the energy content of this bar compare with that in the original bar?
8. A food that is a solid has the following composition per 100 g: 0.5 g protein, 78.0 g fat and 0.6 g
carbohydrate.
(a) Suggest what food it might be.
(b) The sum of these masses does not amount to 100 g. What could account for the remaining mass?
9. Oleic acid makes up 55–83% of olive oil, and is also found in many other animal and vegetable fats and
oils. Its chemical formula is C18 H34 O2 .
(a) It is described as a monounsaturated fatty acid. Explain the meaning of this term.
(b) Explain why olive oil is a liquid rather than a solid.
(c) Write a balanced equation showing the full oxidation of oleic acid.
10. Michael eats a hamburger for lunch. The amount of energy supplied by the hamburger is about 3020 kJ.
Going for a run uses about 48 kJ per minute. How long would Michael need to run to use up the energy
supplied by the hamburger?
13.3 Glucose—the primary energy source

KEY CONCEPT
• Glucose as the primary energy source, including a balanced thermochemical equation for cellular
respiration
13.3.1 Cellular respiration

As described in topics 11 and 12, our main source of energy
FIGURE 13.5 The brain uses more
is glucose. The brain is the most energy-demanding organ, energy than any other organ in the body.
consuming about half the glucose in the body. The huge task
of controlling all of the body’s functions, including thinking,
memory and learning, all rely on glucose levels and how
the brain utilises this monosaccharide. Although the brain
needs a good supply of glucose, too much can cause cognitive
problems and other health issues, including diabetes. Muscles
also demand a large amount of energy but unlike the brain,
which cannot store glucose, muscles have some stored energy
for their own use. Glucose is obtained through the catalysed
hydrolysis of glycogen and starch. The glucose passes from the
digestive system into the blood and then to the cells of the liver
and other tissues.

The process by which energy is FIGURE 13.6 Cellular respiration
obtained from glucose is a remarkable
and complicated series of biochemical
steps and is called cellular respiration. photosynthesis
This occurs in the cells of all living
organisms. The cells release energy from O2 + C6H12O6
the chemical bonds of food molecules, light energy chloroplast
providing energy for the essential
processes of life. In chemical terms it
is an exothermic, redox reaction and is
similar to a combustion reaction where CO2 + H2O
glucose reacts with oxygen to form

carbon dioxide and water. It is also cellular mitochondrion
an aerobic process because oxygen is respiration
required. The energy released in this chemical energy
process is 2860 kJ mol−1 . (ATP)
The overall thermochemical equation for cellular respiration is:
This equation is the reverse of the equation for photosynthesis although the chemical pathway involved is
very different.
Remember to include the ∆H value and sign when asked to write a thermochemical
equation.
Anaerobic respiration occurs when there is no oxygen present,

FIGURE 13.7 The burning,
and results in less energy being obtained. This occurs in tissues cramping pain felt in muscles
where there is a high demand for fast energy, such as in working during intense exercise is caused
muscles, but there is a shortage of oxygen to satisfy the energy by a build-up of lactic acid.
needed by just using aerobic respiration. The product of anaerobic
respiration is lactic acid, which must be oxidised to carbon dioxide
and water at a later stage so that it doesn’t build up. Lactic acid
can cause muscle soreness because the cells cannot process waste
products fast enough. The oxygen must be replaced and that is why
you breathe deeply after exercise.
The chemical equation for anaerobic respiration is:
C6 H12 O6 (aq) → 2CH3 CH(OH)COOH(aq)
Anaerobic respiration also occurs in plant cells and some

microorganisms. This process is called fermentation. Anaerobic
respiration in yeast is used during brewing and bread-making, where
sugars are broken down into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C6 H12 O6 (aq) → 2C2 H5 OH(aq) + 2CO2 (g)
Ethanol is the alcohol used in beer and wine production, and is

also added to petrol to be used as a fuel. In bread-making, bubbles of
carbon dioxide gas form in the dough and cause the bread to rise.

Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen and anaerobic respiration occurs in
the absence of oxygen.
13.3 EXERCISE
1. (a) Name and write the formula for the monosaccharide that is referred to as ‘blood sugar’.
(b) Where is it stored in the body?
(c) In what form is it stored?
2. When glucose is low, which part of the body will be affected first?
3. How much energy is provided by 1.00 g of glucose?
4. What type of reaction is occurring as glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide?
5. What functional group(s) is/are found in monosaccharides such as glucose?
6. Draw the structure of lactic acid (CH3 CH(OH)COOH) and label the functional groups.
7. An athlete is running on a treadmill. After running for some time, the athlete’s legs started to cramp. What is
the possible cause of this discomfort? Provide an equation to support your answer.
8. (a) Write the balanced equation showing anaerobic respiration of glucose to ethanol.
(b) What is the name of this process?
(c) How is anaerobic respiration useful in bread-making?
13.4 Principles of calorimetry

KEY CONCEPT
• The principles of calorimetry; solution and bomb calorimetry, including determination of calibration factor
and consideration of the effects of heat loss; and analysis of temperature-time graphs obtained from
solution calorimetry
13.4.1 Measuring the energy content of food

The amount of energy produced by a food can be measured by a process called calorimetry. This is
the measurement of the amount of heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction, change of state or
formation of a solution. The change in temperature in a calorimeter can be related to the heat generated
by first calibrating the calorimeter.
A simple method of measuring the heat content in food is to ignite a weighed sample of food and use it
as a fuel to heat a particular volume of water, and measure its increase in temperature. The specific heat
capacity (c) of water can then be used to determine the heat energy provided by the food sample. The
specific heat capacity (c) is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C. The
energy being transferred to the water can be calculated using the heat energy released in the combustion of
fuel equation. This can be found in table 3 of the VCE Chemistry Data Book.

Energy = mass of water × specific heat capacity of water × temperature increase
q = mcΔT
where:
q is the energy measured in Joule (J)
m is the mass of water (not the food) in grams (g)
c is the specific heat capacity of water, 4.18 J°g−1 C−1
∆T is the change in temperature in °C.
The apparatus used to measure the heat content in food is shown in figure 13.8. If a larger volume of
water is required, a can may be used instead of a test tube. The food sources should be burnt at a constant
distance from the water to ensure reliability of results.
FIGURE 13.8 Measuring the energy in food
bosshead
and
clamp
test tube
water
retort
needle stand
corn chip
cork
This method is very inaccurate because of the considerable heat loss from the flame and the water
container to the environment, but it can be used to do a comparison of the heat content of different foods.
Increased accuracy can be obtained by using a heat shield around the apparatus to confine the heat
produced. A solution or bomb calorimeter can provide more accurate results, but they must be calibrated
so that the energy content can be calculated using the temperature changes.
To compare the energy obtained from different foods per gram:
mass of water (g) × 4.18 × temperature rise (∘C)

Energy released from food per gram (J) =
mass of food sample (g)

TIP: If the volume of water is provided, the mass can be calculated using the density formula
m
d = . The density of water is 0.997 g mL−1 .
V
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
A 1.71 g sample of a food is burned, heating 50.0 g of water. The temperature increased from
20.0 °C to 59.0 °C. Calculate the energy transferred to the water, and then estimate the energy
present per gram of food.
THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the energy that is going into the water q = mcΔT
using the equation q = mcΔT and substituting the = 50.0 × 4.18 × (59.0 − 20.0)
specific heat capacity of water (c = 4.18 J°g−1 C−1 ) = 8151 J
and mass of the water.
TIP: Take care to use the mass of the water to
calculate the energy going into the water, not the
mass of the food.
2. Convert to kilojoules. 8151 J = 8.15 × 103 J
= 8.15 kJ
8.15
3. To calculate the energy per gram of food, divide the Energy per gram of food =
energy by the mass of food. 1.71
= 4.77 kJ g−1
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
A 1.08 g sample of almonds is completely burned, heating 150.0 g of water. The temperature
increased from 20.0 °C to 33.0 °C. Calculate the energy transferred to the water, and then estimate
the energy present per gram of almonds in kJ g−1 .
This method is very inaccurate because of the considerable heat loss from the flame and the water
container to the environment but it can be used to do a comparison of the heat content of different foods.
Increased accuracy can be obtained by using insulated containers to confine the heat produced. A solution
or bomb calorimeter can provide more accurate results, but they must be calibrated so that the energy
content may be calculated using the temperature changes.
A calorimeter is an instrument used to measure energy changes in chemical reactions.
Resources
Digital document Experiment 13.1 Calculating the energy in food (doc-31282)
13.4.2 Calibrating a calorimeter

As explained in topic 2, the enthalpy or heat content (H) is the total energy in a substance. The change in
enthalpy in a chemical reaction is known as the heat of reaction, and it is denoted by the symbol ∆H.

A calorimeter is an instrument that can be used to determine the energy changes that occur when a chemical
reaction, such as burning food, takes place. There are different types of calorimeters, including solution
calorimeters and bomb calorimeters. Because the temperature rise for a reaction depends on the substance
itself, the amount of substance used and the nature of the immediate surroundings, the value of the
conversion factor, called the calibration factor, must be established for each calorimeter before determining
an enthalpy change. The calibration factor must be calculated for individual calorimeters before heat of
reaction is calculated.
In all calorimeters, a reaction takes place inside an insulated container with a fixed amount of liquid
(usually water), and the temperature rise or fall is recorded using an accurate thermometer. This temperature
change (in °C) must be converted to an energy change (in J or kJ) before a value of energy or ∆H can be
determined.
Resources
Interactivity Calibrating a calorimeter (int-1253)
Electrical calibration
Electric calibration is achieved by calibrating the calorimeter using an electrically heated coil to supply a
measured quantity of electrical energy, which is converted to heat energy. The heat energy is transferred to a
known mass of a substance, usually water, and then measuring the temperature rise.
The energy released to the calorimeter is given by:
E = VIt
where:
E = energy released (joules)
V = potential difference (volts)
I = current (amps)
t = time (s).
If a current of I amps flows for t seconds at a potential difference of V volts, the calibration factor may be
calculated as follows.
energy released during calibration VIt

Calibration factor (CF) = =
temperature rise ∆T c
The calibration factor (CF) is measured in joules per degree, J °C−1 .

The temperature rise (∆Tc ) during calibration is: Final temperature (Tf ) – Initial
temperature (Ti ).
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
A calorimeter is filled with 100 mL of water and its temperature recorded as 19.50 °C. A current
of 2.52 A at a potential difference of 5.68 V is passed through the water for 2.00 minutes. The
final temperature was measured at 24.25 °C.

THINK WRITE
1. Calculate the electrical energy that is going into the water using E = VIt
the equation E = VIt. Remember to convert time from minutes to = 5.68 × 2.52 × 120
seconds. = 1.72 × 103 J
energy
2. Calculate the calibration factor (CF) by dividing the energy CF =
released by the change in temperature using the equation ΔTc
ΔTc = Tf – Ti 1.72 × 103
=
TIP: The calibration factor equation can be found in table 3 of the 24.25 − 19.50
VCE Chemistry Data Book. Give your answer to the smallest = 362 J °C−1
number of significant figures in the question.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Tim calibrates a calorimeter for an experiment he is about to perform. He uses 100 mL of water in
an electrical calibration. The current supplied was 1.80 A and the voltage was 5.60 V over a period of
150 seconds. The temperature rose from 20.00 °C to 24.56 °C. Determine the calibration factor of the
calorimeter in J °C−1 .
Remember ‘Rules in Joules’. Both rules q = mc∆T and E = VIt give answers in joules so
care must be taken with units if answers are required in kilojoules.
13.4.3 Solution calorimetry

A solution calorimeter is the simplest type of calorimeter and is used to find the energy change occurring in
aqueous solutions. This type of calorimeter consists of an insulated container and lid. Inserted through the
lid is a stirrer to ensure even distribution of heat energy, a thermometer to measure changes in temperature
and a heating coil to allow electrical energy to be converted to thermal energy for calibration.
The steps for using a calorimeter are:
1. Calibrate the calorimeter (this step can also be done at the FIGURE 13.9 In a solution
calorimeter, experiments are usually
completion of the reaction). carried out in aqueous solution.
2. Measure the masses or volumes of the chemicals that
are required for the reaction, ensuring that the volume of thermometer
water or solutions used is the same as the volume used
stirrer heating coil +
for calibration. for calibration –
3. Measure the temperature of the water or solutions.
4. Add the solid or solutions to the calorimeter. lid
5. Record the highest or lowest temperature reached.
6. Perform the calculations.
7. If ∆H is required, remember to use the appropriate sign.
The heat of solution (when 1 mole of any substance dissolves
in water) and the heat of neutralisation (when an acid reacts
with a base) for a reaction may be determined using a solution
calorimeter.
In an exothermic reaction, the heat produced by the reaction is
released into the solution, which increases its temperature.
insulation inner container in which

reaction occurs

In an endothermic reaction, the heat required is absorbed from the thermal energy of the solution, which
decreases its temperature.
In a solution calorimeter, experiments are usually carried out in aqueous solution. The change in
temperature caused by the reaction (∆Tr ) is measured and then multiplied by the calibration factor to
determine the heat change for the reaction.
In solution calorimetry, the energy change is calculated using the equation:
Energy change = CF × ΔT r
The ∆H is the energy change per mole. To find the ∆H divide the energy change by the number
of mole, n.
energy change
ΔH =
n
TIPS:
• Make sure that you label the temperature change in the calibration as ∆Tc and the
temperature change for the reaction as ∆Tr so that you are not confused about which
temperature to use.
energy change
• The equation ∆H = can also be adapted from table 3 of the VCE Chemistry
n
q
Data Book, utilising the equation for the enthalpy of combustion, ∆H = , because q is the
n
variable for energy and n is the number of mole.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
A pure sample of sulfuric acid with a mass of 0.231 g was combined with 100 mL of pure water in
a solution calorimeter. The temperature increased from 19.90 °C to 20.42 °C. The calorimeter
was previously calibrated with 100 mL of water and found to have a calibration factor of
463 J °C−1 . Calculate the ΔH and write the thermochemical equation of the reaction.
THINK WRITE
1. The calibration factor is provided so it does not CF = 463 J °C−1
need to be calculated.
2. Calculate the energy change by multiplying the Energy change = CF × ΔTr
calibration factor (CF) by the temperature = 463 × (20.42° − 19.90°)
change of the reaction (ΔTr ). = 241 J
0.231
3. Find the number of mole (n) of H2 SO4 by n (H2 SO4 ) =
m 98.1
using the equation n = .
M = 2.35 × 10−3 mol
241 J
4. ΔH is the energy change divided by the ΔH =
number of mole using the equation: 2.35 × 10−3
energy change = 1.02 × 105 J mol−1
ΔH = .
n = 102 kJ mol−1

5. Write the thermochemical equation. H2 SO4 (l) → H2 SO4 (aq) ΔH = −102 kJ mol−1
Remember that it is an exothermic reaction so
the sign of ΔH is negative.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
A sample of potassium nitrate with a mass of 5.378 g was combined with 100 mL of pure water in
a solution calorimeter. The temperature decreased from 20.34 °C to 20.10 °C. The calorimeter was
previously calibrated with 100 mL of water and found to have a calibration factor of 620 J °C−1 .
Calculate the ΔH of the reaction.
TIP: If there are quantaties provided for two reactants it is necessary to use the moles of the
limiting reactant to calculate ∆H.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
A solution calorimeter containing 100 mL of water was calibrated by passing a 4.00 A current
through the instrument for 35.0 s at a potential difference of 3.00 V. The temperature rose by
0.700 °C. When 6.60 g of calcium chloride hexahydrate, CaCl2 · 6H2 O, was added to the
calorimeter and dissolved by rapid stirring, the temperature dropped by 0.895 °C.
Determine ΔH for the reaction:
H2O
CaCl2 · 6H2O(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl−(aq)

THINK WRITE
VIt
1. Calculate the calibration factor for the CF =
calorimeter from the relationship using ΔTc
VIt 3.00 × 4.00 × 35.0
CF = . =
ΔTc 0.700
= 600 J°C−1
2. Calculate the energy change during the Energy change = CF × ΔTr
reaction by applying the equation: = 600 × 0.895
Energy change = CF × ΔTr = 537 J
m
3. To calculate the energy per mole first find n (CaCl2 · 6H2 O) =
m M
the number of moles using n = , where
M 6.60
M(CaCl2 ·6H2 O) = 219.1 g mol−1 =
219.1
= 0.0301 mol
energy change
4. The energy per mole can be calculated using ΔH =
energy change n
ΔH = 537
n =
0.0301
= 17819 J
= 17.8 kJ

CaCl2 · 6H2 O(s) ⃯
H2 O
5. Because energy was absorbed during the Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl− (aq)
reaction, the reaction is endothermic and the ΔH = +17.8 kJ mol−1
sign of the ΔH value is positive. Write the
thermochemical equation, converting the ΔH
value to kilojoules.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
A calorimeter was calibrated electrically. The potential difference through the heating coil was
5.23 V, producing a current of 1.83 A for 2.00 minutes. During this time the temperature rose from
19.40 °C to 22.85 °C. Then, 5.10 g of sodium hydroxide was added and the temperature rose to
37.33 °C. Determine ΔH for the reaction:
NaOH(s) ⃯
H O
2
Na+ (aq) + OH− (aq)
Resources
Digital document Experiment 13.2 Solution calorimetry (doc-31283)
Teacher-led video Experiment 13.2 Solution calorimetry (tlvd-0769)
13.4.4 Bomb calorimetry

A solution calorimeter cannot be used to measure the energy obtained from foods or reactions involving
gases. The heat of combustion (when a substance burns in oxygen, according to a particular equation) for
a reaction in these situations may be determined using a bomb calorimeter. The ‘bomb’ is a container that
is designed to withstand high pressure; its volume does not change, and it has valves for adding gases and
an ignition source for combustion reactions. It can be used to measure enthalpy of combustion of other
chemicals, such as fuels, as well as food samples.
Use of bomb calorimeters follows this sequence: FIGURE 13.10 Features of a bomb calorimeter
1. The calorimeter is calibrated as described
oxygen supply thermometer
in section 13.4.2 or by chemical calibration
(as described following practice problem 5).
2. The mass of the sample compound is measured stirrer ignition magnifying
wires eyepiece
and then the sample placed in the inner chamber
of the calorimeter.
3. This chamber (the ‘bomb’) is filled with oxygen
at high pressure. A wire leads into the sample
from outside the calorimeter and an electrical
discharge is sent through the ignition wires. insulating water
jacket
4. The sample is ignited and reacts with
oxygen. The heat from this reaction passes air space
through the walls of the chamber into the water
in the reservoir, which is stirred constantly.
bucket
A thermometer measures the change in
temperature of the water in the insulated water
bath. This temperature change is then used to heater
calculate the heat of combustion of the sample.
ignition coil steel bomb sample crucible

The combustion of food is chemically similar to breaking down food in cellular respiration, and this
combustion reaction involves oxygen. However, the reaction occurs more quickly in a bomb calorimeter
compared to a solution calorimeter, and the energy content of a food, as determined by bomb calorimetry,
usually differs from its energy content from a nutritional point of view. Less energy is available in the body
because fruits and vegetables contain indigestible carbohydrates in the form of cellulose, and some energy
is converted to heat in the body. Bomb calorimeters may be used to measure the energy content of foods. In
the human body, energy is obtained from the combustion of glucose using the equation:
C6 H12 O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l)
When the combustion of glucose reaction is carried out in a bomb calorimeter, it is found that 1 mole of
glucose evolves 2083 kJ of heat in a rapid reaction. However, in the body glucose reacts in a sequence of
steps to produce a slower release of energy. This gives the cells in the body a continual supply of energy for
their needs. When calculating the energy in food it is necessary to calculate the energy per gram because
food is a mixture of components and as such does not have a unique molar mass.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
A bomb calorimeter was calibrated by passing a current of 3.55 A at a potential difference of
6.40 V through a heating coil for 123.7 s. The temperature of the calorimeter rose from 21.82 °C
to 26.13 °C.
After calorimeter had cooled, a dried biscuit weighing 2.34 g was then burned in the
calorimeter in the presence of excess oxygen. The temperature of the calorimeter rose from
22.75 °C to 24.98 °C. Calculate the energy content of the biscuit in J g−1 .
THINK WRITE
1. To find calibration factor, first calculate the E = VIt
electrical energy input using E = VIt. = 6.40 × 3.55 × 123.7
= 2810 J
2. Find the temperature change for calibration using ΔTc = 26.13 − 21.82
ΔTc = Tf − Ti = 4.31°C
VIt VIt
3. Calculate the calibration factor using CF = CF =
ΔTc ΔTc
6.40 × 3.55 × 123.7
=
4.31
−1
= 652 J°C
4. The change in temperature due to combustion of ΔTr = 24.98 − 22.75
the biscuit is ΔTr = Tf − Ti = 2.23 °C
5. The energy released by the biscuit is determined by Energy from biscuit = CF × ΔTr
Energy change = CF × ΔTr = 652 × 2.23
= 1454 J
energy 1454
6. The energy content per gram of the biscuit is Energy per g =
determined by the total energy of the biscuit mass of food (g) 2.34
divided by the biscuit’s mass. = 621 J g−1

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
A bomb calorimeter was calibrated by passing 1.35 A through the electric heater for 60.0 s at a
potential difference of 6.44 V. The temperature of the water in the calorimeter rose from 22.85 °C
to 23.30 °C.
A 2.25 g piece of Margarita pizza was completely burned in the calorimeter in excess oxygen. The
temperature of the calorimeter rose from 22.30 °C to 39.68 °C. Calculate the energy content of the
pizza in kJ g−1 .
Chemical calibration
Chemical calibration uses a combustion reaction with a known ∆H. This means that, instead of electrical
energy, chemical energy is converted to thermal energy. Tablets of benzoic acid are widely used for this
purpose because benzoic acid is readily available, stable, not hygroscopic and has an accurately known
value of molar heat of combustion. The molar heat of combustion of benzoic acid at constant pressure is
3227 kJ mol–1 , that is, ∆H = –3227 kJ mol–1 .
SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
When a sample of benzoic acid, C6 H5 COOH, with a mass of 1.18 g was ignited in a bomb
calorimeter, it produced a temperature rise of 2.43 °C. Given that ΔH(benzoic acid) =
–3227 kJ mol–1 and M(C6 H5 COOH) = 122.0 g mol–1 , calculate the calibration factor of the
calorimeter in kJ °C−1 .
THINK WRITE
m m 1.18
1. Find the moles of benzoic acid using n = . n(C6 H5 COOH) = =
M M 122.0
= 0.00967 mol
2. Calculate the energy produced by this amount of Energy change = n × ΔH
benzoic acid. Remember that ΔH(benzoic acid) = = 0.00967 × 3227
–3227 kJ mol–1 . = 31.2 kJ
3. To determine the CF, the temperature change must ΔTc = Tf − Ti
be calculated using ΔTc = Tf − Ti . = 2.43°C
energy
4. Calculate the calibration factor CF =
ΔTc
31.2
=
2.43
= 12.8 kJ °C−1
PRACTICE QUESTION 6
A 2.48 g sample of benzoic acid was placed in a calorimeter and ignited. The initial temperature
was 18.50 °C and a temperature of 27.37 °C was reached after combustion. Given that ΔH(benzoic
acid) = –3227 kJ mol–1 and M(C6 H5 COOH) = 122.0 g mol–1 . calculate the calibration factor of the
calorimeter in kJ °C–1 .

13.4.5 Temperature–time graphs
Using a bomb calorimeter delivers very
FIGURE 13.11 Determining ∆Tc for a poorly insulated
accurate results. If a calorimeter is well- calorimeter
insulated, there is little heat loss, and the
temperature of the contents decreases slowly. 27.0
This is demonstrated by figure 13.11, which 26.0
is a plot of temperature against time as
Temperature (°C)
25.0
the reaction proceeds. Temperature–time
24.0
graphs can be used to obtain a more accurate Tc = 26.0 – 20.0
23.0 = 6.0ºC
temperature change (∆Tc ) for a poorly
22.0
insulated calorimeter. Use line of best fit to extrapolate back
21.0 to the time current turned off
In solution calorimetry we assume that
there is a negligible heat loss and that all of 20.0
current turned on current turned off
the heat from the reaction is used to heat 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100110120130
the water. However, a small amount of Time (s)
heat may be lost through poor insulation, well-insulated calorimeter
poorly insulated calorimeter
a poor fitting lid, through holes for the
thermometer and stirrer, or absorbed by parts of the calorimeter. In a perfectly insulated calorimeter,
the final temperature remains constant after the current is turned off (as demonstrated by the blue
line in figure 13.11). However, in a poorly insulated calorimeter, the temperature rise would be
less than that in a well-insulated calorimeter. While the current is flowing in a poorly insulated
calorimeter there would be heat loss throughout that time and once the current is turned off,
the temperature would fall rather than remain stable. This is demonstrated by the green line in
figure 13.11. The theoretical ∆H for the reaction can be calculated by extrapolating the graph to
when the reaction commenced. The temperature change (∆Tc ) is the measurement from when the
current was turned off in the calibration to the extrapolated line. This compensates for the error
caused by loss of heat from the water to the surroundings during the time when the current was
turned on.
Temperature–time graphs can be used to obtain a more accurate temperature change (∆Tc )
for a poorly insulated calorimeter.
13.4 EXERCISE
1. Calculate the energy, in kJ, required to heat 1.00 L of water from room temperature (25.0 o C) to boiling point
(100 o C) given the density of water is 0.997 g mL−1 .
2. (a) Consider the apparatus shown in figure 13.8, which was used to measure the energy in a corn chip.
Imagine that the test tube was replaced by a can containing 250 g of water. A biscuit of mass 2.55 g was
burnt, leaving a mass of ash of 2.25 g and a temperature increase from 21.32 °C to 27.23 °C. Estimate
the energy of the biscuit in kJ g−1 .
(b) A large amount of heat escapes using this set up of apparatus. Suggest a modification to improve the
accuracy of this experimental design.
(c) Explain why the answer is given in kJ g−1 and not kJ mol−1
3. (a) What is calorimetry?
(b) Why do calorimeters need to be calibrated?
(c) Explain the difference there would be to the calibration factor, if any, if kelvin (K) was used instead of °C.
(d) Explain the difference there would be to the calibration factor, if any, if 50.0 mL of water was used for
calibration instead of 100.0 mL.

4. Determine the temperature change in a solution calorimeter when 5.00 g of CaCl2 ·6H2 O dissolves in 200 mL
of water according to the equation:
CaCl2 · 6H2 O (s) ⃯

H2 O (l) −
Ca2+ (aq) + 2Cl (aq) ∆H = +17.8 kJ mol−1
The calibration factor for the calorimeter under these conditions was found to be 825 J °C–1 .
5. A student used a simple calorimeter to determine the heat of neutralisation of a strong acid with a strong
base according to the reaction:
−
H+ (aq) + OH (aq) → H2 O(l)
After calibrating the calorimeter, the student calculated the calibration factor to be 343 J °C–1 . The student
then carefully added 50.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl to 50.0 mL of 0.110 M NaOH in the calorimeter. The
temperature in the calorimeter rose from 20.4 °C to a maximum of 21.2 °C.
(a) Explain how the student determined the calibration factor.
(b) Calculate the heat of neutralisation for the reaction.
(c) Suggest why a higher concentration of base than acid was used.
(d) How would the heat of neutralisation have been affected if the student had added 50.0 mL of
0.100 M NaOH to 50.0 mL of 0.110 M HCl in the calorimeter?
(e) Identify the sources of error in the experiment and suggest how these could be minimised.
6. (a) In what circumstances would a bomb calorimeter be used instead of a solution calorimeter?
(b) Describe the features that are found in a bomb calorimeter to cater for these differences in use.
7. Daniel calibrated a bomb calorimeter by passing a current of 3.20 A at a potential difference of 5.40 V
through a heating coil for 1 minute and 15 seconds. The temperature of the calorimeter rose from 19.4 °C to
20.5 °C. A sample of breakfast cereal weighing 1.37 g was then burned in the calorimeter in the presence of
excess oxygen. The temperature of the contents of the calorimeter rose from 19.2 °C to 22.7 °C.
(a) Calculate the calibration factor.
(b) Calculate the heat content of the breakfast cereal in J g–1 .
(c) Explain why this experiment was performed in a bomb calorimeter rather than a solution calorimeter.
(d) Why is the energy content calculated per gram instead of per mole?
13.5 Review
13.5.1 Summary
Energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils
• On average, proteins and carbohydrates provide 17 kJ g–1 , and fats provide 37 kJ g–1 of energy.
• Fats provide more energy but take longer to breakdown.
• Water, minerals, vitamins and fibre are not sources of energy.
• Glucose is the primary energy source and provides 2860 kJ mol−1 .
• Not all of the energy in food is available for bodily functions because some food is not completely
digested or absorbed, or not oxidised, and some energy is converted to heat.
• The brain is dependent on glucose; the liver, muscles and fat cells get energy from fat.
• Fats are broken down in an exothermic oxidation process, similar to combustion, producing carbon
dioxide and water.
• Energy content on nutrition labels is calculated by multiplying the mass of proteins by 17 kJ g–1 ,
carbohydrates by 16 kJ g–1 and fats by 37 kJ g–1 .

Glucose—the primary energy source
• Glucose is obtained through the catalysed hydrolysis of glycogen or starch.
• Cellular respiration is how energy is obtained from glucose. It occurs in the cells of all living
organisms.
• Cellular respiration is an exothermic, redox reaction, similar to combustion, where oxygen reacts with
glucose to form carbon dioixde, water and energy.
• The reaction of cellular respiration is:
• Anaerobic respiration breaks down glucose in the absence of oxygen, producing lactic acid and less
energy than cellular respiration. The reaction of anaerobic respiration is:
C6 H12 O6 (aq) → 2CH3 CH (OH) COOH(aq)
Principles of calorimetry
• Calorimetry is the measurement of the amount of heat released or absorbed in a chemical reaction,
change of state or formation of a solution.
• A simple device to measure heat content in food uses the heat capacity of water.
• Energy = mass of water × specific heat capacity of water × temperature increase:
q = mc∆T
m
• If the volume of water is provided, the mass can be calculated using the density formula d = . The
V
density of water is 0.997 g mL−1 .
• A calorimeter is an instrument that can be used to determine the energy changes that occur when a
chemical reaction takes place.
• The energy released to the calorimeter is given by E = VIt, where: E = energy released (joules),
V = potential difference (volts), I = current (amps) and t = time (s)
• A calibration constant (called a calibration factor) for a calorimeter may be calculated by electrical
calibration according to:
energy released during calibration VIt

Calibration factor (CF) = =
temperature rise ∆Tc
• Enthalpy of reaction can be calculated using Energy = CF × ∆Tr

Energy change
• To find ∆H use ∆H = , where n is the number of mole.
n
• Solution calorimeters can be used to determine the energy changes occurring in aqueous solutions.
• Bomb calorimeters can be used to determine energy changes determined for combustion reactions.
• A calibration factor for a calorimeter may also be calculated by chemical means using a reaction with
a known ∆H.
• A temperature–time graph can be used to improve accuracy of measurement when using a poorly
insulated calorimeter.
Resources

13.5.2 Key terms
anaerobic respiration breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen

bomb calorimeter an insulated steel container enclosed in water used to perform measurements of heat of
combustion
calibrating finding a relationship between two quantities
calorie a measurement of heat energy needed to raise 1 g of water. 1 °C = 4.18 joule
calorimeter apparatus used to measure heat changes during a chemical reaction or change of state
calorimetry a method used to determine the changes in energy of a system by measuring heat exchanges with
the surroundings
carbohydrate general name for compounds including sugars, starch and cellulose
cellular respiration process that occurs in cells to oxidise glucose in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide,
water and energy
chemical calibration calibration of a calorimeter using a combustion reaction with a known ∆H
combustion rapid reaction of a compound with oxygen
electric calibration calibration of a calorimeter by supplying a known quantity of electricity
enthalpy heat content; the total energy in a substance
ethanol an alcohol with two carbons produced from fermentation of glucose by yeast
exothermic a reaction or process where heat is released to the surroundings
fat a triglyceride formed from glycerol and three fatty acids
hygroscopic something that absorbs moisture from the air
kilojoule (kJ) a unit of energy
lactic acid organic acid, C3 H6 O3 , present in muscle tissue as a by-product of anaerobic respiration
protein large molecule consisting of one or more chains of amino acids
serving size recommended amount of food on nutrition label for one serving
solution calorimetry an insulated device used to measure heat changes in a solution, for example, heat of
dissolution and neutralisation reactions
specific heat capacity (c) energy needed to change the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C
thermochemical equations chemical equations that include the ∆H value
Resources
Digital document Key terms – glossary Topic 13 (doc-31424)
Experiment 13.2
Solution calorimetry
Aim: Part A: To determine the calibration factor of a solution calorimeter
Part B: To determine the heat of reaction for zinc metal and copper ions
Resources
Experiment 13.1 Calculating the energy in food (doc-31282)

13.5 Exercises

1. A can of chicken noodle soup provides 10 g of protein, 14 g of carbohydrate and 5 g of fat. The total
number of kilojoules provided by one can of soup is:
A. 659
B. 827
C. 692
D. 579
2. Excess energy from the diet is most likely to be stored in the body as:
A. fat
B. fibre
C. salt
D. sugar.
3. Glucose is a monosaccharide that is essential in metabolism because it:
A. is formed in anaerobic respiration
B. polymerises in the body to form starch
C. is produced by the reaction of CO2 and H2 O, releasing energy
D. is readily available to react with oxygen to provide energy.
4. Which one of the following statements concerning glucose is incorrect? Glucose:
A. polymerises to form proteins
B. releases energy when it reacts with oxygen to form CO2 and H2 O
C. is the main energy source for all living organisms
D. is a monomer of cellulose.
5. Lipids in the diet can be:
A. hydrolysed to glycerol and fatty acids
B. broken down into energy for the body
C. stored as triglycerides for later use
D. all of the above.
6. Annabel measured the heat of combustion of ethanol by burning
some ethanol in a spirit burner and a can containing 250 g of
water as shown below. She used the ethanol to heat the water until
the temperature rose 20 °C. The heat absorbed by the water was
calculated and then Annabel used this calculation and the mass of
ethanol used to determine the heat of combustion of the ethanol.
The result was less than the value stated in the VCE Chemistry Data
Book. Which of the following alternatives could NOT account for Constant
height
this result?
A. Some of the ethanol evaporated
B. Heat escaped into the atmosphere
C. Heat was absorbed by the can and thermometer
D. The mass of the water was 240 g, not 250 g
7. Bomb calorimeters can be used to measure the energy released by burning a small piece of food. Before
the bomb calorimeter can be used to determine heat of combustion of any compound, it must be
calibrated. The following steps in random order are taken to perform the calibration.
Step 1. Supply a measured amount of electricity to the calorimeter for a particular time interval.
Step 2. Record the highest temperature obtained.

Step 3. Fill the calorimeter with a measured volume of water.
Step 4. Connect the calorimeter to a power source.
Step 5. Measure the initial temperature.
Which of the following presents an appropriate sequence of steps?
A. Steps 5, 1, 3, 2, 4
B. Steps 3, 1, 5, 4, 2
C. Steps 3, 4, 5, 1, 2
D. Steps 4, 3, 1, 5, 2
8. 2.31 × 10–2 mol of a compound is burned in a bomb calorimeter. The calorimeter factor is 4700 J °C–1 ,
and the temperature of the calorimeter increases by 5.75 °C when the compound is burned. Calculate
the molar heat of combustion of the compound in J mol–1 .
A. +18.9
B. –18.9
C. 1.17 × 106
D. –1.17 × 106
9. A bomb calorimeter measures the energy:
A. released in a reaction in solution
B. absorbed in a reaction in solution
C. released by a combustion reaction
D. absorbed by a combustion reaction.
10. The temperature rises from 25.00 °C to 27.90 °C when 2.55 g of sucrose undergoes combustion in a
bomb calorimeter. Calculate the molar enthalpy of combustion of sucrose. The calibration factor of the
calorimeter is 4.90 kJ °C–1 . The molar mass of sugar is 342.0 g mol–1 .
A. 1.91 × 103 kJ mol–1
B. –1.91 × 103 kJ mol–1
C. –1.51 × 100 kJ mol–1
D. 1.45 × 101 kJ mol–1

1. Calculate the energy content of one slice of bread with a tablespoon of peanut butter on it which
contains 17 g carbohydrate, 7.0 g protein and 9.0 g fat.
2. ‘Mates’ savoury biscuits contain 14.7 g carbohydrate in 11 biscuits (25 g), which is described as a
standard serve. What is the energy available from 100 g of biscuits?
3. Name the type of chemical reaction that produces the major part of the energy used by the body.
4. Describe one similarity and one difference between the way in which fats and carbohydrates provide
energy in the body.
5. The thermochemical equation for the combustion of glucose is:
C6 H12 O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) ∆H = −2860 kJ mol−1 [1]
The thermochemical equation for the combustion of ethanol is:
C2 H5 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l) ∆H = −1360 kJ mol−1 [2]
Use this information to calculate ∆H for the fermentation of glucose:
C6 H12 O6 (s) → 2C2 H5 OH(l) + 2CO2 (g)
6. The heat of combustion of lauric acid, C11 H23 COOH, can be determined by burning it in a bomb
calorimeter. Write an equation for the complete combustion of lauric acid in excess oxygen.

7. The molar heat of combustion of glucose is 2860 kJ mol–1 . Estimate the approximate heat of
combustion of sucrose and explain how you arrived at your answer.
8. The graph below displays the lactic acid level in an athlete’s blood while doing a training run for a race.
5 During
run
Level of lactic acid in blood

4
(arbitrary units)
3
After
run
2
Before
run
1
0
0 10 20 30 40
Time (min)
Use the graph to describe and explain the changes in the athlete’s blood.
9. A solution calorimeter containing 100 mL of water was electrically calibrated by recording the
stabilised temperature for 90 seconds and then turning on the current recording the temperature every
30 seconds for 210 seconds. The current was then turned off while still continuing to record the
temperature. The temperature–time graph below was obtained.
The potential difference applied was 6.30 V and the current recorded was 3.55 A. Calculate the
calibration factor for this calorimeter.
30
29
28
27
Temperature (°C)
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540 600 660
Time (seconds)
10. A calorimeter was calibrated by passing an electrical current through a heater and measuring the rise in
temperature that resulted. When a current of 133 mA from a 23.1 V source was passed through the
heater for 264 s, the temperature of the calorimeter rose by 2.65 °C. Determine the calibration factor of
the calorimeter.

11. A simple calorimeter was used in a school laboratory to determine the heat of reaction when
magnesium filings were added to hydrochloric acid according to the equation:
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
The calorimeter was calibrated by filling it with 100 mL of deionised water and then passing a current
of 1.85 A at a voltage of 4.70 V through a heating coil for 1 minute and 17 seconds. The temperature
rose by 3.8 °C. The calorimeter was then emptied and 0.766 g of magnesium filings was added to it.
Subsequently, 100 mL of 2.00 M HCl was added to reach the 100 mL calibration mark in the
calorimeter. The temperature in the calorimeter rose from 19.8 °C to a maximum of 21.1 °C.
a. Calculate the calibration factor for the calorimeter.
b. Calculate the heat of reaction.
c. The experimentally determined heat of reaction in question b is much lower than the actual heat of
reaction. Suggest reasons for this discrepancy.
d. What assumptions are made in this experiment?
12. A bomb calorimeter is used to measure the energy content of a ‘Crispy’ biscuit. The calibration factor
of the calorimeter is 2.03 kJ °C–1 . When 2.50 g of the biscuit was burned in the calorimeter, the
temperature of the water rose from 24.2 °C to 45.5 °C.
a. Calculate the heat energy in kJ g–1 of the biscuit.
b. Why is the energy measured in kJ g–1 and not kJ mol–1 ?
c. The energy obtained by the body is actually less than this calculated value. Excluding experimental
error, what might be the reason for this?

A brand of processed meat is advertised as being 85% fat free. One hundred grams of this meat provides
1.25 × 103 kJ of energy.
a. Calculate the mass of fat in 100 g of the meat. 1 mark
b. How many kilojoules are provided by this fat? 1 mark
c. Assuming that protein is the only other nutrient present, what mass of protein is present in 100 g of this
meat? 1 mark
d. What mass is remaining and what substance might account for the remaining mass of
the meat? 1 mark
Palmitic acid is a very common fatty acid that is used to produce soaps and cosmetics. It has a heat of
combustion of 1.00 × 104 kJ mol–1 .
a. Write a thermochemical equation showing the oxidation of palmitic acid, M(CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH) =
256.4 g mol−1 2 marks
b. Is palmitic acid a saturated or unsaturated fatty acid? 1 mark
c. Calculate the energy released by the combustion of 20.0 g of palmitic acid. 2 marks
d. Calculate the mass of glycerol (M(C3 H8 O3 ) = 92.0 g mol–1 ) required to form a triglyceride using
20.00 g of palmitic acid. 1 mark
Two almonds of total mass 2.41 g are burned. The heat released raises the temperature of a 100 g sample
of water from 19.5 °C to 33.4 °C. The mass of the almonds remaining after burning is 1.83 g. Calculate the
energy content of the two almonds in joules per gram. Assume that the water is only able to absorb 30% of
the heat released by the burning almonds.

The calibration factor of a bomb calorimeter was determined to be 26.3 kJ °C−1 . When a marshmallow
weighing 0.870 g was placed in the calorimeter with excess oxygen and ignited, the temperature of the
water bath increased by 1.32 °C. Calculate the heat of combustion of the marshmallow in kJ g−1 .
A bomb calorimeter was calibrated by passing a current of 4.15 A at a potential difference of 3.680 V
through a heating coil for 2 minutes and 15 seconds. The temperature of the calorimeter rose from 21.5 °C
to 23.7 °C. A sample of a high-energy bar weighing 2.50 g was then burned in the calorimeter in the
presence of excess oxygen. The temperature of the contents of the calorimeter rose from 20.9 °C to 35.2 °C.
a. Calculate the heat content of the bar in J g−1 . 3 marks
b. Identify the sources of error in the experiment, explaining how they may have affected
the results. 3 marks

Test maker

AREA OF STUDY 2 What is the chemistry of food?
OUTCOME 2
Distinguish between the chemical structures of key food molecules, analyse the chemical reactions involved in the
metabolism of the major components of food including the role of enzymes, and calculate the energy content of food
using calorimetry.
A 20 20
B 6 29
Total 49
Information:
Resources
SECTION A – Multiple choice questions

1. Diagrams of amino acid structures can be found in the VCE Chemistry Data Book. In the pure solid state with
an approximately neutral pH, the amino acids exist almost completely:
A. As uncharged molecules
B. As zwitterions
C. In cationic form
D. In anionic form.
2. Which amino acid does not form an optical isomer?
A. Alanine
B. Phenylalanine
C. Glutamine
D. Glycine
3. A coenzyme is an organic non-protein molecule. It assists with the functioning of enzymes by:
A. Binding to the active site of the enzyme. The coenzymes are unaltered as a consequence the reaction.
B. Binding to the active site of the enzyme. The coenzymes are altered as a consequence of the reaction.
C. Binding to the substrate. The coenzymes are unaltered as a consequence the reaction.
D. Binding to the substrate. The coenzymes are altered as a consequence the reaction.

4. Select the incorrect statement. Denaturation of enzymes is the result of the breaking of bonds in the:
A. primary structure
B. secondary structure
C. tertiary structure
D. quaternary structure.
5. A protein chain is made up of 146 amino acids. What mass of water is released when 1.00 × 10−3 mol of this
protein is formed?
A. 0.018 g
B. 0.146 g
C. 2.61 g
D. 2.63 g
6. The structural formula of aspartame is shown. The functional groups present in aspartame are:
H2N O
N CH3
HO O
H
A. Carboxyl, amine, carbonyl, ester

B. Carboxyl, amine, amide, ester
C. Carboxyl, amine, amide, ester, methyl
D. Carbonyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl, amine, ester.
7. Select the correct statement. Sucrose is a:
A. Monosaccharide
B. Disaccharide of glucose and galactose
C. Disaccharide of two glucose molecules
D. Disaccharide of glucose and fructose.
8. Cellulose is the most common carbohydrate. It provides strength to cell walls and roughage to the diet, known
as fibre. Cellulose is able to form strong cell walls because:
A. There is extensive branching in cellulose polysaccharide chains
B. There is cross-linking between cellulose polysaccharide chains
C. There is extensive hydrogen bonding between cellulose polysaccharide chains
D. The glycosidic links between the glucose monomers are very strong.
9. A triglyceride formed from which of the fatty acids listed has the lowest iodine number (mass of iodine that
reacts with 100 g of substance)?
A. Palmitoleic
B. Stearic
C. Oleic
D. Linoleic
10. Which of the following is true of the formation of a molecule of fat?
A. A water molecule is produced in the reaction.
B. The fat produced is always a solid.
C. The reaction is between a fatty acid and glycerol.
D. An ester linkage forms between the hydroxyl groups and carboxylic acid groups.

11. What is glycaemic index a measure of?
A. The amount of sugar present in a food
B. The proportion of a carbohydrate that is sugar
C. How readily the carbohydrate is broken down to glucose and absorbed
D. The ratio of amylopectin : amylose
12. Which of the following is an omega-6 fatty acid?
A. Linolenic
B. Palmitoleic
C. Linoleic
D. Arachidic
13. The following graph was obtained for a reaction that took place in a solution calorimeter.
25
Temperature of solution (ºC)

24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s)
Which of the following statements are consistent with the information in the graph?
I. The change in temperature was 4 °C.
II. The calorimeter was not very well insulted.
III. The current was turned off after 50 seconds.
A. I and II only
B. I and III only
C. II and III only
D. I, II and III
14. Which of the following amino acid combinations can form hydrogen bonds with one another when part of a
polypeptide chain?
A. Alanine and arginine
B. Asparagine and leucine
C. Cysteine and glutamic acid
D. Asparagine and serine
15. The correct equation for the complete combustion of sucrose is:
A. 2C12 H22 O11 + 70O2 → 24CO2 + 22H2 O
B. C12 H22 O11 + 12O2 → 12CO2 + 11H2 O
C. C14 H24 O11 + 40O2 → 14CO2 + 12H2 O
D. 2C14 H24 O11 + 29O2 → 28CO2 + 24H2 O
16. Cellular respiration is represented by the following thermochemical equation. What is the energy value of a
teaspoon (5.0 g) of glucose?
C6 H12 O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) ∆H = −2816 kJ mol−1
A. 7.8 × 104 J
B. 782 kJ
C. 7.82 MJ
D. 7.82 kJ

17. A student calibrated a bomb calibrator by passing a current of 3.2 A at a voltage of 5.8 V through the heater for
2 minutes 45 seconds. The temperature rose by 3.65 °C. What is the calibration factor for the calorimeter?
A. 747.5 J °C−1
B. 747.5 kJ °C−1
C. 839.0 J °C−1
D. 839.0 kJ °C−1
18. The label on a loaf of bread says that a slice of bread is 33 g, with 2 g of that being fat, 17 g carbohydrate and
3 g protein. How many slices of bread would a person need to eat to meet their daily recommended intake of
8700 kJ?
A. 11 slices
B. 12 slices
C. 21 slices
D. 22 slices
19. Which of the following statements about enzymes are correct?
I. Changing pH can change the shape of the enzyme and its active site, reducing its activity.
II. Enzymes cannot be used again; once they have been used they are denatured.
III. The induced fit model illustrates that enzymes can temporarily change the shape of their active site.
A. I and II
B. I and III
C. II and III
D. I, II and III
20. Determine the temperature change in a calorimeter when 1.2 g of naphthalene, C10 H8 , is burned in a
calorimeter with a calibration factor of 9560 J °C−1 . The molar heat of combustion of naphthalene was found
to be 5575 kJ mol−1 .
A. 5.5 °C
B. 0.7 °C
C. 62 °C
D. 16.5 °C
SECTION B – Short answer questions

The structure of Vitamin D3 is shown below. The structure of Vitamin C can be found in the VCE Chemistry Data
Book.
H 3C CH3
H3C
CH3
H 2C
HO
Vitamin D
a. Is Vitamin D3 soluble in water? Give reasoning. 2 marks

b. Explain why foods containing Vitamin C must be eaten every day. 2 marks
Starch is made up of two polymers: amylopectin and amylose.

For the same percentage of starch in total, state and explain the difference in solubility of a food higher in
amylose than amylopectin compared to one that contains equal amounts of each.

Many people choose to keep butter out of the fridge because it is more spreadable at warmer temperatures. The
label on a packet of butter suggests that it be stored in an airtight container in the fridge. Explain why these
suggestions are made using ideas about the chemical content of butter and the reactions that it can undergo.
Competitive enzyme inhibition occurs when a molecule similar to the substrate, but unable to be acted on by the
enzyme, competes with the substrate for the enzyme’s active site.
Using ideas about the lock and key model, explain:
a. How an enzyme works to increase the rate of reaction. You may use annotated diagrams to help you. 3 marks
b. How this inhibition may affect the rate of reaction. 2 marks
A section of a protein chain is shown.

H O H O H O H O H O
... N C C N C C N C C N C C N C C ...
H H H CH2 H CH2 H CH2 H H
HC CH3 CH2 C O
CH3 CH2 OH
CH2
NH2
a. On the diagram, circle a peptide bond. 1 mark

b. Using their symbols, identify the amino acids in the chain from left to right. 1 mark
c. Identify the functional groups responsible for the secondary structure of the protein. 2 marks
d. Based on the amino acids present, what type of bonding would be expected in the tertiary structure of this
protein? 2 marks
e. Explain what would happen if the protein were subject to high temperatures. 2 marks
A VCE student calibrated a bomb calorimeter. Their apparatus set up is shown below. They calibrated the
calorimeter by igniting benzoic acid, ∆H = −3227 kJ mol−1 and M(C6 H5 COOH) = 122 g mol−1 , in the calorimeter.
When 2.05 g of benzoic acid is ignited, a temperature rise of 3.32 °C was recorded.
thermometer ignition wires
stirrer
insulation
water bath oxygen atmosphere

sample
reaction chamber

a. Calculate the calibration factor of the calorimeter 3 marks
b. A 1.50 g sample of biscuit was burned in the calorimeter in excess oxygen. The temperature of the contents of
the calorimeter then rose from 21.6 °C to 24.7 °C. Calculate the heat content of the biscuit in J g–1 . 3 marks
ASSESSMENT task – Investigating molecular models

In this task you will analyse four models of key food molecules.
• You will be provided with four models by your teacher and must use these as the basis for your comparison.
Total time: 50 minutes (Time may be allocated before writing time for students to explore the provided models
in test conditions.)
A comparison of food molecules

Part A – Investigating models
Examine the following diagrams (you may wish to construct these using modelling kits). These represent the four
different key food molecules you will investigate.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
1. Draw a table and complete the following tasks for each model (you should have four tables in total), clearly
labelled (a), (b), (c) and (d) as shown.
Each table should have the following sections.
(a) Identification of the type of molecule
(b) Molecular drawing of the model, with clear labels of functional groups and bonds

(c) Drawing and the name of a monomer of this molecule (if any)
(d) Explanation of how this molecule would be metabolised in the body and broken down (including
the key chemical reactions)
(e) Explanation of how larger molecules of this category would be synthesised from smaller subunits
(included the detail of the bonding)
(f) Key properties expected of the molecule formed by the model shown
(g) Five examples of molecules within this category
(h) List of chemical elements found in molecules of this type
(i) General use of the class of molecule by the body
Part B – Analysing food molecules
2. Proteins have four different structures: primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. Describe the differences
between these structures, and identify and describe the types of structures shown in the model of the
protein you investigated.
3. Fatty acids can be classed as either saturated or unsaturated. Explain the difference between these and
identify the type of fatty acid in the model you investigated.
4. Excess glucose from carbohydrates is stored in the body. Identify how it is stored and how this molecule is
created.
5. There are both essential and non-essential vitamins, amino acids and fatty acids. Define the term ‘essential’
in this context and provide an example of:
(a) An essential amino acid
(b) An essential fatty acid
(c) An essential vitamin.
6. Proteins and carbohydrates are known to have monomers, whereas lipids and vitamins do not. Comment
on this statement, explaining the differences between the different food molecules regarding their structure.
7. Explain the structure of enzymes in relation to food molecules and describe how they are used in the
breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and fatty acids.
8. Explain the role of vitamins as coenzymes.
9. Identify the differences in the energy values of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and oils. Explain, with
reference to structure, why these differences are observed.
10. A molecule is found to have the chemical formula C40 H80 O2 . What category of food molecule is this likely to
be? Justify your response.
Resources

AREA OF STUDY 3
PRACTICAL INVESTIGATION
14 Practical investigation
14.1 Overview
14.1.1 Introduction
Performing practical investigations and writing clear and concise
FIGURE 14.1 A student
reports are essential skills in chemistry. As part of Unit 4 in VCE conducting a scientific
chemistry, you will conduct a practical investigation related to energy investigation in the classroom
and food. Energy is vital for life and the way in which this is gained
from food is vital for our survival. Conducting investigations allows
questions to be investigated and answered, and conclusions to be
drawn and. In this topic, you will find guidelines for carrying out
practical tasks safely and preparing thorough reports and scientific
posters using appropriate scientific conventions. You will learn how
to develop a question, plan a methodology and present, analyse and
evaluate data obtained using appropriate chemical terminology.
KEY KNOWLEDGE
• independent, dependent and controlled variables
• chemical concepts specific to the investigation and their significance, including definitions of key terms,
and chemical representations
• the characteristics of scientific research methodologies and techniques of primary qualitative and
quantitative data collection relevant to the selected investigation: volumetric analysis, instrumental analysis,
calorimetry and/or construction of electrochemical cells; precision, accuracy, reliability and validity of data;
and minimisation of experimental bias
• ethics of and concerns with research including identification and application of relevant health and safety
guidelines
• methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data to identify patterns and relationships
including sources of error and uncertainty, and limitations of data and methodologies
• models and theories and their use in organising and understanding observed phenomena and chemical
concepts including their limitations
• the nature of evidence that supports or refutes a hypothesis, model or theory
• the key findings of the selected investigation and their relationship to thermochemical, equilibrium and/or
organic structure and bonding concepts
• the conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation including chemical terminology
and representations, symbols, chemical equations, formulas, units of measurement, significant figures,
standard abbreviations and acknowledgment of references.
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

• Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions
• Plan and undertake investigations
• Comply with safety and ethical guidelines

• Conduct investigations to collect and record data
• Analyse and evaluate data, methods and scientific models
• Draw evidence-based conclusions
• Communicate and explain scientific ideas
Resources
14.2 Key science skills in chemistry

KEY CONCEPTS
• Independent, dependent and controlled variables
• Chemical concepts specific to the investigation and their significance
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

• Develop aims and questions, formulate hypotheses and make predictions
• Plan and undertake investigations
14.2.1 The scientific method: why do we conduct investigations?

In Unit 4, you will be required to conduct an investigation to explore the links between energy and food.
This will require you to present methodologies, evaluate results and draw conclusions in your logbook
and present this as a scientific poster. You will be conducting a practical investigation that uses laboratory
or fieldwork to respond to a question. A practical investigation involves considerable planning, expertise
in working scientifically and time to be appropriately conducted. Figure 14.2 summarises this process of
practical investigations and scientific method.
FIGURE 14.2 The scientific method
RESEARCH
QUESTION
4. Design an
1. Make
experiment to test
observations;
hypothesis
gather data
2. Think 5. Conduct
and ask experiment and
questions record results
3. Formulate
a working 6. Analyse results:
hypothesis is the hypothesis
supported or
rejected?
If the hypothesis is supported,

communicate results
TOPIC 14 Practical investigation 507

This investigation will draw upon a number of
FIGURE 14.3 This investigation will rely on both
the key skills and key knowledge that you gained skills and key knowledge.
in Units 1 and 2 and have been developing in Units
3 and 4. You will have the opportunity to show Key skills
your skill and imagination in experimental design, (Study design
pages 10–11)
commitment to a task and your communication Prescribed template
ability in explaining your results. You will need (Study design
page 11)
to develop a question, plan actions to answer this
Key knowledge
question, undertake an investigation and interpret the (Unit 4, AOS 3, study
data to form a conclusion. design page 34)
This Unit 4 Outcome 3 task requires four to
six hours of class time, allowing time to both conduct the investigation and communicate your findings.
Table 14.1 will assist with your planning. The timeline may be different depending on your school. Your
teacher may also have set checkpoints regarding when you are required to submit work and what specific
components need to be included.
TABLE 14.1 Investigation planning with sample schedule
Task Due date
• Introduction of task and expectations by teacher About two weeks before formal experimentation begins
• Brainstorm topics around the idea of energy and
food
• Construct a choice of topics of investigation for your
teacher
• You return your list of possible topics for approval by A few days later
your teacher, who then provides feedback,
recommendations and final approval.
• Submission of your detailed research proposal for At the beginning of the week before your experiment
your approved topic begins
• Submit your completed and signed risk assessment By the end of the week before your experiment begins
(this also must be signed by your teacher)
• Your requested equipment is assembled by the By the end of the week before your experiment begins
teacher and lab technician.
Your investigation begins. Week 1

• Set up equipment
• Collect preliminary data
• Troubleshoot any issues with equipment
• Collect data and measurements, graph your results
and evaluate trends
• Adjust and refine method
• Continue the cycle of measurements and data Week 2
analysis, leading to a review of progress and further
more detailed measurements.
• Finalise writing the sections of your report and paste Week 3

them into a poster template.
• Submit your logbook and finished poster.

14.2.2 Using a logbook
As part of your scientific investigation (as well as all practical experiments throughout the year), it is a
requirement to keep a logbook. Usually this logbook is a bound exercise book, but your teacher may request
a digital logbook instead. It is vital to show all aspects of your practical investigation within your logbook
using the scientific approach.
Your logbook will be assessed by your teacher. You must date all work that is completed in your logbook
to show when it was completed and assist in validating your work.
TABLE 14.2 Components of a logbook
Component Explanation
Chosen question and title Information about your topic and how you chose it, and the question you
have selected from this
Introductory material Background data on your topic, diagrams, notes and tables, information
about key terms and past experiments that were similar to that which you
are conducting
Hypothesis and aim A clear hypothesis and aim should be recorded outlining what you are
investigating and why, and what you believe will happen.
Planning a method Show all equipment you plan to use and a clear method you plan to follow,
with detailed steps that could be reproducible by someone else
Experimental results Observe and record results in an appropriate form — tables are
particularly useful for this
Discussing and analysing Refer to your results and carefully evaluate these, referring back to your
results hypothesis and questions. You may have set discussion questions to
answer to help scaffold your thoughts and ideas.
Thoughts and questions Note down any concerns or questions you have about your investigation
and research the answer to this.
Conclusion Relates to the aim and hypothesis, and summarises the findings of the
investigation
FIGURE 14.4 All observations should be recorded in a logbook.

14.2.3 Variables
Independent, dependent and controlled variables
In an experiment, a variable is any factor
FIGURE 14.5 The relationships between variables in an
that the researcher can control or change or experiment
measure. Three kinds of variables are commonly
recognised (see figure 14.5). For some variables
Cause Effect/outcome
you will set the value at the start of each (independent variable) (dependent variable)
experiment, others will be determined by
your experiment, and sometimes there will
be variables that you calculate using your
measurements.
Other factors
• An independent variable (IV) is a factor that is (controlled variables)
deliberately manipulated by the investigator
and affects the dependent variable. For example, you may be comparing the different energy content of
various brands of cereal. The independent variable is the type of cereal.
When graphing results, the independent variable is always placed on the horizontal axis.
• A dependent variable (DV) is the factor that the investigator measures. The dependent variable is
affected by the independent variable. In the cereal brand investigation, the dependent variable would
be the energy content.
The dependent variable is always placed on the vertical axis of a graph.
• Controlled variables are all the other factors that the investigator must maintain at constant values
through the course of an experiment. If these factors are not kept constant, they can confound the
experimental results because they can cause changes in the dependent variable. In the cereal brand
investigation, controlled variables would include the amount of each cereal used, the storage of the
cereal and the instrument used to record data. Controlled variables should also include environmental
factors such as humidity and air temperature, but these are harder to control.
In summary:
• the independent variable is what an investigator changes
• the dependent variable is what an investigator observes and measures
• controlled variables are what the investigator keeps constant.
The following is an example for identifying variables.
Allira and Hunter are investigating the use of different combinations of metals for the anodes and
cathodes in constructing galvanic cells. They plan to measure and record the cell voltage.
FIGURE 14.6 A galvanic cell
– +
e− e−
cathode
anode
salt bridge
Zn Cu
– +
Zn2+ Cu2+

• Independent variable: The factor that is being manipulated is the metals used in the galvanic cell
• Dependent variable: The factor that is being measured is the cell voltage
• Controlled variables: The factors that are kept consistent are the same amount of solution in beakers,
same type of salt bridge, same voltmeter used for all setups, same size beakers, and same laboratory
conditions
Variables can also be classified as numerical (quantitative) or categorical (qualitative). Refer to
section 14.4.2 for further detail on this.
Resources
Interactivity Variables (int-7731)
14.2.4 Developing aims and questions

Coming up with a topic
Choosing a topic is not an immediate
FIGURE 14.7 There are many different foods that can be explored
process — it takes time and careful in this investigation
consideration. It is important you
don’t just pick a topic that sounds
interesting, but that you pick one
that is reasonable to complete in the
provided time frame and using the
available resources.
The topic of your investigation
needs to be around food and energy,
so review the work you completed in
Units 3 and 4 to help brainstorm ideas.
You may wish to create a mind map
or a diagram outlining the various
types of food and different ways that
you measure each of these. Research
the time this will take and what other
research you could conduct. Plan what
types of food you might investigate — figure 14.7 might give you some ideas. This will help you get your
head around the different topics and what requirements there would be.
Some examples of topics may be:
• Comparing the energy values between different types of oils
• Checking the accuracy of nutritional information on different brands of chips
• Exploring how differences in pH affect the enzymatic breakdown of starch by amylase
Creating a question
Turning the topic into a question focuses your mind on what you want to find out. The question needs to be:
• one that can be investigated through scientific method
• practicable, given your knowledge, time and the school resources
• asked in a way that indicates what you will do.
The following is an example of formulating a question from a topic:
Topic: Comparing the energy found in carbohydrates and fats.
Question: Do fruits high in fats and oils such as avocados have more energy than fruits high in
carbohydrates such as oranges?
OR

Question: How does the energy content differ between fats and carbohydrates when examined using
solution calorimeter?
There are many ways of formulating a question from a topic. Just make sure it is something that can be
measured, explored and answered in the scope of your practical investigation.
Developing an aim
Often, developing an aim of an investigation is done at the same time as formulating a question from your
topic. The aim outlines the purpose or the key objective of the investigation. It outlines what you are trying
to achieve in order to answer your question and either support or not support your hypothesis.
There are two different ways that you can format your aim.
1. To [determine/investigate/compare] how the dependent variable is affected by the independent
variable
2. To [determine/investigate/compare] how the independent variable affects the dependent variable
Your aim must:
• Be no more than two lines
• Be linked to your question
• Link the independent and dependent variables.
Examples of aims include:
• To use solution calorimetry to find the enthalpy change of different concentrations of sugar solutions.
• To investigate what variety of bread has the highest energy content per gram.
• To compare the energy content of peanuts and baked beans.
• To observe if changing the temperature of amylase affects the rate of starch breakdown.
• To explore if different types of oil have the same energy content.
14.2.5 Formulating hypotheses and making predictions
Formulating a hypothesis is an important step in the scientific method.
FIGURE 14.8 A hypothesis is a testable explanation for a concept.
Explanations
Hypotheses
A hypothesis is a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon, which
predicts the relationship between two variables or predicts the outcome of an investigation.
Testable means that a hypothesis can be easily tested by observations and/or experiments.
Falsifiable means that there has to be a way to be prove the hypothesis wrong.

A hypothesis usually predicts the relationship between two kinds of variables: an independent and a
dependent variable.
To write a hypothesis, a good tip is to use the following format:

If [statement involving independent variable], then [prediction involving dependent variable].
Typically, a scientific hypothesis starts with the tentative explanation and includes a prediction by which
the hypothesis can be tested.
TABLE 14.3 Example of a good working hypothesis
IF THEN
IF a straw is used to blow bubbles of carbon dioxide THEN the pH will increase due to the production of
into a glass of water carbonic acid.
IF the number of double bonds decreases the melting THEN unsaturated fats such as linoleic acid will have a
temperature of a molecule lower melting point than saturated fats such as palmitic
acid.
FIGURE 14.9 What would you hypothesise if FIGURE 14.10 Oils are liquid at room
bubbles were blown through a straw? temperature and fats are solid. Which would
you expect to have more double bonds?
Now consider the following statements and decide if each is an example of a well-formatted hypothesis:
• Statement 1: ‘Small ice cubes melt faster.’
No. This is simply a testable prediction. It does not include a tentative explanation.
• Statement 2: ‘If an ice cube has a smaller volume, then it will melt faster when left at room
temperature’.
No. This does not identify a tentative explanation. The statement shows a method and a predicted
outcome.
• Statement 3: ‘If an ice cube has a smaller volume, particles will gain energy at an increased rate,
causing it to melt faster at room temperature compared to an ice cube with a larger volume.’
Yes. This identifies a tentative hypothesis (explanation) and a predicted outcome by which the
hypothesis can be tested.
Resources
Interactivity Formatting a hypothesis (int-7732)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
Polly is putting the kettle on. Polly is very curious about science and wants to see how she can
change the speed the water boils. She has heard rumours that salt causes water to boil faster.
She has four different types of salts in her house: table salt, sea salt, Himalayan pink salt and
chicken salt.
Write an appropriate research question, aim and hypothesis for the scenario listed above:
THINK WRITE
1. Determine the variables to help write an aim, The IV is the salt type
hypothesis and research question. The DV is the time it takes for the
The factor that Polly is manipulating (the water to boil.
independent variable) is the type of salt.
The factor that Polly is measuring (the dependent
variable) is the time it takes for the water to boil.
2. Create a research question based on Polly’s Does the type of salt added to water
problem. impact the time it takes for water to
Make sure that the question is one that is testable boil?
and clearly outlines what is occuring in the
investigation?
3. Write an aim that clearly outlinesthe purpose of the To determine if different types of salts
investigation. Be sure to link the IV and DV. impact the time it takes for water to boil.
4. Write a hypothesis in the ’IF … THEN’ format. If table salt, sea salt, Himalayan salt
Remember, a hypothesis needs to link the IV and or chicken salt is added to water, then
DV. Your hypothesis may not be correct, but it must the time taken for the water to boil
be testable (you may also specify which salt you will decrease with pure table salt
think would do this best). causing the largest decrease in time.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 1
Jack wants to know if changing the material of the clothing that Jill is wearing will impact the speed
at which she rolls down the hill.
Write an appropriate research question, aim and hypothesis for the scenario listed above.
14.2.6 Planning and undertaking experiments

Planning experiments
Once your teacher has approved your topic, and you have written a question, aim and hypothesis, the real
work begins. One way that planning may begin is through the use of a practical proposal.
At the end of your planning, you should be able to produce three written documents. These should be in
your logbook and include the following.
• A risk analysis based on the hazards that you have identified (refer to section 14.5.2 for detail on risk
assessments).
• A detailed list of equipment required, along with quantities (refer to section 14.4.3 for detail about
different equipment used in chemistry).
• An explicit, step-by-step method that takes all of your planning into consideration, including diagrams
if relevant. Setting this up as a Practical Investigation proposal as seen in figure 14.11 may be useful.

FIGURE 14.11 A practical investigation proposal
Practical investigation proposal

Name: Jill
Partner’s name: (optional) Jack
Title of your investigation Exploring the solubility of copper sulfate in water at various temperatures
Briefly describe its purpose: To determine if the solubility of copper sulfate in water changes at varying
(A brief sentence, but it needs to be temperatures.
precise)
Write down three starting questions 1. Is there an optimal temperature for copper sulfate solubility in water?
you want to answer. 2. Is copper sulfate soluble at all temperatures?
( These are to help focus your 3. What is the solubility of copper sulfate at room temperature?
planning.)
List your independent variable as Independent: Temperature of the water
well as dependent variables. Dependent: Solubility of copper sulfate, mass of copper sulfate able to
(This enables your teacher to see dissolve, colour of solution
if you have thought of all the
obvious variables.)
List the chemistry concepts and Solubility is the extent to which a solute dissolves in a solvent
relationships that you expect to All sulfates are soluble in water except those formed with silver, lead,
use in your investigation. calcium, strontium and barium.
( This will give your teacher an In water, copper sulfate dissociates as follows:
indication of the extent of your CuSO4 (s) → Cu2+ (aq) + SO42 + (aq)
understanding of the topic) The solubility of copper sulfate is known to be 20.5 g per 100 g of water at 20 °C
List the equipment and measuring • Copper sulfate solid
instruments that you plan to use. • Watch glass
(This is for your teacher to see • Spatula and stirring rod
whether you have the right tools • Scales
for the task.) • Bunsen burner, heatproof mat, gauze mat and tripod
• Thermometer
• 200 mL beaker
• Deionised water
Sketch your experimental set up. thermometer

(This
( will ensure the first day of your
investigation runs smoothly and beaker with water and copper sulfate
your teacher may be able to
gauze mat
suggest refinements.)
tripod
Bunsen burner
heatproof mat
List the steps in your experimental 1. Fill the beaker with 100 mL of water
design. 2. Place copper sulfate on a watch glass and weigh it
( This is an important stage in your 3. Record the temperature of the room
planning and it will enable your 4. Slowly add copper sulfate into the water, mixing with a stirring rod
teacher to see if there is anything 5. Determine when no more copper sulfate can be dissolved and record the mass
you have forgotten.) 6. Fill another beaker with 100mL of water and heat to 40 °C and
repeat step 4 and 5.
7. Repeat step 6 at 60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C
Any special requests Will need a container to dispose of copper sulfate solution
(E.g. equipment may need to be left
set up between classes, or access
at lunchtime or after school may be
needed.)

Conducting investigations
When conducting investigations, it is vital to:
• follow all health and safety protocols
• make sure you know how to use any chosen equipment correctly to minimise errors.
• carefully follow your methods, and if any changes are required, note these down in your logbook.
• control variables outside your independent variable to keep your results accurate and precise.
• clearly record any results obtained, along with the date. This includes any results that did not go
according to plan and any results for both control and experimental groups.
• carefully pack up equipment after use. If equipment is required to be set up for a few days, leave it in a
location where it cannot be impacted by other individuals or environmental factors.
• if time allows, repeat your experiment to improve accuracy and reliability.
14.2 EXERCISE
your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au
1. Using the following topics, create a testable question that could be used for a practical investigation.
(a) Comparing the electrolysis of different electrodes in potassium nitrate solution.
(b) Exploring the boiling point of different hydrocarbons.
(c) Using the specific heat capacity of water to determine the heat energy released by different fuels.
2. What is the purpose of a logbook in practical investigations?
3. Describe the difference between a dependent and an independent variable.
4. Why is it important to control variables in an investigation?
5. A student conducted an experiment to measure the effect of changing temperature on the rate of the
combustion of a certain type of fuel.
Test 1: 0.01 mol at 10 °C
The results from each trial were then analysed to produce an overall conclusion.
(a) State the independent and the dependent variables in this experiment.
(b) What were the controlled variables in this experiment?
(c) Describe any improvements you would make to the experimental method.
6. The following is an excerpt from a report describing the method for an experiment on determining the
temperature change of water when burning different brands of bread.
Five brands of bread were chosen to be examined. Three slices of bread were selected from each
packet of bread and broken down into pieces that were the same size and mass. All bread was baked
on the same day and kept in the same conditions before the investigation was conducted. The pieces
of bread were then burnt underneath a test tube of water and the change in temperature was recorded.
(a) What is the independent variable in this experiment?

(b) What is the dependent variable?
(c) State as many controlled variables as you can think of for this experiment.
7. Select which of the following is an acceptable hypothesis.
A. Does cordial have a higher pH than water?
B. If the amount of hydrogen ions is higher in cordial compared to water, then the cordial is more acidic and
will be recorded at a lower pH.
C. If cordial is more acidic, it will have a lower pH recorded.
8. Testing a scientific question by experiment involves a number of stages. These are shown by the statements
below. Use the letters to put these stages into their correct order.
A. Formulate the hypothesis.
B. Decide on the question.
C. Analyse the results.
D. Communicate the results.
E. Plan the experiment.
F. Carry out the experiment.

9. After some preliminary reading, a student has become intrigued by the possibility that hydrocarbons with
double bonds (alkenes) have lower boiling points than those with single bonds (alkanes). Therefore, she
proposes the questions: Do alkanes and alkenes have different boiling points?
(a) Write a reasonable hypothesis that she could test experimentally based on this question.
(b) Which of the following is a characteristic of a good hypothesis?
A. It must be proven true.
B. It must be testable by observation or an experiment.
C. It must be based on experiments done by other scientists.
Resources
Interactivity Variables (int-7731)
14.3 Concepts specific to investigations

KEY CONCEPT
• Chemical concepts specific to the investigation and their significance, including definitions of key terms,
and chemical representations
KEY SCIENCE SKILL

14.3.1 Concepts specific to investigations

As part of an investigation, it is vital to link key chemistry concepts that are relevant and clearly explain
their significance. This shows a clear link of your understanding for an investigation, and allows others to
see the connection between theory and practical applications.
Background knowledge
Concepts should be researched prior to commencing your investigation, recorded in your logbook and
referenced. This background information also will form part of your introduction in your poster.
Concepts that are relevant to your investigation include:
• explanations of key formulae
• definitions of key terms
• detail about the theories being examined
• information about other practical investigations exploring similar concepts.
An example of this may be investigating the heat energy released in the combustion of a fuel. In your
background information, it would be important to:
• describe the fuels you are looking at in the investigation and their chemical formulas
• discuss previous investigations and experiments conducted, by yourself and by other researchers
• describe key theoretical ideas to provide the reader with knowledge to understand the key concepts
(e.g. linking to thermochemical factors)
• defining key terminology relating to the investigation
q
• explaining key formula (such as ∆H = ), including identifying the symbols used.
n
14.3.2 Key terms
It is vital in practical investigations to define any key terminology. This can be done in two ways:
• within the report itself
• as part of an appendix or glossary at the end of the report.
The following excerpt shows an introduction from a scientific report written by a student. This
investigation was conducted to explore different types of hydrocarbons.
Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are composed solely of carbon and hydrogen, used in a variety of
different roles, including as fuels. Two types of hydrocarbons are being explored in this investigation: alkanes,
which only contain single carbon bonds and are saturated, and alkenes, which contain one or more double
bonds between carbon atoms.
This student has clearly defined key terms as part of their introduction within their report itself. What
terms have they defined?
Read the following excerpt of an introduction from a scientific report written by a different student,
investigating the same practical.
In this investigation, different types of hydrocarbons are being compared, with a particular focus on their use as
fuels. Two groups of hydrocarbons are being investigated: alkanes and alkenes.
In this situation, the student has not defined the terms in their introduction itself, but has bolded key
words that later appeared in their glossary as shown below:
Glossary of key terms:
Hydrocarbons: organic compounds that are composed solely of carbon and hydrogen
Alkanes: hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds between carbon atoms
Alkenes: hydrocarbons that contain one double bond between carbon atoms
Both of these formats are valid methods to define key terms. The method used depends on the format
of the report or personal preference. Be sure to check which method is most suitable for the practical
investigation you are conducting with your teacher.
14.3.3 Chemical representations

A variety of representations are used in
FIGURE 14.12 Representations form a vital part of
chemistry. They include the use of models, chemistry reporting
sketches, graphs, equations, formulae, symbols
and diagrams. As well as this, there are many
vital conventions into the use of numerical
data, including significant figures and scientific
notation. Perhaps the most common chemical
representation is the use of chemical formulas.
Care should be taken with capital letters and
subscripts and superscripts when representing
atoms and ions. For example, CO is carbon
monoxide, while Co is the metal cobalt.
Formulas that demonstrate structure

Structures are often drawn in a skeletal form in
chemistry, particularly in organic chemistry.
Lines between atoms represent the number of bonds present. Sometimes we can shorten these
representations even further, as shown in the skeletal formulas for the benzene ring and dodecane in figure
14.15. Skeletal formulas do not show specific carbon and hydrogen atoms or the bonds connecting them.
FIGURE 14.13 Different representations of methane: (a) Ball-and-stick model, (b) diagram showing bond angles,
(c) valence structure and (d) shape diagram
(a) (b) (c) (d)

H H
H C H C H
H H
109.5° H

FIGURE 14.14 Some common structural formulas representing various molecules
H H
H C C H ethane H
H C H
H H
C C
benzene
H H C C
C C ethene H C H
H H H
H C C H ethyne
FIGURE 14.15 Skeletal formulas of different molecules: (a) benzene and (b) dodecane.
(a) (b)
HH HH HH HH HH HH
H C C C C C C
C C C C C C H
C6H6 represents HH HH HH HH HH HH
dodecane (C12H26)
Scientific notation
Very large and very small quantities can be more conveniently expressed in scientific notation. In scientific
notation, a quantity is expressed as a number between one and ten multiplied by a power of ten. In
chemistry, scientific notation is generally used for numbers less than 0.01 and greater than 1000.
To write in scientific notation, follow the form N × 10a , where N is a number between one and ten and
‘a’ is an integer (positive or negative).
When converting numbers into scientific notation the following steps should be followed:
1. Determine where the decimal point needs to go so that N is between 1 and 10.
2. Count the number of places the decimal point is moved to determine a (the power of 10 or the
exponent). If the decimal point was moved to the left, a will be positive, if it was moved to the right, a
will be negative.
3. Write the number in scientific notation.
For example, the average distance between the Earth and the moon is 380 000 000 m. This is more
conveniently expressed as 3.8 × 108 m in which the decimal point was moved 8 places to the left. The
radius of a lead atom in metres is 0.000 000 000 175. This is more conveniently expressed as 1.75 × 10−10
m, in which the decimal point was moved 10 places to the right.
As you can see, very large numbers will have a positive exponent (a), whereas very small numbers will
have a negative exponent. 5 × 10−3 for example, can be written as 0.005, whereas 5 × 103 can be written as
5000.
Quantities in scientific notation can be entered into your calculator using the EXP button or ˆ button.
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
a. The average distance between Earth and Sun is 149 600 000 kilometres. Write this in scientific
notation.
b. The mass of a proton is 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 67 g. Write this in scientific notation

THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine the position of the decimal point in order for the number to be 1.496
between 1 and 10 and remove any 0s that are not between non zero digits.
The decimal point would need to go between 1 and 4 to form 1.496
2. Determine the exponent by establishing the number of places the decimal 108
point was moved.
If the decimal point was moved to the left to convert to scientific
notation, the exponent should be positive, if the point was moved to the
right, the exponent should be negative.
The decimal point was moved 8 spots to the left so the exponent is 8.
3. Write the number in scientific notation, remembering to include the units. 1.496 × 108 km
a. 1. Determine the position of the decimal point in order for the number to be 1.67
between 1 and 10 and remove any 0s that are not between non zero digits.
The decimal point would need to go between 1 and 6 to form 1.67.
2. Determine the exponent by establishing the number of places the decimal 10−24 .
point was moved.
If the decimal point was moved to the left to convert to scientific
notation, the exponent should be positive, if the decimal point was moved
to the right, the exponent should be negative.
The decimal point was moved 24 spots to the right so the exponent is
−24.
3. Write the number in scientific notation, remembering to include the units. 1.67 × 10−24 g
PRACTICE PROBLEM 2
Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
a. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149 600 000 km.
b. The radius of a potassium atom is 0.000000028 m.
c. There are an estimated 900 000 000 dogs in the world.
14.3 EXERCISE
1. Show two ways that key terms can be defined in your report, by writing a short paragraph defining the terms
‘aim’ and ‘hypothesis’.
2. Why are representations useful in scientific reporting?
3. Express the following quantities in scientific notation.
(a) The mass of a grain of sand that is 0.000667 g.
(b) The diameter of the nucleus of uranium is 0.000000000000015 m
(c) The approximate number of new skin cells produced in a month is 900 000.
4. Convert each of the following numbers from scientific notation to an ordinary number (the full number).
(a) 6.524 × 10−4
(b) 5.1234 × 105
(c) 1.54 × 101
(d) 12.01 × 10−3

(e) 4.5 × 102
(f) 2.457 × 10−6
(g) 9.024 × 10−5
14.4 Scientific research methodologies and

techniques
KEY CONCEPTS
• The characteristics of scientific research methodologies and techniques of primary qualitative and
quantitative data collection relevant to the investigation: volumetric analysis, instrumental analysis,
calorimetry and/or construction of electrochemical cells; precision, accuracy, reliability and validity of data;
and minimisation of experimental bias
• Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data to identify patterns and relationships
including identification of sources of error and uncertainty, and of limitations of data and methodologies
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

14.4.1 Characteristics of scientific research methodologies

Carefully following scientific research methodology when conducting practical investigations is important
to ensure that your results are as precise, accurate, reliable and valid. This includes minimising errors and
uncertainties in data in order to draw conclusions in relation to your question.
Each type of research method has its specific purposes, procedures, advantages and limitations. The
researcher’s choice depends on which method is most appropriate for the specific topic of research interest
and hypothesis being tested.
There are different types of scientific inquiry and research methods that can be used. These are shown in
table 14.4.
TABLE 14.4 Types of scientific inquiry
Method Use
Controlled Determining the relationship between an independent and dependent variable. All
experiment other variables are controlled.
For example, testing the melting temperatures of different metals.
Single variable Exploring how a variable can change over time and understanding causes of the
investigation observations and how other factors impact it.
For example, investigating how an element decays over time.
Identification Investigating if objects or events belong to specific sets or are part of new sets.
For example, understanding if a new element is a metal or non-metal.
Designing Designing a device using scientific knowledge.

For example, designing, constructing, testing and evaluating a device that can be
used to treat and purify water.
Investigating Exploring everyday phenomena and collecting evidence to test the model
models For example, devising an investigation to test the law of conservation of mass.

In all scientific inquiries, various processes are followed. These include:
• formulating a question and hypothesis to be tested
• controlling variables
• completing a logbook outlining the introduction, methodology, results, discussion and conclusion of
an investigation
• ensuring that methods are being taken to allow for validity, accuracy, precision and reliability
• ensuring that methods are being used that reduce uncertainties and errors
• collecting data accurately in an appropriate form that best suits the question being investigated
• where possible, having a control group (not exposed to an independent variable to act as a baseline)
and numerous experimental groups (exposed to the independent variable).
Control groups
Usually, if the identification of controlled variables is complex, or many are present, it can be simpler to
include a control group. A scientific control is an experiment or observation that involves all variables
except the independent variable. For example, a scientist may be trying to measure the absorbance of light
by various concentrations of cobalt chloride solutions. The independent variable in such an investigation
would be the concentration of cobalt chloride, and the dependent variable would be the absorbance reading
obtained. However, there are a number of other variables that may affect the result. These include the nature
of the solvent, the type of glass that the containers holding the solutions are made from, the distance the
light has to travel (especially through the solution) before it is measured, the temperature of the solution
and so on. A convenient way to control all these variables, and maybe even some that you aren’t aware
of, is to use a control. Everything about the control, from the way it is prepared to how it is manipulated
and measured in the experiment, is the same as for the test solutions containing cobalt chloride. The only
difference is that there is no cobalt chloride (the controlled variable) in the control. This allows the scientist
to isolate the amount of absorption in each reading that is due to the cobalt chloride alone because it is the
only variable left that is responsible for any differences in absorbance readings.
Another example of control and experimental groups being used may occur in a practical investigation
exploring the conductivity of different concentrations of sodium chloride (NaCl) solution.
The experimental groups would be the different concentrations of sodium chloride being tested.
The control group would be testing with pure water (0% sodium chloride), to examine the conductivity
when there is no NaCl present.
14.4.2 Techniques of primary qualitative and quantitative

data collection
Data is a set of facts that are collected, FIGURE 14.16 Recording data is vital in investigations
observed or generated. Data that you
gather may come from primary sources
or from secondary sources. Typically, data
that you collect is raw data that must later
be analysed and interpreted to produce
useful information.
Primary sources of data provide
direct or firsthand evidence about
some phenomenon, such as a research
investigation. Your completed logbook
will be a primary source of data about
pursuing an investigation into your
research question.

Secondary sources of data are comments on, or summaries and interpretations of, primary data. Sources
of secondary data include review articles in newspapers and popular science magazines in which other
individuals summarise and comment on the research of others.
Qualitative and quantitative data

Qualitative data (or categorical data) is expressed in words. It is descriptive and not numerical and can
be easily observed but not measured. Bar graphs or pie graphs are often used to display the frequencies of
categorical variables.
There are two types of categorical data.
1. Ordinal data can be ordered or ranked such as ionisation energies (1st , 2nd , 3rd ) or opinion polls
(strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
2. Nominal data cannot be organised in a logical sequence such as the types of sub-atomic particles
(proton, neutron or electron) and the colour litmus paper turns when exposed to an acid or base.
Quantitative data (or numerical data) can be precisely measured and have values that are expressed in
numbers. Line graphs or scatterplots are often used to display the frequencies of numerical variables.
There are two types of numerical data.
1. Continuous data can take any numerical value, such as the temperature of a substance or the
concentration of a solution.
2. Discrete data can only take on set values that can be counted, such as the number of protons in an
atom or the number of electron shells.
Table 14.5 shows examples of how some attributes can be expressed both qualitatively and quantitatively.
TABLE 14.5 Examples of data types
Attribute Qualitative Quantitative
Length of pendulum Long 52 cm
Colour Green 520 nm
Sound Loud 85 decibels
Speed Fast 120 kph
Temperature Hot 100 °C
Gravitational force Strong 9.807 m/s-2
When collecting data, it is vital to consider what is most appropriate for your investigation. Normally, the
best evidence is primary quantitative data, and for a majority of your investigations this is what should be
collected and recorded. However, while preferred, it is sometimes not always possible to collect quantitative
data. In this case qualitative data can be collected instead. Qualitative data can be quite subjective or open to
interpretation (one student may say dark, another may say dark blue and a third student may say black), so
it is important to make sure that the data you collect and record is clear and as detailed as possible.
In terms of primary data collection, it is important that results are carefully checked to make sure
that recorded data is correct. Many people interpret measurements slightly differently, or use the wrong
units, so make sure you are double checking data. All your collected data should be recorded in your
logbook — note down all observations (usually in a table). You may find noting down both the qualitative
and quantitative data gives the clearest detail for your investigation.

14.4.3 Choosing techniques relevant to an investigation
It is important to select techniques that will best suit your investigation. You should consider the techniques
used in experiments investigating topics similar to your own, and the construction and evaluation of devices
used in these experiments.
When selecting appropriate techniques, it is important to ensure the following:
• the technique can be performed in an appropriate time frame
• the technique is appropriate to your investigation and serves a purpose to answering the question and
supporting or rejected your hypothesis
• the data is easily recorded, measured and interpreted, with a particular emphasis on quantitative data
• the technique can be safely performed. This is particularly important in a school where health and
safety restrictions are closely regulated.
• the equipment used in the technique is available and cost effective — if it is not available in a school,
can it be used with permission at other locations?
• the technique allows for the control of other variables — if there are too many factors that cannot be
controlled, the technique is not a good choice for an investigation.
Selecting your measuring instruments

You should consider the most appropriate equipment
FIGURE 14.17 Different types of measuring
to use for the purposes of your investigation. equipment vary in precision
For example, if a liquid volume of 25 mL
is required, what would be the most appropriate
piece of equipment to measure it? If a high-precision
measurement is required (i.e. a lower uncertainty), a
25.00 mL pipette would probably be used. However, if
this level is not required, a measuring cylinder or even
a 100 mL beaker might be more appropriate.
Your school will have a range of measuring
instruments, which will vary in precision and ease of
use. You won’t always need to use the most accurate
instrument. A simple instrument that allows for quick
measurements will be enough more often than not.
Sometimes a simple stopwatch is just as good as an electronic timer, or a voltmeter may compare well to a
more accurate multimeter.
Some instruments that you might consider are as follows, listed based on what they measure.
Mass
• Beam balance: accurate with a large range of values; can be time-consuming to measure several masses
FIGURE 14.18 Beam balance

• Spring balance: quick to use; covers a large range of masses; not very accurate
FIGURE 14.19 Spring

balance
• Top-loading balance: very accurate; very good for small masses; simple to use. With equipment set up
above the balance, it can be used to measure small variations in attractive and repulsive forces such as
magnetic force, electric force and surface tension. If the balance sits on a laboratory jack, force against
distance can be easily measured.
FIGURE 14.20 Top-loading balance
pH and concentrations
• Titrations: determine the concentration of a solution, particularly through acid-base titrations
FIGURE 14.21 Equipment used in titrations. (a) A volumetric flask is used to prepare a standard solution. (b) A
conical flask holds the solution of unknown concentration. (c) A pipette is used to add the unknown solution to the
conical flask. (d) The burette holds the standard solution, which is added ot the conical flask.
(a) (b) (c) (d) 0 mL
conical
flask
burette 50 mL
and stand
250 mL 20 mL
volumetric flask pipette
• pH meter: Measures pH accurately, but can easily break if not maintained or stored correctly.
• Litmus paper: Allows for a quick visual to determine if a solution is acidic or alkaline
• Universal indicator: Allows for an easy visual representation to determine the approximate pH of a
solution.
Time
• Stopwatch: simple to use; accurate down to your response time; not reliable for short time intervals
• Electronic timer: requires some instruction; very accurate; best suited for short time intervals; can be
used with electrical contacts and photogates
Electrical
• Meters: includes voltmeters, ammeters, galvanometers, etc; easy to set up, but care is needed to ensure
the meter is wired into the circuit correctly, otherwise the meter can be damaged; large range of values;
usually analogue displays
FIGURE 14.22 Voltmeter
• Multimeters: easy to set up; more tolerant of incorrect use, but can be damaged if incorrectly
connected to a high current; large range of values; usually digital displays
Specialised equipment
You may also have access to some specialised equipment, which you may use in your practical
investigation. These are unlikely to be available in a general school laboratory, but it is important to note
that the following equipment is all highly accurate and precise. Discuss with your teacher if any of these
are available for use at your school or nearby. Alternatively, you may wish to explore these as a point of
discussion when discussing uncertainties and possible errors in the data and results you obtained.
• Gas chromatograph: a sample is injected and it measures the content of various components in a
sample
FIGURE 14.23 Gas chromatograph
• Mass spectrometer: an analytical instrument that determines the relative isotopic masses of the
different isotopes of an element and abundance

FIGURE 14.24 Mass spectrometer
• Solution calorimeter: used to find energy change occurring in aqueous solutions
FIGURE 14.25 Solution

calorimeter
• Bomb calorimeter: used to determine the energy change for reactions involving gases
• Atomic absorption spectrometer: absorption of light to measure concentrations of metal ions.
FIGURE 14.26 Atomic absorption spectrometer

• HPLC (high-pressure liquid chromatography): used to measure the concentration of organic
substances.
FIGURE 14.27 HPLC
14.4.4 Precision, accuracy, reliability and validity

For your investigation, it is important to carefully consider the data you obtain and the confidence you
can have in the conclusions drawn. Understanding the precision and accuracy of your data is important to
ensure your findings are both reliable and valid.
Precision
Precision refers to how close multiple measurements of the same investigation are to each other.
Results that are precise may not be accurate. It is often difficult to have completely precise results due to
random error.
Table 14.6 shows two investigations by different students. Student 1 has more precise results, because the
range of their measurements is much smaller when compared to Student 2.
TABLE 14.6 Two investigations by different students FIGURE 14.28 Results

measuring the point in which water boils. vary in precision when
recording temperature
Investigation by student 1 Investigation by student 2
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)
Trial 1 98.5 Trial 1 100
Trial 3 99 Trial 3 95
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how close an experimental measurement is to a known value. If an archer is accurate,
their arrows hit close to the target. Consider an experimental calculation of the boiling point of water, which
is known to be 100 °C. A student who obtained a experimental value of 99 °C is more accurate than a
student who obtains a value of 105 °C.

TABLE 14.7 Two investigations by different students to
determine the boiling point of water.
Investigation by student 1 Investigation by student 2
Trial 2 102 Trial 2 94.8
In table 14.7, student 1 has the most accurate result. However, Student 2 has the most precise results. In
order to obtain the best experimental data, we want results that are both accurate and precise.
FIGURE 14.29 Comparing precision and accuracy

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
Students conducted an experiment to determine the temperature of a substance as it changed
from a solid to a liquid. They repeated the experiment 4 times and achieved the following results:
Student 1: 56.5 °C; 58.0 °C; 60.0 °C; 55.0 °C
Student 2: 60.5 °C; 61.0 °C; 60.5 °C; 62.0 °C
Student 3: 56.5 °C; 58.5 °C; 57.0 °C; 56.0 °C
Students were then provided with the exact value of the melting temperature of the substance,
which was found to be 56.48 °C.
a. Which student had the least accurate data?
b. Which student had the least precise data?
c. Was the student with the most precise data also the student with the most accurate data?
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Review what accuracy means. Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to a
known value.
2. Explore the data of the three students. Student 1 had data 1.48 °C lower and 3.52 °C
higher than the actual data
Student 2 had data that was up to 5.52 °C higher
Student 3 had data that was 0.48 °C lower and
data that was 2.02 °C higher
3. Determine which student had the least Student 2 had the least accurate data, as their values
accurate data were the furthest away from the actual value
b. 1. Review what precision means. Precision refers to how close multiple
measurements of the same investigation are to each
other.
2. Explore the data of the three students. Student 1 had a data range of 5.0 °C
Student 2 had a data range of 1.5 °C
Student 3 had a data range of 2.5 °C
3. Determine which student had the least Student 1 had the least precise data
precise data
c. 1. Identify the students with the most Using the results from a. and b. it can be seen that
accurate and most precise data Student 3 had the most accurate data and Student 2
had the most precise data
2. Respond to the question and explain The student who had the most precise data was not
your answer the same student who had the most accurate data.
Students may have measurements very close
together (precise), but it may not be accurate. This
may be to errors in their measuring device or their
interpretation of the melting point (when the solid
is a liquid). Data may also be accurate without
being precise- you can be close to the target, but the
readings are inconsistent. For reliable and valid
results, data should be both accurate and precise.

PRACTICE PROBLEM 3
Students conducted an experiment to determine the temperature of a substance as it changed from a
liquid to a gas. They repeated the experiment 4 times and achieved the following results:
Student 1: 85.4 °C; 92.0 °C; 82.0 °C; 75.5 °C
Student 2: 83.5 °C; 85.0 °C; 85.5 °C; 86.5 °C
Student 3: 85.5 °C; 90.0 °C; 89.50 °C; 81.0 °C
Students were then provided with the exact value of the boiling temperature of the substance, which
was found to be 85.4 °C.
a. Which student had the least accurate data?
b. Which student had the least precise data?
c. Was the student with the most precise data also the student with the most accurate data?
Reliability
Reliability refers to whether or not another researcher could repeat your investigation by following your
method and obtain similar results. As well as this, the more times an experiment is replicated, the more
reliable the results are considered to be.
Experiments that are reliable shouldn’t just be able to be carried out by the investigator, but also by
a third party. If a test is reliable, it usually has both accuracy and precision, because errors are reduced
through repetition.
Validity
Validity refers to the credibility of the research results from experiments or from observations. Validity
factors in both experimental design and implementation. Experiments that are valid are usually using the
results from one manipulated variable, where other variables are controlled. It is also impacted by factors
such as experimental bias.
Validity applies more to biology and psychology, where precise measurement is more difficult (and the
misinterpretation of data is higher) and there is the risk of bias on the part of the researcher. In physics and
chemistry, the variables are quantifiable and physically measurable.
If your experimental method clearly relates to the purpose of the investigation and you take care to be
precise in your measurements and thorough in your analysis, your results should be valid and meaningful.
Measurements that are valid must also be reliable, and therefore must have accuracy and precision.
Validity can be:
• Internal: Internal validity focuses on if the results can be believed and haven’t been impacted by other
variables (as they were properly controlled). Did the experiment measure the variable that was being
examined in the experimental question and outlined in the hypothesis?
• External: This does not often apply in chemistry, but is the idea that results obtained when using a
sample should be indicative of the results expected for the entire population. This is often more
prevalent in drug trials and making sure that a varied and large sample size is used.
Measurements that are valid must also be reliable, and therefore must have accuracy and precision.
14.4.5 Minimisation of experimental bias

Bias is an intentional or unintentional influence on a research investigation as a result of systematic errors
introduced by the researcher into the sampling or the testing procedures of an experiment. These biases will
prejudice the research findings and raise questions about their validity and reliability.

There are numerous types of bias in experiments, FIGURE 14.30 Selection bias
some of which apply more to chemistry compared to
others. These include:
• Measurement bias occurs when experimenters
manipulate results in order to get a desirable
outcome. Sometimes this can be unintentional
(if an experimenter consistently records the
boiling point earlier than they should, leading
to a lower recorded temperature), but often it is
through the deliberate actions of an individual.
• Selection bias can arise when test subjects are
not randomly assigned to the experimental
and control groups.
An example of selection bias is in clinical
trials of a new synthetic drug. A doctor may
choose their family members to receive a drug
being tested and have individuals they don’t
know receive a placebo. Selection bias can
be minimised by randomly and equally
allocating subjects to each group.
• Sampling bias can arise if the subjects FIGURE 14.31 Sampling bias
chosen for the study are not representative of
the target population. If this occurs, the research
results cannot be generalised to that population.
For example, the average height of students at a
school is calculated, but due to time constraints
only 50 out of the 600 students are measured.
If only Year 7 students were measured, the
results will not be representative of the target
population and is an example of sampling bias.
Sampling bias can be minimised by ensuring FIGURE 14.32 Response bias
that the participants in the study are a reasonable
representation of the target population.
• Response bias arises when only certain members
of the target population respond to an invitation
to participate in the clinical trial, resulting in an
unrepresentative sample of the larger population.
Similarly to sampling bias, response bias can
be minimised by ensuring that the subjects in the
study are a reasonable representation of the
target population.
14.4 EXERCISE
1. Distinguish between validity and reliability.
2. Is it essential that the results of an experiment can be replicated in order for the experiment to be considered
reliable? Explain your answer.
3. Give an example of when results would not be considered reliable.
4. Under what circumstances can it be said that the conclusions or findings of research are valid?
5. List two procedures that could adversely impact on the internal validity of an experiment.

6. Explain, how an experiment can be reliable but not valid, and why an experiment that is valid must also be
reliable.
7. Explain, with examples, the difference between precision and accuracy.
8. Give an example of a strength and a weakness of quantitative and qualitative data.
14.5 Ethics, and health and safety guidelines

KEY CONCEPT
• Ethics of and concerns with research, including identification and application of relevant health and safety
guidelines
KEY SCIENCE SKILL

14.5.1 Ethics
Ethics determine acceptable and moral conduct. They do not just apply to scientific investigations, but also
to many aspects of life, guiding us between what ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’.
Science interacts with ethics in several ways, including:
• The way an experiment is conducted
• Confidentiality and conduct with research
• Conflicts with religious and personal beliefs.
Ethical standards and considerations also apply to any type of research or data collection method
involving people or animals. They are particularly obvious in drug trials, using both animal testing and
human trials. It is important that individuals involved in drug trials give permission and know of all possible
side effects and risks associated with treatments. The confidentiality of participant answers must also be
ensured when individuals are taking part in a survey.
It is important to be mindful of individuals with regard to personal beliefs. While drug trials have
minimum ethical standards for the use of animals in trials, for some individuals, differing personal beliefs
may impact experimentation and interpretation of data. This is an ethical consideration that needs to be
evaluated and understood when teaching and reporting on these topics.
FIGURE 14.33 Ethics are involved in moral choice

14.5.2 Health and safety guidelines
Part of the enjoyment of a practical investigation is that the topic may be unconventional or use an
innovative method. However, such situations can present some risk, so special care needs to be taken to
ensure the safety of yourself and others.
General safety rules

Some general safety precautions will help to ensure that you and others are not injured in the laboratory.
• Wear protective clothing. This might include a laboratory coat, safety glasses and gloves.
• Be aware of the position of safety equipment such as the fire blanket, fire extinguisher, safety shower
and eye wash.
• Ask your teacher if you are unsure how to operate equipment or how to use apparatus.
• Read labels carefully to confirm contents and concentration of chemicals.
• Clean and return all equipment to the correct places ensuring lids are placed back on containers when
not in use.
• Check for the correct disposal of equipment and chemicals, including damaged equipment (i.e. broken
glassware).
• Read instructions carefully before commencing an experiment.
• Prepare a risk assessment for required chemicals and equipment.
• Do the investigation as outlined in your approved plan. Don’t vary your plan without approval from
your teacher.
• Don’t do experimental work unsupervised unless you have prior approval from your teacher.
• When first setting up electrical experiments, ask your teacher to check the circuit.
• Don’t interfere with the equipment set-up of others.
It is important to address health and safety concerns through the use of a risk assessment. This is a
procedure for identifying hazardous chemicals, what the risks are and how to work safely with them. It also
assesses potential hazards with equipment being used and standard handling procedures to ensure health
and safety of individuals and the environment.
Risk assessments should also take into consideration the correct disposal of equipment and chemicals
to adhere to safety and bioethical guidelines. Many chemicals are harmful to the environment, so correct
disposal is paramount. Table 14.8 lists the usual requirements for a written risk assessment.
TABLE 14.8 Requirements for a written risk assessment
Section Details
Outline of investigation Title, date and location of task
Summary of method Brief list of steps indicating how the chemicals and
equipment will be used
Equipment/chemicals used List of materials used in the experiment
Equipment/chemical risk and hazards List of hazards associated with the equipment
Risk control measures General precautions taken to limit risks
An example of a risk assessment is shown in figure 14.34.

FIGURE 14.34 (a) Risk assessment (b) GHS pictograms that can be found through risk
assessments to visually show any possible hazards
ACTIVITY Cross-linking an addition polymer to make slime
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENT
AIM To investigate how the properties of a linear polymer may be altered by the introduction of weak
cross-linking between its chains.
METHOD 1. Pour the polyvinyl alcohol into the beaker and add a few drops of the food dye (optional).
2. Add the borax solution and stir with the paddle pop stick. It will take a few minutes for the slime to appear.
3. Perform tests on the product that will enable you to describe its properties and how these are different to
the original polymer.
PROTECTIVE MEASURES
GLASSES GLOVES DUST MASK LAB COAT FUME HOOD
x x x
SAFETY INFORMATION
REACTANT
Polyvinyl alcohol (solution, 6%)
Hazards Safety precautions
Flammable Wear gloves, safety glasses and a lab coat
Irritating to the eyes Keep away from sources of ignition
Use in well-ventilated areas
FIRST AID
SWALLOWED Rinse mouth out with water immediately and repeat until all traces are removed. Seek medical attention.
EYE Flush out with water. Seek medical attention if pain or irritation persists
SKIN Wash with soap and water .
INHALED Move into fresh air, give oxygen if required. Seek medical attention if breathing is difficult
REACTANT
Borax (sodium tetraborate, solution, 4%)
Not classified as hazardous substance at the Wear gloves, safety glasses and a lab coat
concentration used Should not be handled by pregnant women. Those of
However, at concentrations above 4.5%, may damage reproductive age should also avoid the chemical.
fertility and unborn child Wash hands after use, even if gloves were worn
FIRST AID
SWALLOWED Rinse mouth out with water immediately and repeat until all traces are removed. Seek medical attention.
EYE Flush out with water. Seek medical attention if painor irritation persists
SKIN Wash with soap and water. Seek medical attention if pain or irritation persists
INHALED Move into fresh air, give oxygen if required. Seek medical attention if breathing if difficult
EQUIPMENT
Beaker
Glass may break leading to cuts and damage to eyes Do not use damaged or cracked equipment
and skin Sweep up any broken glass, being aware of any chemical
residue
CONCLUSION
Wear glasses, gloves and a lab coat for the duration of this experiment
Ensure all equipment has been maintained and checked for damage before use
Make sure that the area is well-ventilated
Signed: ______________________________ Date: _______________________

(b)
Explosive Flammable Oxidising Compressed gas Corrosive
Toxic Harmful Health hazard Toxic to aquatic life
14.5 EXERCISE
1. Research and identify possible hazards and suggest safety precautions for the following equipment and
chemicals.
(a) 0.5 mol L−1 of sodium hydroxide
(b) Beaker
(c) Methane
(d) Bunsen burner
2. Provide two examples of when ethics may be important in a chemistry investigation.
3. List three purposes of a risk assessment.
4. What other things do you think should be added to a risk assessment?
5. Look around your laboratory and note its safety features and equipment.
(a) Draw a plan of your laboratory and label the positions of safety equipment.
(b) Does it have any foam fire extinguishers? How are these identified? On what types of fire can these be
used and on what types of fire should they not be used?
(c) Does it have any dry chemical or dry powder extinguishers? How are these identified? On what types of
fire can these be used and on what types of fire should they not be used?
(d) Are then any other fire extinguishers you can see? What are they used for?
(e) Where is/are the fire blanket(s) located? Describe a scenario in which a fire blanket would be used and
how you would use it.
(f) Where are the master (emergency) shut-offs for gas and electricity located?
6. The Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for a chemical to be used in an experiment contains the following
risk phrases.
• Irritating to eyes/skin
• Flammable
• Vapours may cause dizziness
Suggest appropriate methods to reduce these risks.

14.6 Methods of organising, analysing and
evaluating primary data
KEY CONCEPT
• Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data to identify patterns and relationships
including identification of sources of error and uncertainty, and of limitations of data and methodologies
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

• Analyse and evaluate data and methods
14.6.1 Organising primary data FIGURE 14.35 Using logbooks is an

Scientists gather raw data or plain facts from their observations, easy way to organise data
and this data must be recorded at the time in a suitable form (e.g.
text entries, sketches, tables and diagrams in logbooks or in field
notebooks). These may be supplemented by audio and video
recordings.
Using a table
Tables should be used when you initially record data to help
separate and organise your information. All tables should:
• have a heading
• display the data clearly, with the independent variable in
the first column and the dependent variable in later columns.
• include units in the column headings and not with every data point
• be designed to be easy to read. If a table becomes too complicated, it is better to break it down into a
number of smaller tables.
FIGURE 14.36 Format on a scientific table
Always include a title

for your table.
Temperature of the Earth at Include the measurement units

different depths in the headings.
Depth Temperature
(km) (°C) The column headings show clearly
what has been measured.
0 15
1 44
Use a ruler to draw lines for
2 73 rows, columns and borders.
3 102
4 130
5 158
6 187 Enter the data in the body of the table. Do

not include units in this part of the table.
7 215
8 242

Using a graph
Presenting results as a graph makes it easier to see patterns and trends in your data, allowing more accurate
result analysis. While you will usually use a table to record results in your logbook, displaying your data as
a graph is preferred on your scientific poster.
When drawing graphs:
• decide on the type of graph to be used. Different types of information are better suited to different
types of graphs. If both the independent and dependent variables are quantitative, a line graph or
scatterplot is preferred. Bar graphs are used when one piece of data is qualitative and the other is
quantitative. Histograms are used when intervals and frequency are being explored.
• include a title — this should link the dependent and independent variables that are shown in the graph.
• in most graph types (excluding pie graphs), the independent variable should be on the horizontal (x)
axis, and the dependent variable on the vertical (y) axis.
• axes should be ruled and clearly labelled. Those displaying numerical variables should have a clearly
marked scale and units.
• make sure your scale is suitable and the numbers are evenly distributed
• use a line (or curve) of best fit as required. This is a smooth curve or line that passes as close as
possible to all the plotted points.
• include the origin, the zero value for the variables, on both axes. If required, you can use a an axis
break symbol if all the values you are plotting are clustered around high value, as seen in figure
14.37a.
The most common graphs you will use in chemistry include:
• scatterplots • line graphs
• bar/column graphs • histograms.
Scatterplots
Scatterplots require both sets of data to be numerical. Each dot represents one observation, recorded in
regards to the independent and dependent variable. A scatterplot can easily show trends between data sets,
and correlations can be seen.
FIGURE 14.37 (a) Example of a scatterplot and (b) a scatterplot with a line of best fit
(a) Effect of salt on boiling point of water (b) Inlet pressure versus outlet pressure in
first catalyst bed
120
Outlet pressure (kPa × 104)
115 10
Boilimg point (°C)
110
105 A
100 B
95 5
90
85
0 2 4 6 8 10 5 10
Salt (g) Inlet pressure (kPa × 104)
DRAWING A LINE OF BEST FIT

A line of best fit can be used to show the general trend of data and provides a quick summary. Figure 14.37b
shows that line A, although not passing through any points, is a better fit than line B.
The line of best fit doesn’t need to pass through each data point. Although you should try to draw the line
through each error bar if possible, you may not be able to go through all of them. As a general rule, try to have
as many data points above your line as you have below. Don’t assume your line must pass through the origin. For
some data, a curve of best fit may be more appropriate.

Bar graphs
Bar (or column) graphs are often used when one piece of data is qualitative and the other is quantitative.
The bars are separated from each other. The horizontal axis has no scale because it simply shows categories.
The vertical axis has a scale showing the units of measurements. Bar graphs can also be used to compare
two sets of data by using side-by-side bars, as shown in figure 14.38b.
FIGURE 14.38 (a) Bar graph showing differences in melting points of different metals and (b) a side-by-side bar
chart comparing the number of hydrogen and carbon atoms
(a) Melting point of different metals (b) Number of atoms in different hydrocarbons
700 16
600
Melting temperature (°C)
14
12
Number of atoms
500
10
400
8 Carbon
300 Hydrogen
6
200
4
100 2
0 0
Magnesium Phosphorus Lead Bismuth Aluminium Hexane Hexene Hexyne
Historgams
Histograms are a special kind of bar graph that show continuous categories, and are often used when
examining frequency. The bars are not separated.
In figure 14.39, the exact values cannot be determined, because data is displayed in intervals. It can be
seen that there were 30 samples that had a pH between 8 and 10 but we do not know what specific values
these are.
FIGURE 14.39 Histogram showing frequency of pH of different samples
Recorded pH of different samples

60
50
40
Frequency
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
pH
Line graphs
Line graphs involve a series of dots that represent the values of a variable. The dots are usually joined
using a straight line (this is different to a line of best fit, in which the line is straight and does not have to
go through each point), but sometimes the line is curved.

Line graphs are often used to show changes over a continuous period of time, or over space. In particular,
line graphs can identify patterns, trends and turning points in a dataset.
FIGURE 14.40 Setting up a line graph
3. Setting up and labelling the axes 2. Title 1. Grid

Graphs represent a relationship Tell the reader what the graph is Graphs should always be drawn on
between two variables. When about! The title describes the results grid paper so values are accurately
choosing which variable to put on of the investigation or the relationship placed. Drawing freehand on lined or
each axis, remember that there is between variables. plain paper is not accurate enough for
usually an independent variable (which most graphs.
the investigator chooses) and a
dependent variable. For example, if Data table
students wish to find how solubility of
sugar changes with temperature, they Temperature Solubility
may choose to measure the solubility (°C) (g/100 g)
(in g/100g) every 20°. The temperature Solubility of sugar against
of each measurement was chosen by 10 190
temperature
the students and is the independent 30 220
variable. The solubility measured is
therefore the dependent variable. 50 260
440
Usually the independent variable is 420 70 320
plotted on the x-axis and the 400
dependent variable on the vertical 90 415
Solubility (g/100 g)
380
y-axis.
360
After deciding on the variable for 5. Putting in the values
each axis, you must clearly label the 340
320 A point is made for each
axes with the variable and its units.
The unit is written in brackets after the 300 pair of values (the
name of the variable. 280 meeting point of two
260 imaginary lines from
240 each axis). The points
220 should be clearly visible.
4. Setting up the scales 200 Include a point for (0, 0)
180 only if you have the data
Each axis should be marked into units
160 for this point.
that cover the entire range of the
measurement. For example, if the
solubility ranges from 0 to 415 g/100 g 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
then 0 and 440 g/100 g could be the Temperature (°C)
lowest and highest values on the
vertical scale. If measurements start
above zero, as per the solubility
measurements on the vertical axis, an
axis-break symbol can be used. The
distance between the top and bottom
values is then broken up into equal
6. Drawing the line
divisions and marked. The horizontal
A line is then drawn through the points.
axis must also have its own range of
A line that follows the general direction of the points is called a ‘line of best fit’
values and uniform scale (which does
because it best fits the data. It should be on or as close to as many points as
not have to be the same scale as the
possible. Some points follow the shape of a curve, rather than a straight line. A
vertical axis). The most important
curved line that either touches all the points or conforms to a best fit can then be used.
points about the scales are:
The type of data you graph may lead you to expect either a straight line or a
• they must show the entire range of
curve. For example, you might expect the increase in temperature of water being
measurements (have an axis-break
boiled to be a straight line because the temperature increases at a steady rate. In
symbol if required).
this example, the solubility of a sugar with increasing temperature is a curve.
• they must be uniform, that is, show
Inspecting the data will help you decide whether your line should be straight
equal divisions for equal increases
or smooth and curved.
in value.

Using Microsoft Excel
While you may very carefully hand-
FIGURE 14.41 Excel is a useful data tool
draw your graph, being able to create
digital graphs is important, especially
for neat presentation on your poster.
Excel is extremely helpful for this.
It can:
• calculate any derived
physical quantities, such as speed
and acceleration of a parachute
or the percentage of energy
lost by a bouncing ball. The ‘Fill
down’ command is a time saver.
• be a powerful graphing tool, but
must be controlled by the user.
You will have to select the type of
graph, what aspects of your graph
you want to show and the scale
on the axis. You will also have to decide what label you want on your axis and whether you want the
data displayed on the graphed points.
• generate a line of best fit. If you right-click on any data point, a window pops up with the option ‘Add
Trendline’. This is the Excel command to create a line of best fit. Once selected, you have several
choices. If your graph looks like a straight line, choose ‘Linear’.
• create error bars (in Excel all error bars are usually the same for each data point, rather than calculated
separately which is the usual protocol).
Resources
Interactivity Selecting a graph (int-7733)
14.6.2 Analysing primary data

When analysing primary data, it is important to explore trends and patterns that can be seen. This may
involve asking questions such as:
• Is there a clear positive or negative correlation in data? (One variable increasing in response to another
increasing shows positive correlation, whereas one variable decreasing in response to another
increasing is negative correlation).
• Are there any outliers (unusual data)?
• What results would you expect for specific data that you didn’t observe experimentally?
• Can you calculate the average for your data?
Analysis of your data often depends on the type of graph selected, because it alters the way trends and
patterns are seen. The graphs in figure 14.42 show the same data presented in three ways.

FIGURE 14.42 Various graphs showing temperature change over time: (a) a scatterplot using a line of best fit, (b)
a line graph and (c) a bar graph
(a) Change in temperature over time (b) Change in temperature over time
100 100
90 90
80 80
Temperature (°C)
Temperature (°C)
70 70
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)
(c) Change in temperature over time
100
90
80
Temperature (°C)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)
Each of the graphs in figure 14.42 will be analysed in slightly different ways. From these graphs, you
might draw the following information:
• Graph (a): There is a clear downwards trend (negative correlation) in data, as temperature decreases
over time. However, at 25 minutes, the temperature is slightly higher than expected based on the line
of best fit, and at 30 minutes, the temperature is slightly lower than expected.
• Graph (b): There is a clear downwards trend in data (negative correlation), as temperature decreases
over time. The rate of temperature drop slows after 15 minutes, before the rate increases again between
25 and 30 minutes.
• Graph (c): There is a clear downwards trend in data (negative correlation), as temperature decreases
over time. The temperature is lowest at 30 minutes, where it is half the temperature seen at 15 minutes.
The right graph is fundamental for data analysis. In this case, the representation of the data in Graphs a
and b is far more powerful than that obtained from Graph c. Regardless, it is important to note down any
clear trends and patterns seen in the data, and note down any outliers that can be seen.
Graph analysis can also be used to predict and make assumptions about data that was not gathered
experimentally, but through interpolation (predicting data points within the data set that were not measured)
or extrapolation (predicting data points outside data set based on predicted relationship). Based on the
graphs you might estimate:
• The temperature at 35 minutes
• The temperature at 13 minutes
• The time that the temperature was 45 °C.
The estimation you make can vary greatly between all the graphs, so it is important to carefully consider
which graph you use.
TABLE 14.9 Analysing data from different graph types
Graph (a) Graph (b) Graph (c)
Temperature at 35 minutes (°C) 25 15 20
Temperature at 13 minutes (°C) 65 62 66
Time the temperature was 45 °C (mins) 24 27 26
Outliers
Outliers are results that are a long way from other results and seen as unusual. They should be accounted
for and analysed, but are often not included when calculating averages.
FIGURE 14.43 Outliers in data are

unusual results.
14.6.3 Evaluating primary data

When you evaluate your data, it is important to link back to the initial question of your investigation.
It is important that you can explain and justify your data evaluation in relation to your question.
• Does the data provide an answer to the question?
• Does the data support or refute your hypothesis?
• If there are any outliers, errors or uncertainty in your data, why may these
have occurred?
• Does your data link to correctly supported models and theories?
• Are there further improvements that you could make to improve your data in future
investigations that may reduce errors or limitations?
The following are two examples of data evaluation by two different students, based on figure 14.42.
Student 1: The results show that temperature decreased.
Student 2: Table 2 shows a clear decrease in temperature over time, dropping from an initial temperature of
90 °C to a final recorded temperature of 30 °C. While there is a clear trend in temperature decreasing over time,
the rate of decrease was inconsistent, particularly between 25 and 30 minutes. This may be due to a decrease in
external air temperature, causing the rate of heat loss through convection to change.
It is clear that student 2 provided a more detailed response and based their evaluation on evidence and a link
to theory. What else should they add?

14.6.4 Sources of uncertainty and error
Understanding sources of uncertainty and error is vital in scientific reporting,
FIGURE 14.44
accounting for the fact that the conclusions are being drawn from data that is not Thermometers
perfectly accurate or precise. Uncertainty and errors can appear in any experiment. can have
Uncertainty is acknowledging that no matter how precise an instrument might be, there issues with
is a limit to that precision. The uncertainty is a range within which a measurement lies. precision and
An error bar is a way of representing that uncertainty graphically. accuracy.
Errors, on the other hand, are differences between a measurement taken and the true
value that is expected; errors lead to a reduction in the accuracy of the investigation.
Every instrument has a limit to how precisely it measures. The scale or digital
display imposes a constraint on how many digits you can record, and also reveals the
tolerance of the measurement. For example, there are both errors and uncertainties
associated with using thermometers. Two individuals might look at it and not get the
exact same result as they might have been standing at different angles or interpret the
reading slightly differently. Or results might not be identical between two different
thermometers. The thermometer only gives measurements to the accuracy of 1 °C
and not decimal values. However, through careful observation, 0.5 °C can usually be
observed by looking at the gaps between markings.
Sources of error
Sources of error are the causes of errors found in experiments. Some of these are
listed below.
• Systematic errors affect the accuracy of a measurement that cannot be
improved by repeating an experiment. They are usually due to equipment or
system errors and produce measurements that are consistently too high or too low.
They include:
• instrumental errors that arise because an instrument, such as a weighing
balance, is uncalibrated and incorrectly set to zero
• environmental errors that arise because of malfunctions, such as a power outage,
that affect the conditions under which an experiment is being conducted.
• Random errors: Random errors are chance variations in measurements that affect
the precision of measurements and are always present in measurements of continuous data.
An example of a random error is an error of judgement when reading the smallest division on the
scale of a measuring instrument, such as a ruler. Unlike systematic errors, this can usually be resolved
with repetition of measurements.
It should be noted that so-called ‘human
FIGURE 14.45 Liquids should be measured from the
errors’ are not errors but mistakes that result from bottom of the dip
carelessness. Examples include gross misreading of
an instrument, and writing the wrong result in your
logbook, such as 40 instead of 4.0.
Measuring errors
It is important to consider the instrument you are
using when you consider uncertainties and errors.
Reading measuring cylinders
When measuring liquids, it is important to record
from the bottom of the dip (the meniscus). What
is the measurement in figure 14.45? Would every
single individual correctly record this data?

Reading rulers
A metre ruler has lines to mark each millimetre, but there is space
FIGURE 14.46 Errors in rulers
between these lines. You could measure a length to the nearest
millimetre, but because of the space between the lines, if you look
carefully, you can measure to a higher precision — to the nearest
0.5 mm.
The best estimate for the length of the red line in figure 14.46 is 2.35 cm. The actual length is closer
to 2.35 cm than it is to either 2.30 cm or 2.40 cm. The measurement of 2.35 cm says the actual length is
somewhere between 2.325 cm and 2.375 cm. The way to write this is:
The length of the red line = 2.35 ± 0.025 cm
The 0.025 represents the tolerance or uncertainty in the measurement (half of the precision that can be
recorded).
Reading top-loading balances
If the reading on a digital scale is 8.94 g the mass is not 8.93 g
FIGURE 14.47 Top-loading balances
nor 8.95 g. The actual mass is somewhere between 8.935 and measure to a certain number of
8.945 grams. In this example, the smallest unit of measurement significant figures.
is 0.01 g. Therefore the tolerance is half of this (0.005 g), as
the measurement can be 0.005 g below or above the recorded
measurement. The way to write this is:
Mass = 8.94 ± 0.005 g
FIGURE 14.48 What is the tolerance in these measuring instruments?
(a) (b)

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4
a. Record the reading on the scales shown in Figure 14.48(a) including the tolerance.
b. Record the reading on the thermometer shown in Figure 14.48(b) including the tolerance
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine the reading on the scale 128.93
2. Determine the range of the measurement The measurement can be between
128.925 and 128.935.
3. Determine the tolerance. One way to calculate the 0.01 g is smallest measurement
tolerance is to halve the smallest unit that can be possible.
measured. 0.01g
= 0.005
2
Record the reading including the tolerance.
4. 128.93 ± 0.005 g
b. 1. Determine the reading on the scale. 47 °C
2. Determine the range of the measurement. The measurement can be between
In this case, you can tell if the thermometer is a 0.5 46.75 and 47.25
increment due to the gaps in the thermometer, so
our range is smaller.
0.5 ° C
3. Determine the tolerance. = 0.25 ° C
The tolerance is half of the smallest unit that can be 2
measured. The smallest unit is 0.5 °C.
4. Record the reading, including the tolerance. 47 ± 0.25 °C
PRACTICE PROBLEM 4
a. Record the reading on scales, including the tolerance, that show a reading of 0.12 g.
b. Record the reading on scales, including the tolerance, that show a reading of 0.195 g.
Repeated measurements
Measurements of independent variables are usually precise and careful, so one measurement should be
enough. However, measurements of the dependent variables are often prone to some variation.
Whether the variation is caused by the human reaction time when using a stopwatch, judging the rebound
height of a basketball or, in the case of a parachute, the unpredictable way the canopy will open each time,
each reading may be different. Therefore, it is sensible to take several readings to obtain an average. Three
to five measurements would be needed, but more than five is generally unnecessary.
The following example comes from physics, but the graphing techniques equally apply to chemistry. If
your partner dropped a basketball from a height of 80.0 cm, and you judged the rebound height of the ball
for five trials as 68 cm, 69.5 cm, 68.5 cm, 68.5 cm and 69.5 cm, the average is 68.8 cm. You would round
this to the nearest 0.5 cm because of the difficulty of judging a moving ball and achieve an average of 69
cm. This set of measurements would then be written as 69 ± 1 cm (the 1 cm is the furthest the measurement
is from the average).

Graphing error bars
You can show variations in measurement on graphs
FIGURE 14.49 Error bars
using errors bars. These are lines above and below the
graphed point so show the average variation — that is, y
the margin for error.
For the basketball experiment previously discussed,
you will plot 69 cm on your graph. To represent the 10
‘±1 cm’ variation, you can draw a line through the
point, up 1 cm and down 1 cm, with a short line across
the top and bottom of the line to make the ends evident.
5
Calculating error bars
Rather than graphing rebound height against drop
height, it is more revealing of the physics of the situation
to calculate and graph the ratio of the rebound height to 0
drop height against drop height. The ratio is a measure
of how much of the original gravitational potential x
energy is restored. 2 4 6 8 10
69
In this case, the ratio would be = 0.8625, but how many digits are we entitled to use and how
80.0
big should the error bar be? The first question is reasonably straightforward. The number of digits in your
answer should equal the smallest number of digits in the data you used in the calculation. In this instance,
the average height has two digits, so the answer would be written as 0.86. You are not justified in including
more digits because you don’t know the original data accurately enough.
Working out the size of an error bar takes more effort. If the two pieces of data are 69 ± 1 cm and 80.0 ±
0.3 cm, we can just add the uncertainties to get ± 1.3 cm, but that doesn’t make sense when the calculated
value is 0.86. Dividing the uncertainties would produce another unusual result.
The method used is to first express the uncertainty for each data value as a percentage. For example:
( )
1
Percentage error of 69 ± 1 cm = × 100 = 1.4%
69
( )
0.3
Percentage error of 80.0 ± 0.3 cm = × 100 = 0.4%
80
Now add the two percentage errors together.

Total percentage error = 1.4% + 0.4% = 1.8%
Use this total percentage error to find the error in the calculated answer.
Error = 0.86 × 1.8% = 0.016
This would be rounded to one digit as 0.02.

Therefore, the full calculated answer would be 0.86 ± 0.02.
Resources
Video eLesson Calculating error (eles-2560)

14.6.5 Limitations of data and methodology
The data that is gathered from the experimental results will have limitations. Limitations arise from several
sources that can affect the quality of the data.
• Experiments create artificial situations that do not necessarily represent real-life situations.
• While every effort may be made to identify controlled variables and keep them constant throughout the
course of an experiment, it is not always possible to identify and control every one of this type of
variable.
• The degree on which results obtained in the laboratory can be generalised to other situations and
applied in the real world is limited.
It is important to consider limitations when analysing and drawing conclusions from data. Limitations
should be factors that are out of your control, but need to be discussed in regards to how they might impact
your results. As part of your practical investigation, you need to clearly outline limitations and possible
suggestion on improvements to the method or data collection to avoid these.
14.6 EXERCISE
1. Describe the difference between a random and systematic error and provide two examples of each.
2. List two ways that you can minimise uncertainty in an investigation.
3. Identify which graph type would be most appropriate for the following investigations. Justify your choice:
(a) Comparing the pH of different household liquids
(b) Showing how pH changes with temperature
(c) Measuring the temperature inside a car every 5 minutes for an hour
(d) Showing the frequencies of different test mark intervals for 400 students
4. Using the provided data, construct an appropriate graph.
Time (mins) Volume of ice cube (cm3 )

0 30
5 25
10 21
15 18
20 14
25 10
Once you construct the graph, analyse and evaluate the data shown.
5. Describe how an outlier should be treated when analysing and evaluating data.
6. Record the reading on the burette in this diagram (remember the measurements on a burette go downwards,
unlike in a measuring cylinder).
11
12

7. Explain why a student reading this burette as 8.67 mL is incorrect.
8. Determine the length of each line in the following diagram, showing the tolerance in each case.
(a)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(b)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(c)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
9. A student is designing an experiment that involves measuring liquid volumes at various stages. A number of
glassware items are available for this purpose, as shown in the following table.
Item Uncertainty (mL)

A Volumetric flask (250 mL) ±0.1
B Beaker (100 mL) ±10
C Measuring cylinder (100 mL) ±0.1
D Burette (50 mL) ±0.02
E Conical flask (250 mL) ±25
Which item(s) would be most appropriate for:

(a) rinsing a burette with 10 mL of water
(b) producing 250 mL of a solution of accurately known concentration
(c) producing 250 mL of a solution of approximately known concentration.
14.7 Models and theories to understand

observed phenomena
KEY CONCEPT
• Models and theories and their use in organising and understanding observed phenomena and chemical
concepts including their limitations

Limitations exist in the models and theories that we use in chemistry. It is important to be able to use
models and theories to allow us to understand a variety of observed phenomena, but to also understand the
limitations in models and theories and that they may change over time.
14.7.1 Models
Models are representations of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes.
FIGURE 14.50 Different
They can be physical models, mathematical models or conceptual models of methane, a gas
models. Models can provide a framework that explains observed involved the greenhouse
phenomena and helps with the understanding of abstract concept. effect. How do you think this
In chemistry, many concepts are hard to visualise, so models help differs from a ‘real’ methane
contextualise the idea on a smaller and simpler scale. molecule?
While they are very useful, models have their limitations. These
include: H
• Models cannot include all the details of the processes or the things
that they represent because of the complexity of the processes H
C
H
• Models are only approximations of the real world. For example, H
we can use ideal gas laws to make predictions about the behavior
of gases, but this model is constrained by certain conditions, such
as specific pressure and temperature. The model’s predictions would CH4, methane
not always match what happens in real-world situations. We can
also model various lattices (as seen in figure 14.51) or bonding, but we often assume ideal conditions
for temperature and pressure, which is not always a realistic model.
• Models have some limits in their accuracy and are often simplified and stylised. For example, a ball
and stick model of methane (see figure 14.50) is useful, but it is a very highly simplified and stylised
representation that reduces covalent bonds to sticks and atoms to solid balls.
• Models are based off current observations and knowledge at the time. This means that they aren’t
definite and can change as new observations and experiments allow for different ideas evolve. Models
that we currently believe to be accurate will be disproven in the future.
FIGURE 14.51 A model showing the lattice of diamond

14.7.2 Theories
A theory is a well-supported explanation of a
FIGURE 14.52 The flat Earth theory has been
phenomena. It is based on the interpretation of replaced by the idea that the Earth is spherical.
facts that have been obtained through investigations,
research and observations.
There are limitations that can exist with theories.
These include:
• A reliance on theories rather than observations
made during practical investigations. Often,
individuals manipulate results to match a
theory, failing to realise the power of
observations. Often, theories are treated as
perfect, when in fact, they are able to be
disproven as new observations and evidence
come to light.
• Theories often rely on a specific set of conditions
to be met. For example, the Law of Conservation
of Mass cannot be used in systems that are open systems (not isolated) or systems that involve very
large amounts of energy.
• Often, a phenomenon needs to be described using multiple theories. Sometimes, aspects of theories
contradict each other.
Theories can change seemingly overnight or can take a very long time to change. Theories that were once
popular and widely accepted can be discarded when too much evidence builds up against them. They are
replaced by a theory that better fits the observations.
Some examples of theories that have been superseded by other theories are:
• Miasma theory of disease — the idea that diseases were caused by bad air
• The Sun and planets orbit around the Earth (geocentrism)
• The flat Earth theory
How do refinements of existing theory come about?
Refinements of existing theory come about in a number of ways. These include:
• carefully planned laboratory-based or field-based experiments designed to support or refute a
particular hypothesis
• critical reinterpretation of previously accepted facts, producing a new framework
• collection and analysis of new data
• identification and exploration of patterns or anomalies
• new technologies that allow for changes to understanding and more depth of knowledge.
14.7 EXERCISE
1. Describe three ways in which models can be useful.
2. Describe three limitations of models.
3. What is the difference between a model and a theory?
4. How can theories help us understand phenomena?

14.8 Nature of evidence and key findings of
investigations
KEY CONCEPTS
• The nature of evidence that supports or refutes a hypothesis, model or theory
• The key findings of the selected investigation and their relationship to thermochemical, equilibrium and/or
organic structure and bonding concepts
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS

• Draw evidence-based conclusions
14.8.1 Nature of evidence — supporting or refuting a hypothesis,

model or theory
Evaluating a hypothesis, model or theory uses the evidence from the results obtained in an investigation. In
your investigation, it is important to understand how to best use evidence in order to correctly support or
refute your hypothesis.
Evidence can be strong or weak, as summarised in table 14.10. It is vital that the evidence you choose
allows the provision of strong and clear conclusions.
Strong evidence should:
• be based on facts derived from studies with high validity and minimal bias
• use data to support conclusions
• clearly link to the aim and hypothesis of an experiment
• be obtained from an investigation that has a reproducible and reliable method.
If the prediction from your hypothesis was validated by your experimental results, you should evaluate
your hypothesis as ‘supported’; if your hypothesis was not supported by results, it is ‘rejected’ or ‘not
supported’.
Remember: a scientific hypothesis can be rejected (or not supported), but it can never be proven true; it
can only be supported. This is because the nature of evidence is that as new technologies and information
become available, evidence can change and be interpreted in different ways. This may than disprove a
previously made hypothesis.
TABLE 14.10 Examples of results that can support or disprove a hypothesis
Observation Hypothesis Test of hypothesis Result Conclusion
The toaster has The power point is Use a different The toaster works Hypothesis
stopped working faulty power point in the different supported
power point
The car won’t The battery is empty Replace the battery The car still won’t Hypothesis not
turn on turn on supported
The measurement on The scales weren’t set Set the scales The reading is Hypothesis
the scales is too high to zero before use back to zero more accurate supported
14.8.2 The key findings of investigations

For your investigation, you wrote a question and a hypothesis, created a clear reproducible methodology,
conducted an experiment, and collected and analysed data. Once these steps are complete it is important to
determine the key findings of your investigation.

Your key findings should include:
FIGURE 14.53 Heat of combustion based on different molar
• information about the data obtained mass of alcohols
in the practical investigation and any
patterns and trends Effect of temperature on rate of
combustion
•
Rate of reaction (mL m–1)

the relationship of your findings 10
to chemical concepts including 8
thermochemical, equilibrium and/or
6
organic structure and bonding
4
concepts
• an answer to the question of your 2
investigation. 0
For example, you might be investigating 0 10 20 30 40 50
Temperature (°C)
the question: How does the molar
mass affect the heat of combustion of alcohols? You could use the graph in figure 14.53 to link this data
to thermochemical ideas and develop your key findings.
Many alcohols are commonly used as fuels due to their high heat of combustion, which measures the heat energy
released when the fuel burns completely in oxygen.
Five main alcohols were examined in this investigation, and the heat of combustion was recorded. The chosen
alcohols were methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol and pentanol. These were graphed in accordance with their
molar mass, in order to allow for quantitative data to be examined.
From the graph shown, it can be observed that as the molar mass of an alcohol increases, the heat of combustion
also increases. This is because the heat energy released would be higher. Because there are more bonds in the
larger molecules, there is more energy already present, and therefore more energy is released in the process of
combustion.
There appears to be a positive correlation between molar mass and heat of combustion, and generally a linear
trend with some minor deviations. Therefore, it is clear that the size and number of atoms and, in turn, the molar
mass impact the heat of combustion, supporting the hypothesis of the investigation.
14.8 EXERCISE
1. Why do we say that we ‘support’ a hypothesis rather than ‘prove’ it?
2. Provide three examples of strong evidence.
3. Describe what key findings you should communicate in a discussion.
4. Why is it important to show the relationship of your results to concepts such as solubility and concentration?
14.9 Conventions of scientific report writing and

scientific poster presentation
KEY CONCEPT
• The conventions of scientific report writing including chemical terminology and representations, symbols,
chemical equations, formulas, units of measurement, significant figures, standard abbreviations and
acknowledgement of references.
KEY SCIENCE SKILLS


14.9.1 Conventions of report writing
It is vital to follow the set structure in scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation to follow
the protocols of scientific written communication (see table 14.11).
TABLE 14.11 Aspects of a written report
Section Description
Title A precise and complete description of what you investigated
Abstract An optional section to outline the key findings and information.
Introduction A paragraph explaining the relevant chemical and background concepts

and relationships and how they apply to this investigation. It should
explore any prior investigations conducted on this topic. This should
also include a clear aim and hypothesis.
Methodology A detailed section that describes your selection of equipment and

measuring instruments, and your step-by-step method. This may include
diagrams and photos. Refer to how you controlled variables, achieved
the desired accuracy, and overcame, avoided or anticipated difficulties.
It should be clear enough for someone else (at your level) to repeat your
experiment. Do not forget to highlight how the relevant ethical and safety
concerns have been addressed.
Results A clear representation of your results, including your data and graphs. If
there is too much data, refer to your logbook for the full set. Make sure
you present your results in an organised and clear manner, following
accepted conventions (such as numbering sequentially). Make sure you
include the appropriate units and use the correct number of significant
figures. Try to organise this in such a way that any patterns or relationships
start to become obvious, thus making it easier to analyse in the next
section. Show sample calculations if required.
Discussion A detailed analysis and evaluation of your results. How does your
data support your initial intentions and link to relevant chemistry
concepts? What trends and relationships are apparent as a result of your
investigation? How much of your analysis is limited by uncertainties? Were
there any outliers in your investigation and how were they treated? What
limitations and sources of error were present in your investigations and
how would you improve this in future repetitions? What would be your
next steps in the investigation if you had more time?
Conclusion This should relate to the aim and must be based entirely on the evidence
obtained in the experiment. It should state whether the hypothesis is
supported, and summarise the meaning of your results in response to your
question. No new information should be included.
References and acknowledgements You should quote the sources of any content that you include that is
not your own original work. Unaltered tables, diagrams and graphs
are examples that fit this description, as are direct quotes. In your
introduction, you may have mentioned previous work that your
investigation is based on. This also needs to be acknowledged, along
with any sources that inform your discussion of concepts and theory in a
more general sense. This section is not counted in your final word count.
It is important to remember that your assessed practical investigation is based on both your scientific
poster and your logbook. The information you will be marked on may be in either your poster or your
logbook, or it may appear in both. It is important that all information is presented.

There are some other important points to remember when writing your scientific report or poster.
These include:
• try to avoid subjective language — where possible, use third-person (he, she, they, etc)
• don’t just record the data you believe supports your hypothesis — you should also include any errors,
uncertainties and outliers
• if you used any calculations, show your working out
• use subheadings throughout your report to make it clear to read
• provide headings for all graphs, tables and figures, and label them sequentially (graph 1, graph 2, etc).
14.9.2 Terminology and representations
Throughout your report, it is important to use clear and concise terminology relevant to the related
chemistry concept. The use of key terms was covered in section 14.3.2.
Furthermore, chemical representations are required to be accurate and use common conventions.
These representations were discussed in section 14.3.3. There may be other representations used that are
appropriate to your specific investigation. These should be used consistently in both your logbook and your
poster.
14.9.3 Symbols
Symbols are commonly used in chemistry to represent specific variables, different elements and
measurements, among other things. There are many also many symbols that are specific to drawing the
skeletal structure of molecules. Symbols are often letters but, due to the sheer quantity of variables we have
to represent, it is important to note that the capital and lowercase letter usually represent different things. As
well as that, sometimes the same symbol is used to represent different variables.
𝜇 can be used to represent:
• the statistical mean
• micro in measurement.
C can be used to represent:
• carbon (C)
• concentration (c).
It is important to know various symbols, including those used in equations, and to use them correctly
and carefully in your report to minimise confusion. Table 14.12 shows some commonly used symbols in
chemistry.
TABLE 14.12 Some common symbols used in chemistry
Symbol Representation
∆ Change in variable
⇌ Equilibrium arrow
NA Avogadro’s Constant
N Number of particles
n Amount in mole
M Molar mass
m Mass

Symbol Representation
c Concentration
V Volume
Vm Molar volume
e− Electron
(g) Gas (used in chemical formulas)
(aq) Aqueous (used in chemical formulas)
(l) Liquid (used in chemical formulas)
(S) Solid (used in chemical formulas)
14.9.4 Equations and formulas

During your exam you will be provided with a data book, which will contain physical constants, formulas
and data that will help you answer many questions. When using equations and formulas in your scientific
investigation, it is important to:
• define all variables
• provide any figures for constants (e.g. Avogadro’s number).
Some key formulas in chemistry are included here, and many of which can be found in your VCE
Chemistry Data Book. You should become very familiar with this data book prior to your exam as it
contains a huge amount of useful information which you do not need to memorise.
Determining the number of moles (n)

mass m
• n= =
molar mass M
number of particles N
• n= 23
=
6.02 × 10 NA
• n = concentration × volume = cV
volume V
• n= =
molar volume Vm
Chemical relationships
• Universal gas equation: pV = nRT
• Heat energy released from combustion: q = mc∆T
q
• Enthalpy of combustion: ∆H =
n
VIt
• Calibration factor for bomb calorimetry: CF =
∆T
Q
• Number of moles of electrons: n(e− ) =
F
actual yield 100
• % yield: ×
theoretical yield 1
molar mass of desired products 100
• % atom economy: ×
• Electric charge: Q = It

14.9.5 Units of measurement
In chemistry, it is vital to use the correct unit of measurement for accurate and clear scientific
communication.
Prefixes
Prefixes are used at the start of measurements to denote how large or small a value is. These values are from
a base unit. Examples of base units include meter, seconds or grams. These base units have the value of 100
(or 1). All other prefixes are compared to this base unit.
TABLE 14.13 Prefixes for units of measurement
Pico Nano Micro Milli Centi Deci Kilo Mega Giga

p n 𝜇 m c d k M G
10−12 10−9 10−6 10−3 10−2 10−1 103 106 109
Understanding the different prefixes allows the correct units to be used in practical investigations, and
also allows for easy conversion between different units.
initial unit (10a )

× value
changed unit (10b )
SAMPLE PROBLEM 5
Convert:
a. 12.412 millilitres to microlitres
b. 26 153 milligram to decigram
c. 8.7 metres to nanometres
THINK WRITE
10−3
a. 1. Determine the conversion between the units = 103
millilitres 10−6
microlitres
2. Multiply this by the value to be converted. 103 × 12.412 mL = 12 412
3. Add the new unit. 12 412 𝜇L
10−3
b. 1. Determine the conversion between the units = 10−2
milligram 10−1
decigram
2. Multiply this by the value to be converted. 10−2 × 26 153 mg = 261.53
3. Add the new unit. 261.53 dg
100
c. 1. Determine the conversion between the units = 109
metre 10−9
nanometre
Note: We use 100 for metres as it is our standard
unit, so is equal to 1.
2. Multiply this by the value to be converted. 109 × 8.7 m = 8 700 000 000
3. Add the new unit (round if required). 8 700 000 000 nm

PRACTICE PROBLEM 5
Convert:
a. 738.3 micromole into nanomole
b. 8233 centimetres into kilometres.
SI units of measurement
SI units (or Système Internationale) are our metric system of measurements. It is an internationally
standardised system.
TABLE 14.14 Common SI units used in chemistry
Quantity Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Amount of substance mole mol
Energy electron volt eV
Derived units
Derived units are units of measurements derived from the SI units.
Speed is an example of a quantity that is measured in derived SI units. The unit of enthalpy change is
kilojoule per mole, derived from the SI unit of energy (joule) and SI unit mole which measures the number
of particles in a given substance. Enthalpy is written as kJ/mol, or with a negative index, as kJ mol−1 .
TABLE 14.15 Commonly used derived units used in chemistry
Quantity Unit Symbol Unit in terms of other units
Molar mass Amu M g mol−1
Enthalpy change ∆H kJ mol−1
Energy and work Joule J Nm
Pressure Pascal Pa N m−2
Temperature Degrees Celsius °C +273.15 K
Density d kg m−3
Radiation dose Sievert Sv J kg−1
14.9.6 Significant figures

There is a degree of uncertainty in any physical measurement. The uncertainty can be due to an error or to
the limitations of the measuring instrument.
In most physical measurements, the last significant figure shows a small degree of uncertainty. For
example, the length of an Olympic competition swimming pool is correctly expressed as 50.00 m. The last
zero has a small degree of uncertainty.

Complicated by zeros
Two simple rules can be used to help you decide if zeros are significant.
• Zeros before the decimal point are significant if they are between non-zero digits. For example, all of
the zeros in the numbers 4506, 27 034 and 602 007 are significant. Therefore, the numbers have four,
five and six significant figures respectively. The zero in the number 0.56 is not significant.
• Zeros after the decimal point are significant if they follow a non-zero digit. For example, in the number
28.00, the two zeros are significant. The number has four significant figures. However, in the number
0.0028, the zeros are not significant (the one before the decimal point and the two after the decimal
point). They do not follow a non-zero digit and are present only to indicate the position of the decimal
point. Therefore, this number has only two significant figures. The number 0.002 80 has three
significant figures.
FIGURE 14.54 Examples of significant figures: (a) has three significant figures and (b) has five significant figures
(a)
Leading zero; Non-zero digit; (b)
not significant significant Non-zero digit; Non-zero digit;
significant significant
0.00820
12.040
Follows a non-zero digit;
Does not follow non-zero
significant Follows a non-zero digit;
digits after decimal; not Follows a non-zero digit;
significant
significant significant
Calculating significant figures

When multiplying or dividing, the answer is written to the least number of significant digits.
For example, if you knew a substance had a mass of 7.6 g and a molar mass of 18.5 g mol−1 , the amount
in mol would be given by:
mass
mol =
molar mass
7.6
=
18.5
= 0.4108108 mol
= 0.41 mol
We can be confident of the result up to two significant figures as this is the least number of significant
figures on which the calculation was based. Hence, the result should be rounded to two significant figures.
When quantities are added or subtracted, the result should be expressed to the minimum number of
decimal places used in the data. For example, if you measured three consecutive volumes of 23.4 mL,
24.63 mL and 20.123 mL, the total volume measured would be given by:
23.4 + 24.63 + 20.123 = 68.153

= 68.2 mL
The result should be rounded off to one decimal place because this was the minimum number of decimal
places provided in the data.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 6
In determining the density of a particular liquid, a student measured the volume of a sample as
8.3 mL. She then weighed the same sample and obtained a mass of 7.2136 g. Calculate the density
to the correct level of significant figures.
THINK WRITE
a. 1. Determine the number of significant figures 7.2136 = 5 significant figures
provided. 8.3 = 2 significant figures
2. Determine the least number of significant figures. 2 significant figures
This will be the number of significant figures in the
final result.
7.2136
3. Calculate the density Density = = 0.8691
mass 8.3
density =
volume
4. Round down to the appropriate number of = 0.87 g mL−1
significant figures. In this case, 0.8691 needs to be
rounded down to significant figures.
PRACTICE PROBLEM 6
Sodium has a molar mass of 22.989 g mol−1 . A sample was found to have a mass of 6.65381 g. What
is the amount in mole of sodium?
Resources
Video eLesson Determining significant figures (eles-2559)
14.9.7 Standard abbreviations

Writing out terms in each instance can make a scientific report bulky and hard to follow. Therefore, it is
often appropriate to abbreviate frequently repeated terms.
In chemistry, we often shorten formulas instead of writing them out in full. This is particularly true with
molecules such as water, for which the abbreviation H2 O is universally known.
Some common abbreviations used in chemistry are:
• IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
• pH: Potential of hydrogen
• UV: Ultraviolet
• AAS: Atomic absorption spectroscopy
• HPLC: High performance liquid chromatography
• ppm: Parts per million
• ppb: Parts per billion
• CF: Calibration factor
• IR: Infrared spectroscopy
• MS: Mass spectrometry
• NMR: Nuclear magnetic resonance
• SLC: Standard laboratory conditions
When using an abbreviation, write the word out in full on the first appearance followed by its
abbreviation in brackets and then the abbreviation can be used in subsequent appearances.
For example:
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) was developed in Australia. In AAS, the concentrations of metal ions are
detected.
14.9.8 Acknowledgement of references

An in-depth scientific report requires a depth of research for concepts relating to the investigation. This
could include:
• using other sources for definitions and background material
• finding examples of similar investigations
• research on the obtained results to link to scientific understanding.
If you use any material that is the work of another person, you must acknowledge its source. Do not
claim it as your own work. Acknowledgments come in two formats: a short version when it occurs in the
body of your report or poster, and a longer version when it occurs in the Reference and Acknowledgments
section at the end of your poster or scientific investigation.
There are many ways to make such acknowledgments, and various institutions and publications use
different systems. Details of these systems can be found online and can be quite complicated. You should
check with your teacher about which system they want you to use. Remember, you cannot mix systems so
all your references, both in-text and in the References and Acknowledgments, must follow the same style.
Acknowledging sources within your report: In-text referencing

An in-text reference is an abbreviated form of a reference and should be used in the body of your report in
the location the sourced information is referred to. It is used not just for direct quotes, but also for tables,
images and any information that has been paraphrased.
There are numerous ways to use in-text references and these depends on what style you are using.
Author–date system
The author-date style of in-text referencing is the most commonly used, particularly in the APA and
Harvard systems of referencing. As well as the shortened in-text referencing, a full reference is included
in the reference list.
Text that has been sourced has the in-text reference at the end of the information being used. For
example:
… over the past 10 years, the number of eligible children has increased (Kringle, 2008) and a need has therefore
developed for sleighs to travel faster to meet the required delivery schedule. More efficient fuels are required for
this purpose.
Tables, diagrams and graphs that are being inserted without being substantially altered can often be
acknowledged by stating the details directly underneath them. Table 14.16 shows an example.
TABLE 14.16 Energy content of commonly available sleigh fuels
Fuel Energy content (kJ L−1 )
Rudolphene 45
Polar plus 29
Super sleigh 53
(Claus, 2016, p. 45)

There are some points to remember about in-text referencing using the author–date system. These
include:
• if the online article is undated, put (n. d.) in place of the date
• if there is no author, use the title in place of the author’s name
• if there are up to three authors, list them all
• if there are more than three authors, only use the name of the first author and follow it with the phrase
‘et al’, which means ‘and others’
• if you quote directly from an author or cite a specific idea or piece of information from the source, you
need to include the page number of the quote in your in-text reference.
Footnotes system
The footnotes system of in-text referencing is usually used in the Chicago and Vancouver systems. In this
style, the citation is denoted by a superscript number showing the point in which a reference have been
used. For example:
… over the past 10 years, the number of eligible children has increased5 and a need has therefore developed for
sleighs to travel faster to meet the required delivery schedule. More efficient fuels are required for this purpose.
In the footnotes section of the page (depending on the format of the report) the work is referenced with the
corresponding number, and is then included again in the reference list.
Acknowledging sources at the end of your report: Reference list

At the end of a scientific report or poster, a reference list is included. If you are using the author-date
systems, your references should be listed alphabetically. If you are using the footnotes system, references
should be listed in order of footnote number.
Following are examples showing references using the Harvard (author–date) system.
Book
Author surname(s), initial(s) (Year published). Title. Edition (if applicable). Place of publication: publisher.
Example:
Langley, P & Jones, M (2013) The search for Richard III: The king’s grave. London: John Murray.
Do not use et al. in your reference list. This is only appropriate in your in-text referencing.
Journal
Author surname(s), initial(s) (Year published). Title of article. Title of Journal. Volume number. Page
numbers.
Example:
Boiero, D & Bagaini, C (2018). S-wave splitting intensity analysis and inversion. Geographical Prospecting.
Vol. 67(2). 362–378.
If available, you may also include the DOI (digital object identifier) after the page numbers. A DOI is a
permanent identifier for a journal article and is often used in place of a URL.
TV programs
Title of program (date), (TV program) Channel identification.
Example:
Gene editing made simple (2016), (TV program), ABC Sydney.
Websites
Any websites you use in your report should be written for an academic target audience.
Author surname(s), initial(s) (Year published). Title of page. Name of website, date and website of retrieval
Example:
Fein, B 2011. The Patriot Act is at war with the constitution. The American view: God, family, republic,
accessed 8 November 2011, <http://archive.theamericanview.com/index.php?id=1770>

14.9.9 Presenting a scientific poster
You will be assessed on two items: your logbook and your scientific poster. A sample format of the poster is
shown in figure 14.55.
FIGURE 14.55 Format of scientific poster
NAME
TITLE
SCHOOL LOGO/
OTHER IMAGE The question under investigation with a clear link to the
independent and dependent variables
INTRODUCTION RESULTS CONCLUSION

• Aim • Presentation of collected data/evidence in an • Provides a response to
• Hypothesis appropriate form to illustrate trends, patterns and/or the question, referring to
• Purpose of the investigation relationships the aim and hypothesis
• Background information • May include graphs, images and tables with
clear headings
METHODOLOGY DISCUSSION REFERENCES/

• Summary of the materials and • Analysis and evaluation of primary data: does it ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
method used that can be support your initial intentions and relevant theory? • Referencing and
authenticated by logbook entries • Identification of outliers and their subsequent acknowledgement of all
• Information about the choice of treatment quotations and sourced
equipment and how variables • Discussion of sources of error content
were controlled • Identification of limitations in data and methods,
• Identification and management and suggested improvements
of relevant risks, including health, • Linking of results to relevant Chemistry concepts
safety and ethics • Outlining of possible next steps in the investigation
Jacaranda
A Wiley Brand
14.9.10 Practical investigation checklist

Before you submit your report, use the following checklist to make sure you have included everything you
need to.
⃞ Your name, the title and the aim/hypothesis are listed.
⃞ An introduction describes the purpose and outlines the investigation in a logical and concise manner.
Key terms are defined and variables are stated clearly. Relevant theory is addressed.
⃞ The method is outlined clearly in step form and includes a consideration of ethics, health and safety. A
risk assessment is provided.
⃞ Your logbook contains dates, headings and complete records.
⃞ Any abbreviations are explained.
⃞ Results are presented in an organised way, in a table if possible. All relevant measurements are
recorded with appropriate accuracy and units.
⃞ Observations are clear and concise, as are all diagrams, graphs and tables.
⃞ Any calculations are shown.
⃞ There is a concise summary and interpretation of key findings, including trends and any unexpected
results with connection to theory.
⃞ The experimental design is evaluated and possible improvements are included.
⃞ There are suggestions for future investigations.
⃞ The conclusion concisely summarises how your results support or contradict your original hypothesis.
⃞ All sources are acknowledged and references correctly cited.
⃞ The use of key terms, symbols and equations is appropriate.

A poster or other form of scientific report should address the sections outlined in table 14.11 without
going into too much detail. For example, you would display only a subset of the data to convey your
findings and accuracy. Similarly, not all your graphs need appear.
14.9 EXERCISE
1. Convert the following units to the SI base unit shown.
(a) 142 mL (to L)
(b) 0.67 kg (to g)
(c) 762 184 𝜇m (to m)
2. Convert the following to the unit shown.
(a) 1.67 kg (to mg)
(b) 198 𝜇mol (to mmol)
3. Describe the following aspects of a scientific report.
(a) Introduction
(b) Discussion
(c) Conclusion
4. Write a reference in Harvard style for this textbook. Show both the in-text referencing and the full reference
for the reference list.
5. How many significant figures are in the following?
(a) 760.4
(b) 0.0109
(c) 1.200
(d) 4.08
6. Calculate the following and express your answer in the appropriate number of significant figures.
(a) 4 + 9
(b) 0.002 + 3.7
(c) 5.9 + 70.4134
(d) 0.80 − 0.2
(e) 840 − 612.03
(f) 62.098 + 6.72
7. Solve the following problems using the correct number of significant figures.
(a) density = 63.45 g / 1.2 mL
(b) mass = 23.713 g + 11.1 g
(c) moles = 1.4 mol L−1 × 2.05 L
(d) m(Cu) = 1.8 mol × 63.5 g mol−1
14.10 Review
14.10.1 Summary
Key science skills in chemistry
• It is important to choose a topic that allows for the development of a question and observations to be
made.
• Variables are factors that an investigator can control, change or measure.
• An independent variable is manipulated by the investigator (e.g. the type of metal examined).
• A dependent variable is measured by the investigator and is influenced by the independent variable
(e.g. the melting temperature of a metal).
• A controlled variable is one that is kept the same in an investigation — there are usually numerous
controlled variables in an experiment (e.g. the device used to record temperature, environmental
factors such as air temperature and humidity, and the mass of the metal being investigated).

• It is important to control variables in order to examine one independent variable at a time to better
understand its relationship to the dependent variable.
• An aim is a one to two sentence outline of the purpose the investigation, linking the dependent and
independent variables.
• A hypothesis is a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon and acts as a
prediction for the investigation.
• Part of scientific method or process is designing an experiment, conducting the experiment and
analysing the results.
Concepts specific to investigation
• Key terms can be defined as part of a scientific report or in a glossary.
• Key terms that are selected should be those that are vital to understand the investigation.
• There are various representations used in chemistry, including symbols, models, equations and
formulas.
• Understanding various representations helps make communication easier and clearer.
Scientific research methodologies and techniques
• Primary sources of data are direct or firsthand evidence, often gained through practical investigations.
• Data can be quantitative (numerical) or qualitative.
• It is vital to carefully choose the best techniques and equipment for an investigation. These should be
precise, accurate and easy to conduct within a school environment.
• In an investigation, it is vital to consider accuracy, precision, reliability and validity.
• Accuracy is how close a measurement is to a known value (like hitting the target on a bullseye).
• Precision is how close multiple measures are to each other (like hitting a six on a target three times in a
row).
• Reliability shows that if an experiment is replicated (by oneself or another researcher), the results
should be similar.
• Validity is how much credibility can be given to the results — do the results measure what they
intended to and back up their claims?
• The best designed experiments are accurate, precise, reliable and valid, while minimising errors and
uncertainties.
Ethics, and health and safety guidelines
• In an investigation, care must be taken to follow ethical, and health and safety guidelines.
• Ethics are involved in moral conduct, particularly when humans and animals are involved as test
subjects — this does not tend to be an issue is chemistry compared with biology and psychology.
• Health and safety is often evaluated using a risk assessment, where different hazards are analysed and
safety requirements are explained.
Methods of organising, analysing and evaluating primary data
• Data can be organised in a variety of ways, including through the use of tables and graphs.
• Scatterplots and line graphs are used when both variables are quantitative.
• Bar graphs are used when one piece of data is qualitative and the other is quantitative.
• Histograms are used when intervals and frequency are being explored.
• It is important to choose an appropriate method of organising data in order to effectively analyse
trends, patterns and relationships.
• Graphs can be used to predict data outside of the investigated set.
• When evaluating data, it is important to link to scientific concepts, models and theories, link back to
your aim and hypothesis, describe trends and patterns, and identify any outliers or limitations.
• Both errors and uncertainty can affect the results gained.
• Errors are a measurement of the difference between a measured value and the true value (the
accuracy).
• Uncertainty is the limit to precision and the range of values that can be measured.

Model and theories to understand observed phenomena
• Models represent ideas, phenomena or scientific processes. They can be physical models,
mathematical models or conceptual models.
• Limitations of models include an oversimplification of concepts, an inability to be completely accurate
and being specific to a set of conditions, which may or may not reflect the real world.
• Theories are well-supported explanations of phenomena.
• Similar to models, theories are often oversimplifications of concepts, specific to a set of conditions and
subject to change as new information becomes available.
Nature of evidence and the key findings of investigations
• Evidence can be used to support or reject a hypothesis. A hypothesis is not stated to be confirmed or
proven true because new evidence can come to light, which later leads to its rejection.
• When reporting key findings, it is important to provide information about the data obtained in the
practical investigation and any patterns and trends, show the relationship of your findings to chemistry
concepts and provide an answer to the question of your investigation.
Conventions of scientific report writing and scientific poster presentation
• Both your logbook and scientific poster are forms of scientific reporting and combine for your mark
for Unit 4 AOS 3.
• Components required in a scientific report are a title, date, name, introduction, aim, hypothesis,
methodology (method and materials), results, discussion, conclusion and references.
• A variety of key symbols, formulas, equations, terminology, representations and abbreviations are used
in chemistry and are required for effective communication.
• All sourced information must be correctly and clearly referenced using a style such as Harvard
or APA.
• Your poster will not have every piece of information that your logbook will, but it will show the
important and key points that will allow for a clear understanding of your investigation.
Resources
Digital document Topic summary – Topic 14 (doc-31428)
14.10.2 Key terms
accuracy how close an experimental measurement is to a known value

aim a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation, linking the dependent and independent variables
bar graphs graphs in which data is represented by a series of bars. They are usually used when one variable is
quantitative and the other is qualitative.
bias the intentional or unintentional influence on a research investigation
categorical data also known as qualitative data, this is when data has labels or names rather than a range of
numerical quantities
column graphs see bar graphs
conclusion a section at the end of a report that relates back to the question, sums up key findings and states
whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected
control group a group that is not affected by the independent variables, and is used as a baseline for
comparison
controlled variables variables that are kept constant across different experimental groups
dependent variable the variable that is influenced by the independent variable. It is the variable that is
measured.
discussion a detailed area of a report in which results are discussed, analysed and evaluated, relationships
to concepts are made, errors, limitations and uncertainties are assessed, and suggestions for future
improvements are made

error differences between a measurement taken and the true value that is expected; they lead to a reduction in
the accuracy of the investigation
ethics acceptable and moral conduct determining what ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’
experimental group test groups that are exposed to the independent variable
falsifiable there has to be a way to be prove the hypothesis wrong
histograms a graph in which data is sorted in intervals and frequency is examined. This is used when both
pieces of data are quantitative. Columns are not separated in a histogram.
hypothesis a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon that acts as a prediction
for the investigation
independent variable the variable that is changed or manipulated by an investigator
limitations factors that have impacted the interpretation and/or collection of findings in a practical investigation
line graphs graphs in which points of data are joined by a connecting line. These are used when both pieces of
data are quantitative (numerical).
line of best fit a trend line that is added to a scatterplot to best express the data shown. These are straight lines,
and are not required to pass through all points.
models representations of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes; they can be physical models, mathematical
models or conceptual models
numerical data also known as quantitative data, this is when data involves numbers and can be measured or
counted
outlier results that are a long way from other results and seen as unusual
precision how close multiple measurements of the same investigation are to each other
primary source direct or firsthand evidence about some phenomenon
qualitative data categorical data that examines the quality of something (i.e. colour, gender), rather than
numerical values
quantitative data numerical data that examines the quantity of something (i.e. length, time).
random errors chance variations in measurements
reliability whether or not another researcher could repeat your investigation by following your method and obtain
similar results
results a section in a report in which all data obtained is recorded, usually in the form of tables and graphs
risk assessment a document that examines the different hazards in an investigation and suggests safety
precautions
scatterplots graphs in which two quantitative variables are plotted as a series of dots
scientific method sometimes referred to as scientific process, this is the procedure that must be followed in
scientific investigations that consists of questioning, researching, predicting, observing, experimenting and
analysing
scientific research methodology the principles of research based on the scientific method
secondary source comments on or summaries and interpretations of primary data
systematic errors errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement, that cannot be improved by repeating an
experiment. They are usually due to equipment or system errors.
theory a well-supported explanation of a phenomena, based on facts that have been obtained through
investigations, research and observations
testable a hypothesis can be easily tested by observations and/or experiments
uncertainty a limit to the precision of equipment, it is a range within which a measurement lies
validity credibility of the research results from experiments or from observations. Validity shows how much
results measure what they intend to and how well they show the claims they make.
Resources

14.10 Exercises
go to your learnON title at www.jacplus.com.au

1. Belinda conducted an experiment to test the combustion of different types of fuel.
In this experiment, type of fuel being tested is:
A. the dependent variable
B. the independent variable
C. the controlled variable
D. the control group.
2. Ben conducted an investigation to experimentally determine if the specific heat capacity of water is
actually 4.18 J g–1 K–1 . His experimental results are shown:
6.28 J g−1 K−1

6.24 J g−1 K−1
6.47 J g−1 K−1
Which of the following statements is correct about his results?

A. It was neither precise nor accurate.
B. It was precise but not accurate.
C. It was accurate but not precise.
D. It was accurate and valid.
3. Paul was investigating how temperature impacted the rate of a reaction for the combustion of a fuel. He
calculated this by determining the volume of carbon dioxide produced in the process. The results of his
investigation are shown below.
Temperature (°C) Rate of reaction (mL of CO2 per minute)
0 2.4
10 5.6
20 12.8
30 8.2
40 8.4
The most appropriate graph to use to show and analyse trends in this data is:
A. Effect of temperature on rate of B. Effect of temperature on rate of combustion
combustion
10
0
Rate of reaction (mL/min)
2.4 8
8.4 10
5.6
20 6
7.8
8.2 30
4
40
2
0
0 10 20 30 40
Temperature (°C)

C. Effect of temperature on rate of combustion D. Effect of temperature on rate of combustion
10 10

8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
4. In the formula q = mc∆T, ∆T represents:

A. the change in temperature
B. the change in time
C. the initial temperature
D. the final temperature.
5. A ruler is shown. The measure of uncertainty would be:
A. 0.5 cm
B. 0.1 cm
C. 0.05 cm
D. 0.025 cm.
6. One way to reduce systematic errors is to:
A. repeat an experiment with the same piece of equipment
B. make sure all equipment has been correctly calibrated
C. make sure that the correct units are being recorded in results
D. carefully follow practical instructions.
7. The difference between an aim and a hypothesis is:
A. the aim of an experiment is a statement, but the hypothesis is a question
B. the aim includes the dependent and independent variables, but the hypothesis doesn’t
C. the aim explains the expected data, but the hypothesis explains how you will get the data
D. the aim outlines the purpose of the investigation, but the hypothesis is a testable prediction.
8. Vic and Dan both competed to see who could do 100 push-ups the fastest. In a very close finish, it was
found that Dan was 4.50 seconds faster than Vic. Which of the following correct about this result?
A. It is equal to 4500 milliseconds.
B. It contains 2 significant figures.
C. It can be written as 450 × 102 seconds.
D. It is equal to 450 000 microseconds.
9. Theories are:
A. concepts that were once accurate, but have now been rejected
B. diagrammatic representations of abstract concepts
C. ideas that are unable to be rejected due to the amount of evidence they have
D. well-supported ideas where evidence has been gained from investigations, research and
observations.

10. The conclusion section of a report should:
A. include new information that has not been covered in other sections of the report
B. include graphs that best outline the data
C. link the findings of the investigation back to the hypothesis and question of the investigation
D. describe any outliers and errors that occurred in the data.

1. An investigation was conducted to observe the differences in the energy content of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
a. Identify two pieces of quantitative data that you could record and measure.
b. What instruments, if any, would you need to make these observations?
c. Identify two pieces of qualitative data that you could observe.
d. What instruments, if any, would you need to make these observations?
2. Identify a key difference between the members of the following pairs.
a. Independent and dependent variables
b. Models and theories
c. Systematic and random errors
d. Primary and secondary sources of data
e. Uncertainty and error
3. In an investigation conducted in class, Jayde recorded a temperature of 812.010 °C.
a. How many significant figures does this recorded temperature have?
b. Write this temperature in scientific notation.
4. Chris used gas chromatography (GC) to measure the ethanol content of some alcoholic beverages. GC
works on a similar principle to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). In both instruments, it
is necessary to produce a calibration curve in addition to obtaining readings for the test samples. One
such calibration curve is shown below.
50 000
40 000
Peak area
30 000
20 000
10 000
0
9 10 11 12 13 14
Ethanol concentration (%)
a.Sample A produced a reading of 36 000 from the GC. Estimate the level of ethanol in this sample.
b. Sample B produced a reading of 50 500. Estimate the level of ethanol in this sample and comment on
your answer.
c. Sample C produced a reading of 95 000. Is it possible to estimate the ethanol level in this sample?
Explain why or why not.
d. Write a conclusion for this investigation.

5. The following is an extract from a student’s logbook where the temperature was recorded at regular
intervals during an experiment.
Initial temperature = 15.0 °C
Temperature every 30 seconds after initial recording in °C: 16.5, 18.1, 19.5, 20.8, 22.4, 23.7, 24.0,
23.9, 23.5, 23.2
a. Using graph paper, plot the data on the most appropriate graph, including a scale and labels.
b. Describe the trends and patterns in this graph.
c. What conclusions would you make from this investigation?

Vicki decided to investigate how the rate of reaction is affected by the concentration of acid. She weighed
out 3.00 g of calcium carbonate powder and put it in a balloon. She put on some safety gloves and
added 50 mL of 1.0 M hydrochloric acid to a flask. She then weighed the balloon and the flask and recorded
her results. Vicki then stretched the balloon over the opening of the flask before mixing the two chemicals.
When the bubbling stopped, she weighed the balloon and flask again. She repeated the experiment again
using 3.00 g of calcium carbonate powder but used 50 mL of 2.0 M hydrochloric acid. She found that
changing the concentration had little effect on the rate of reaction because there was hardly any change in
mass.
a. Comment on the safety precautions taken. Do you think they were sufficient? 2 marks
b. Identify the dependent variable in this investigation. 1 mark
c. List two variables that need to be controlled in this investigation? 1 mark
d. Describe what measuring equipment should be used in this investigation and identify one factor that
could affect the accuracy of this piece of equipment 2 marks
e. Vicki’s method is flawed as it does not allow for the rate of the reaction to be measured as mass should
be conserved (due to the conservation of mass). Write a clear experimental method for Vicki that shows
how she can investigate how the concentration of hydrochloric acid affects the rate of a reaction. You
may need to add to her method to make sure that more data is being collected and to ensure it is
reproducible 4 marks

An investigation was being conducted to examine how changing the pressure affects the volume of a gas.
a. Write a suitable aim for this investigation. 1 mark
b. Identify the hypothesis for this investigation. 1 mark
c. Describe one piece of qualitative data and one piece of quantitative data that may be collected in this
investigation 2 marks
d. Explain two factors that may lead to differences in results between different students 2 marks
e. Design an investigation that could be used to test this 4 marks
A student conducted an experiment, examining the rate of production of hydrogen gas and magnesium
oxide from hydrochloric acid and magnesium. The student used the same amount of magnesium in all
experiments, but altered the concentration of the pH.

The student recorded how long it took for hydrogen bubbles to first appear. The results from this
investigation are shown below:
Concentration Time for hydrogen bubbles

of HCl (mol L−1 ) to appear (seconds)
0.5 10.2
1 8.2
2 5.3
3 3.0
4 1.5
5 0.8
a. Using the data provided:

i. Plot the graph, ensuring that the time is shown on the vertical axis (this is different compared to other
line graphs you may have drawn)
ii. Label the graph and axes as appropriate
iii. Draw a straight line of best fit in one colour
iv. Draw a smooth line joining the points in another colour. 4 marks
b. Describe the trends seen in your data. 2 marks
c. Explain the differences between your line of best fit and your line joining the points. Which is better for
this data? 2 marks
Two students, Joe and Robert wanted to explore if the energy content of carbohydrates was 16.7 kilojoules
per gram. They used a pack of corn chips to investigate this, each testing five corn chips.
Their results are shown in the table below:
Joe Robert
−1
Sample number Energy content (kJ g ) Energy content (kJ g−1 )
1 14.2 10.1
2 12.9 10.5
3 16.2 9.90
4 11.1 11.1
5 15.6 12.0
a. Describe one error that may have occurred which reduced the accuracy of the data for both Joe and
Robert and identify how this error may be avoided? 2 marks
b. Calculate the average energy content recorded by Robert, using correct significant figures based on the
data provided 2 marks
c. Describe, with reference to the known value of the energy content of carbohydrates, why the results
obtained by Joe are more accurate than those obtained by Robert. 2 marks
d. It was found that the average energy content recorded by Joe was 14.0 kJ g−1 . Convert
this to J g−1 . 2 marks

A student conducted an investigation to explore the different boiling points of organic molecules containing
3 carbons.
The student’s report is shown below:
Introduction: In this experiment, various 3-carbon organic compounds were investigated. The substances
being explored were propanoic acid, propan-1-ol, propan-2-ol, propanone and propanal. This investigation
was conducted in the laboratory and all substances were slowly heated to a maximum temperature of
100 °C and the boiling point was recorded. Propane was not included in this investigation as it was already a
gas at room temperature.
Aim: To examine if different carbon containing compounds have different boiling points.
Hypothesis: If various three-carbon containing organic molecules are heated, then propanoic acid will have the
highest boiling point.
Method:
1. Set up 5 beakers. Label each with the organic compound.
2. Pour the organic compound into the appropriate beaker.
3. Place a thermometer in the liquid and record the initial temperature.
4. Place the first beaker above the bunsen burner, using a tripod and gauze mat.
5. Heat the liquid to 100 °C, recording the temperature of boiling.
6. Repeat with the next liquid.
Initial temperature Boiling point

Propanoic acid 20.0 °C >100 °C
Propan-1-ol 25.0 °C 95.0 °C
Propan-2-ol 24.0 °C 83.5 °C
Propanone 23.5 °C 59.0 °C
Propanal 23.5 °C 49.5 °C
a. Describe an issue with the hypothesis written by the student. How would you adjust this to make it
testable? 2 marks
b. In the experiment, the substances were only heated to a maximum of 100 °C. Explain why this may lead
to errors in the data obtained. 2 marks
c. Students were only able to use a thermometer in which temperature could only be measured to the
nearest 0.5 °C. Identify the tolerance of this device and describe the uncertainty expected
in the data. 2 marks
d. Outline two limitations in the experimental method or data collection process that would affect the
conclusions drawn? 2 marks
e. Describe the most appropriate graph that the student should use to represent their data. Justify your
choice. 2 marks
f. Based on the student’s results, write a conclusion for this investigation, linking back to
the hypothesis. 2 marks

Answers Practice problem 4
2C2 H6 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4CO(g) + 6H2 O(l)
1 Obtaining energy from fuels ∆H = −3120 kJ mol−1
1.2 Fossil fuels and biofuels or C2 H6 (g) + 2O2 (g) → C(s) + CO(g) + 3H2 O(l)
∆H = −1560 kJ mol−1
1.2 Exercise
or 2C2 H6 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 4C(g) + 6H2 O(l)
1. There are several brown coal mines in Victoria (including
∆H = −3120 kJ mol−1
Hazelwood, Loy Yang, Yallourn). The economics of using
the lower quality fuel for on-site power generation outweighs
the cost of transporting higher grade coal from interstate. Practice problem 5
2. a. A fuel is an exothermic substance that releases energy, 2S(s) + 2O2 (g) → 2SO2 (g) ∆H = −546 kJ mol−1
commonly in the form of heat.
b. Examples could include all foods, petrol (if you have
1.4 Exercise
driven or have been driven anywhere), natural gas (if you
have cooked on a gas stove), wood, oil and diesel. 1. 2CH3 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(g)
c. A fossil fuel is a non-renewable carbon-based energy ∆H = −1454 kJ mol−1
source that was formed extremely slowly from the 2. 234 kJ of heat energy
decaying remains of plants and animals that accumulated 3. a. Energy released = 1.13 × 103 kJ
millions of years ago. Biofuel: renewable (short formation b. Energy absorbed = 282 kJ
time), carbon-based energy source, formed primarily from 4. Energy = 2.46 × 106 kJ
plant matter. 5. 607 kJ of heat energy
3. a. Renewable fuels can be replaced by natural processes 6. m(CH3 OH) = 22.0 g
within a relatively short period of time. Non-renewable 7. a. Energy released = 4.965 × 103 kJ
fuels are used more quickly than they can be produced. b. m(octane) = 51.8 g
b. Yes, all biofuels are renewable because the rate of The physical state of matter must be shown because
production can exceed the rate of consumptions. changes of state require energy changes.
c. No. Renewable energy can come in many forms including 8. ∆H = −4.23 × 103 kJ
solar, hydro-electric, tidal, geothermal and wave energy. 9. ∆H = −1.28 × 103 kJ
4. CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH + CH3 OH ⇌ CH3 (CH2 )14 COOCH3 + H2 O
Palmitic acid Methanol Methyl Palmitate Water 1.5 Gaseous fuels and the universal
gas equation
1.3 Combustion of fuels
Practice problem 6
Practice problem 1 −1
a. M = 44.0 g mol
% efficiency = 21% b. Carbon dioxide
1.3 Exercise Practice problem 7

1. a. Endothermic V(CH4 ) = 35 L (2 significant figures)
b. Endothermic
c. Exothermic 1.5 Exercise
d. Exothermic
1. a. 1.03 atm
e. Exothermic
b. 4.0 × 105 Pa
f. Endothermic
5
2. % efficiency = 34.3% c. 1.33 × 10 Pa
−2 d. 167 k Pa
3. 85 MJ = 8.5 × 10 kJ
= 8.5 × 10−5 J (2 significant figures) e. 473 K
2 o
4. Energy = 1.7 × 10 MJ f. 227 C
−1
5. m(CO2 ) = 0.266 kg MJ (3 significant figures) g. 3.0 × 103 L
h. 2.5 × 105 mL
1.4 Thermochemical equations i. 1.6 L
3
Practice problem 2 j. 3 × 10 L
−3
a. 2CH3 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2H2 O(g) + CO2 (g) k. 5 × 10 m3
−4 3
l. 6.00 × 10 m
∆H = −723.6 kJ mol−1
b. Amount of energy evolved = 179 MJ (3 significant figures)
Practice problem 3
Energy released = −809 kJ (3 significant figures)
574 ANSWERS
2. a. 5. a. m(Ne) = 13.4 g
1
Pressure (kPa) b. m(SO2 ) = 2.71 g
p
6. m(CO) = 0.9599 kg
−1
120 8.33 × 10−3 7. M(gas) = 83.3 g mol
The gas is most likely Krypton (Kr), which has a molar
145 6.90 × 10−3 mass of 83.8 g mol−1 .
162 6.17 × 10−3 8. a. V(O2 ) = 93.9 L
b. V(Ar) = 10 L
180 5.56 × 10−3 c. V(CO2 ) = 6.1 × 10 L
−3
d. V(He) = 0.010 L
200 5.00 × 10−3
e. V(Ne) = 0.24 L
216 4.63 × 10−3 9. a. V = 21.8 L
b. T = 88.0 °C
240 4.17 × 10−3 4
10. a. p = 1.3 × 10 kPa
b. 17.6 kJ.
258 3.88 × 10−3
b.
Pressure versus volume 1.6 Calculations related to the combustion of
0.3
fuels
0.25 Practice problem 8
m(C6 H14 ) = 57.8 g
0.2
Volume (L)
Practice problem 9
0.15
a. V(O2 ) = 50 mL
0.1 b. V(CO2 ) = 25 mL
c. V(H2 O) = 50 mL
0.05
Practice problem 10
0 Energy required = 47.3 kJ.
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Pressure (kPa)
Practice problem 11
c. See figure at foot of the page.*
d. The first graph is non linear, with volume decreasing as M(C2 H2 ) = 72.3 g
pressure increased. The second graph shows a linear
1 1.6 Exercise
proportionality, where volume increases linearly as
p 1. m(KNO2 ) = 101 g
increases.
n(O2 ) = 0.60 mol 2. m(Mg) = 0.059 g
3. a.
b. n(Cl2 ) = 1.0 mol
4. a. V(H2 ) = 32.2 L
b. V(CH4 ) = 5.58 L
c. V(Ar) = 0.22 L
2c* 1
p versus volume
0.3
0.25
0.2
Volume
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009
1
p
ANSWERS 575
3. a. V(O2 ) = 40 mL heat loss from the water in the can; incomplete
b. V(reactants) = 60 mL combustion of the fuel.
c. V(NO2 ) = 40 mL Minimising errors: totally surround the flame with a
d. Decrease in volume = 20 mL heat-reflecting barrier; cover the side of the can with
4. a. Increase in mass = 224 g insulating material; place a lid on the can.
b. % increase = 175%
c. If pressure and temperature are kept constant, 1.8 Review
V(CH4 ) consumed = V(CO2 ) produced, that is, there is no
percentage change in volume. This contrasts significantly
1.8 Exercises
with the 175% increase when comparing masses. 1.8 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
5. m(CO2 ) = 64.7 g
1. C.
6. a. m(CO2 ) = 60.6 g
2. C.
b. V(CO2 ) = 34.2 L
3. C.
c. 1 MJ of energy produced by burning ethanol produces
4. A.
64.5 g of carbon dioxide, while 1 MJ of energy released
5. A.
from burning methanol produces 60.7 g of carbon
6. D.
dioxide. Methanol has a slightly lower greenhouse gas
7. D.
emission per MJ of energy produced.
8. A.
7. a. m(CO2 ) = 180 g
9. D.
b. V(CO2 ) = 101.1 L
10. C.
11. C.
1.7 Calculating heat energy using the specific 12. B.
heat capacity of water 13. B.
Practice problem 12 14. C.
15. B.
c = 0.129 J °C−1 g−1
1.7 Exercise
1. a. Exothermic
1. a.
Candle b. Endothermic
Property Ethanol wax Butane c. Endothermic
d. Exothermic
Mass of ‘burner’ 23.77 32.72 43.94 2. a.
before heating (g)
Mass of ‘burner’ 22.54 32.50 43.71 H2(g) + CI2(g)

after heating (g)
ΔH
Mass of fuel used (g) 1.23 0.22 0.23 ΔH = –185 kJ mol–1

2HCI(g)
Mass of water (g) 200 200 200
Initial temperature of 20.0 20.0 20.0 b.

water (°C)
Highest temperature 35.0 30.0 29.0

CO(g) + H2O(g)
of water (°C)
ΔH
Temperature rise (°C) 15.0 10.0 9.0

+41 kJ mol–1
−1
Molar mass (g mol ) 46.0 282 58
H2(g) + CO2(g)
b. Ethanol:
Energy per g = 10.2 kJ g−1
Candle wax: c.
Energy per g = 38 kJ g−1
Butane:
Energy per g = (32.6) 33 kJ g−1 Sn(s) + 2CO(g)
−1
c. Ethanol: ∆H = −469 kJ mol
Candle wax: ∆H = −1.1 × 104 kJ mol−1
ΔH
Butane: ∆H = −1.9 × 103 kJ mol−1 +360 kJ mol–1

d. i. Exothermic.
SnO2(s) + 2C(s)
ii. % efficiency = 34.5%
iii. Sample answer:
Sources of error: heat loss from the candle flame to
the surrounding air; heat loss from the copper can;
576 ANSWERS
−1
d. 15. M(gas) = 28 g mol
The gas is most likely nitrogen (N2 ).
20
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 16. N(O2 ) = 1.9 × 10 molecules
17. a. m(H2 O) = 9.9 g
ΔH b. V(CO2 ) = 11 L
ΔH = –92.2 kJ mol–1
c. V2(= 15 L )
2NH3(g)
d. V C4 H10 O = 0.092 mL
18. a. V(CO2 ) = 4.41 × 105 L
3. a. CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 3H2 O(l) b. m(CaCO3 ) = 1.78 × 106 g
∆H = − 1364 kJ mol−1 = 1.78 tonne
19. a. N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) → 2NH3 (g)
b. CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 2O2 (g) → 2CO(g) + 3H2 O(l) 3
b. V(N2 ) = 15 m
∆H = − 1192 kJ mol−1 3
c. V(NH3 ) = 30 m
c. Carbon dioxide forms in plentiful air (3O2 ) while carbon
20. a. It includes the amount of heat absorbed by the reaction.
monoxide forms in limited air (2O2 ).
−1 b. Energy absorbed = 0.5 kJ
d. ∆H = −168 kJ mol
c. Energy absorbed = 70.0 J
4. Ethane:
d. m(Fe) = 4.24 kg.
2C2 H6 (g) + 7O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l)
e. V(CO2 ) = 2.83 × 103 L
∆H = −3.12 × 103 kJ mol−1
21. a. Energy released = 1.57 × 103 kJ
Ethene: b. V = 1.4 × 10 L
7
= −1.41 × 103 22. a. m(propane) = 19.8 g

C2 H4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) b. m(CO2 ) = 59.4 g per MJ
∆H = −1.41 × 103 kJ mol−1 c. m(octane) = 20.9 g
d. m(CO2 ) = 64.4 g
5. a. Gas particles move with continual random motion and, e. The net reduction of CO2 emissions is 5.0 g MJ
−1
when doing so, collide with the walls of any container, f. m(butane) = 20.2 g
producing the effect we know as pressure. m(CO2 ) = 61.2 g per MJ
b. As temperature increases, gas particles move more The net reduction of CO2 emissions is 3.2 g MJ-1 .
rapidly. This results in an increase in the frequency of g. V(propane) = 1.3 L
collisions of the gas particles with the walls of any h. According to the calculations, LPG has a net reduction
container. of CO2 emission of 5.0 g MJ−1 , whereas petrol has a
6. a. 1.34 atm = 1.02 × 103 mmHg reduction of only 3.0 g MJ−1 . Therefore, LPG is the
= 136 kPa better fuel on this basis.
b. 365 mm Hg = 4.87 × 104 Pa 23. a. Heat produced per gram = 18.4 kJ
−1
= 0.480 atm b. ∆H (CH3 CH2 OH) = − 846 kJ mol
c. 102 576 Pa = 1.01 atm c. % accuracy = 62.0%
= 770 mmHg d. Sources of error include heat loss from the flame, heat
7. a. 300 K = 27 °C absorbed by the can, heat loss from the water in the can,
b. 427 K = 154 °C and incomplete combustion of the ethanol. An improved
c. 173 K = −100 °C design could include a barrier surrounding the apparatus
d. 392 K = 119 °C to mimimise radiated heat loss from the flame, using
e. 73 K = −200 °C insulating material surrounding the can and placing a top
8. a. n(O2 ) = 0.061 mol on the can.
b. n(H2 ) = 0.103 mol 24. Heat is progressively lost at each energy transformation
c. n(N2 ) = 0.0101 mol stage.
9. a. V(H2 ) = 37.9 L 25. a. Chemical energy in the organic waste → chemical
b. V(CH4 ) = 21.1 L energy in the biogas → thermal energy (e.g. in furnaces)
c. V(N2 ) = 1.0 × 108 L or electrical energy (e.g. for lighting).
10. a. m(O2 ) = 0.194 g b. Sample responses can be found in your digital
b. m(CO2 ) = 7.9 g formats.
11. a. T2 = −267°C c. Sample responses can be found in your digital
b. T2 = −93 °C formats.
12. a. n = 1.38 mol
b. n = 12.7 mol
13. a. V = 13.3 L
b. V = 35.9 L
14. a. n = 0.0433 mol
b. N = 2.65 × 1022
c. T2 = 333 K = 60°C
ANSWERS 577
1.8 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions e. Fossil fuel trade embargoes between nations could reduce
1. V = 464 L
fossil fuel use. This is a complex issue which will depend
−1
2. a. The heat is measured in kJ kg rather than kJ mol
−1 on the nature of the trade deals.
2. a and b.
because kerosene is measured in industry in kilograms
rather than moles.
b. 5.52 cups. Activities that require Alternative energy
3. a. m(methanol) = 44.2 g fossil fuels supplies
b. m(propan-1-ol ) = 29.8 g Transport Solar, wind or other renewable
c. The net mass reduction of CO2 = 4.9 g MJ−1 . energy sources
d. Net V(CO2 ) reduction = 2.62 L
4. a. CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(g) Air conditioning/heating Solar, wind or other renewable
b. Methane is non-renewable when obtained from a fossil energy sources
fuel (natural gas) but is renewable when obtained from a
biofuel (biogas). Cooking (stove, oven, Solar, wind or other renewable
c. Methane combustion in an insufficient supply of oxygen microwave, etc.) energy sources
may produce carbon monoxide. TV/computer/phone use Solar, wind or other renewable
d. 2CH4 (g) + 3O2 (g) → 2CO(g) + 4H2 O(g) energy sources
e. Carbon monoxide is toxic.
c. Answers will vary. Although fossil fuels currently provide
2 Fuel choices the majority of Australia’s energy, students may feel that
renewable energy sources are more important because
2.2 Comparing energy sources they will have to become the major energy sources of the
2.2 Exercise future.
−1
3. a. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
1. Brown coal: 16 kJ g b. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
−1
Biogas: 26 kJ g 4. a. Biodiesel comprises alkyl esters manufactured from
Bioethanol: 30 kJ g−1 vegetable oils or animals fats. Petrodiesel comprises
Black coal: 30 kJ g−1 long-chain alkanes obtained from the fractional
Biodiesel: 42 kJ g−1 distillation of petroleum.
Petrol: 46 kJ g−1 b. Sample answer: At low temperatures, biodiesel can gel
Diesel: 48 kJ g−1 and increase its viscosity, which can compromise engine
Natural gas: 56 kJ g−1 life.
2. The enhanced greenhouse effect is the accumulation of c. Sample answer: Biodiesel is biodegradable, renewable
excess greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, causing more resource that can replace the use of fossil fuels.
heat to be trapped in the atmosphere. By choosing d. Sample answer: Food crops for human consumption may
sustainable fuels, we can limit the amount of greenhouse be diverted into biodiesel manufacture.
gases being released into the atmosphere and thereby reduce
the impact of the enhanced greenhouse effect. 2.4 Review
3. The combustion of fossil fuels puts carbon back into the
environment (as carbon dioxide) that has been locked 2.4 Exercises
underground for millions of years. By comparison, biofuels 2.4 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
are considered to be carbon neutral because the carbon
released into the atmosphere was obtained relatively recently 1. A.
via photosynthesis. 2. B.
3. D.
2.3 Suitability of fuels for transport 4. B.
5. A.
2.3 Exercise
1. a. As population growth rate increases, the population 2.4 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
increases rapidly. This increases the rate of fossil fuel use 1. a. A fuel formed from the remains of living organisms,
because there are more people to supply energy to. such as animals, trees and smaller plants that lived many
b. Community awareness can cause more people to think years ago.
about and act on reducing the amount and types of energy b. Coal, petroleum and natural gas.
they use. 2. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
c. As alternative technologies and fuel sources are 3. a. Biofuel: a fuel that is produced from renewable, organic
developed, fossil fuels can start to be replaced by more resources, especially biomass (organic material).
environmentally friendly sources. Therefore, the rate of b. Bioethanol, biodiesel and biogas.
fossil fuel consumption decreases.
d. The rate of fossil fuel use might drop if fuel prices
increase, or increase if fuel prices drop.
578 ANSWERS
4. b. O
Advantages Disadvantages CH2 O C C17H35
Ethanol Environmentally Absorbs water, which O H

friendlier is bad for engine health
CH O C C17H35 + 3 H C O
Cheaper and performance
Higher octane rating Less efficient O H H
Petrol More efficient Worse for the CH2 O C C17H35

Does not damage environment More glyceryl tristearate
engines expensive
5. KOH (or NaOH)/heat
Advantages Disadvantages
O CH2 OH
Biodiesel Environmentally Higher viscosity
C
friendlier Less efficient 3 CH3(CH2)15CH2 OCH3 + CH OH
Fewer harmful
emissions
CH2 OH
Petrodiesel More efficient Worse for the glycerol
Lower viscosity environment c. 2C17 H35 COOCH3 (l) + 55O2 (g) → 38CO2 (g) +
6. a. Non-renewable 38H2 O(g)
b. Coal seam gas is extracted by drilling wells into d. Glycerol (C3 H8 O3 )
underground coal deposits. e. Ester
c. Methane gas f. Sample answer: Advantages: renewable resource, carbon
d. Sample answer: possible pollution of underground water neutral
aquifers, and pollution from chemicals used in the Disadvantages: using crops for fuel rather than food
fracking process production, deforestation to grow crops
7. a. Electricity production by coal-fired power stations is an
inefficient process because heat is lost when coal is
burned and when steam is condensed back into water. 3 Galvanic cells as a source of
b. Sample answer: Overuse of electrical appliances not
turning appliances off at the wall
energy
8. a. Answers will depend on electricity usage. An example 3.2 Redox reactions and half-equations
for a household that uses 5000 kWh per year: Practice problem 1
1.44 × 5000 = 7200 kg of carbon dioxide.
b. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that contributes to Oxidation number of S = +4.
the enhanced greenhouse effect which causes more heat
to be trapped in the Earth’s atmosphere, leading to Practice problem 2
environmental issues such as global warming. The oxidation number of tungsten has decreased (from +6 to
c. Sample answer: 0), so it has been reduced. Similarly, the oxidation number of
• installing solar panels or switching to any other hydrogen has increased (from 0 to +1), indicating oxidation.
form of sustainable energy Therefore, this is a redox reaction. WO3 is the oxidising
• limiting electricity use agent and H2 is the reducing agent.
• using public transport instead of driving
9. a. Cost of wasted fuel = 87 cents Practice problem 3
b. Cost of trip back = $10.87
10. % efficiency = 37%
Na(s) + H2 O(l) → NaOH4 (aq) + H2 (g)
2.4 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions Gets H2 O(l) Conjugate Conjugate
1. a. Transesterification involves a chemical reaction where one oxidised gets oxidising reducing
type of ester is turned into another. Acts as an reduced agent agent
reducing Acts as a
agent oxidising
Forms a agent
conjugate Forms a
oxidising conjugate
agent reducing
agent
ANSWERS 579
3.2 Exercise circuit unless ions can move in the internal circuit. The
1. a. H is +1. Br = −1. circuit must be complete and the half-cells must be separated
b. O is −2. Na = +1. while still allowing the flow of charge through the salt bridge
c. H is +1. C = −4. or porous barrier.
+ 2+
2. a. Zn(s) + 2Ag (aq) → Zn (aq) + 2Ag(s)
d. O is −2. Na = +1. Cl = +5.
b. e− e−
e. O is −2. Al = +3
f. O is −2. H is +1. P = +5.
2. a. O4 = −8, H2 = +2. S = +6
b. O2 = −4. S = +4
c. O3 = −6. S = +6 Ag Zn
cathode (+) anode (–)
d. H2 = +2. S = −2
3. a. Cr = +6
b. Cr = +3
c. Cr = +2
Ag+(aq) Zn2+(aq)
4. a. H = +1. (2 × 1) + N = −1. N = −3 + −
b. O = −2. c. Cathode: Ag (aq) + e → Ag(s)
Mn = +7 Anode: Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
c. H = +1; S = −2 d. Not all of the chemical energy is transformed into
d. O = −2. V = +4 electrical energy. Some of the chemical energy stored in
e. O = −2. I = +5 the reactants is released as heat energy. This relationship
f. O = −2. P = +5 increases as the temperature of the system increases.
5. a. Fe is oxidised and Cl2 is reduced. 3. a–e
e−
b. N (in NO) is oxidised and O2 is reduced.
c. C (in CO) is oxidised and O2 is reduced.
d. H2 is oxidised and C (in C2 H4 ) is reduced. K+ NO3−
+ −
6. a. i. CH3 CH2 OH → CH3 CHO + 2H + 2e Zn Mg
− + − 2+ KNO3
ii. MnO4 + 8H + 5e → Mn + 4H2 O cathode anode
− +
iii. 5CH3 CH2 OH(l) + 2MnO4 (aq) + 6H (aq) →
2+
5CH3 CHO(l) + 2Mn (aq) + 8H2 O(l)
−
iv. CH3 CH2 OH is the reducing agent and MnO4 is the ZnSO4(aq) MgSO4(aq)
oxidising agent.
+ −
b. i. CH3 CHO + H2 O → CH3 COOH + 2H + 2e
− + − 2+
ii. MnO4 + 8H + 5e → Mn + 4H2 O
− +
iii. 5CH3 CHO(l) + 2MnO4 (aq) + 6H (aq) → f and g Oxidation (at anode): Mg(s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2e−
2+
5CH3 COOH(l) + 2Mn (aq) + 3H2 O(l) Reduction (at cathode): Zn2+ (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s)
− + 2+ 2+ 2+
7. Cu(s) + 2NO3 (aq) + 4H (aq) → Cu (aq) h. Overall reaction: Mg(s) + Zn (aq) → Mg (aq) + Zn(s)
2+
+ 2NO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) i. Zn is the oxidising agent; Mg is the reducing agent.
4. a and c
3.3 Galvanic cells e− e−
Practice problem 4 KNO3(aq)

a, d and e
e− Fe Pt/C
anode (–) cathode (+)
NO3− K+
Zn Ag
anode KNO3 cathode
Fe2+(aq) Cr2O72−(aq)/Cr3+(aq)
ZnSO4(aq) AgNO3(aq) b. Fe(s) → Fe (aq) + 2e−

2+
Cr2 O7 (aq) + 14H+ (aq) + 6e− → 2Cr3+ (aq) + 7H2 O(l)

2−
+
d. This reaction will not occur without H (aq).
b. Oxidation: Zn(s) → Zn (aq) + 2e−

2+
3.4 The electrochemical series
+ −
Reduction: Ag (aq) + e → Ag(s)
+ 2+
c. Zn(s) + 2Ag (aq) → Zn (aq) + 2Ag(s)
Practice problem 5
a. i. MnO4 −
3.3 Exercise ii. Al
iii. Al3+
1. A salt bridge or porous barrier is need to connect the two
iv. Mn2+
half-cells because electrons cannot flow in the external
580 ANSWERS
− −
b. Cl2 (g) + 2e ⇌ 2Cl (aq) b. e− e−
− −
I2 (l) +2e ⇌ 2I (aq)
Al3+ (aq) + 3e− ⇌ Al(s) K+
MnO4 − + 8H+ (aq) + 5e− ⇌ Mn2+ (aq) + 4H2 O(l)
Pb2+ (aq) + 2e− ⇌ Pb(s) C/Pt Pb
Practice problem 6
Reduction (cathode): Fe3+ (aq) + e− → Fe2+ (aq)
Oxidation (anode): Ni(s) → Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− Co3+(aq)/ Pb2+(aq)
Co2+(aq)
Overall equation: Ni(s) + 2Fe3+ (aq) → Ni2+ (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq)
E0cell = +1.00 V 6. A zero cell voltage may result from: the cell contents may
be used up, the salt bridge may be dried out, or the
3.4 Exercise electrical circuit may not be complete if ions from salt
+ −
bridge precipitate with ions in the half-cell (the wrong
1. Ag (aq) + 2e → Ag(s) E0 = +0.80 V electrolyte used in the salt bridge).
2Br− (aq) → Br2 (l) E0 = −1.09 V 7. Primary cells are not rechargeable while secondary cells are
It will be a non-spontaneous reaction because Ag+ (aq) is rechargeable.
the weaker of the two oxidising agents and Br− (aq) is the 8. Zinc (Zn)
weaker of the two reducing agents. 9. The oxidation number changes from + 4 in MnO2 to +
− 2+
2. a. Cl2 (g) + Ni(s) → 2Cl (aq) + Ni (aq) 3 in Mn2 O3
3+ 2+
b. 2Al (aq) + 3Mg(s) → 2Al(s) + 3Mg (aq) 10. e− e−
− + −
c. 2MnO4 + 6H (aq) + 5CIO3 (aq) →
2Mn2+ (aq) + 3H2 O(l) + 5CIO− 4
(aq)
− +
d. 2MnO4 + 16H (aq) + 5Fe(s) →
2Mn2+ (aq) + 8H2 O (l) + 5Fe2+ (aq)
Ag Zn
3. Predicted spontaneous redox reactions may not occur cathode (+) anode (–)
because the rate of reaction may be too slow to be observed
initially or non-standard conditions may have been used,
making the reaction less favourable/observable.
4. a. Anode: zinc, cathode: lead Ag+(aq) Zn2+(aq)
E0cell = +0.63 V
11. The oxidation number of oxygen has decreased from
Pb2+(aq) + Zn(s) → Pb(s) + Zn2+(aq) 0 to −2.
12. Lithium cells can produce a high cell voltage. They also last
2e– for a long time and have a high energy density.
b. Anode: platinum/carbon, cathode: silver
E0cell = +0.03 V 3.5 Review
Fe2+(aq) + Ag+(aq) → Ag(s) + Fe3+(aq)
3.5 Exercises
e– 3.5 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
c. Anode: iron, cathode: platinum/carbon
E0cell = +1.67 V 1. B.
2. B.
O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 2Fe(s) → 2H2O(l) + 2Fe2+(aq)
3. D.
4. B.
4e– 5. B.
5. a. e− e− 6. A.
7. B.
8. C.
K+
9. C.
Cu Mg 10. A.
cathode (+) anode (–) 11. B.
12. C.
13. B.
14. B.
Cu2+(aq) Mg2+(aq)
15. A.
ANSWERS 581
3.5 Exercise 2: Short answer questions b. e− e−
1. Answers will vary. Sample responses can be found in your

digital formats. K+(aq) NO3−(aq)
2. a. Zn is oxidised; HCl is reduced.
b. NO is oxidised; O2 is reduced. C/Pt AI
c. Mg is oxidised; H2 SO4 is reduced.
d. Al is oxidised; Cl2 is reduced.
3. a. Oxidising agent: Cl2 ; reducing agent: I− .
I2(s)/I−(aq) AI3+(aq)
b. Oxidising agent: Br2 ; reducing agent: Cl− .
c. Oxidising agent: I2 ; reducing agent: Br− .
d. Oxidising agent: Co3+ ; reducing agent: Pb. Cathode: I2 (s) + 2e− → 2I− (aq)
e. Oxidising agent: Pb2+ ; reducing agent: Fe Anode: Al(s) → Al3+ (aq) + 3e−
f. Oxidising agent: H+ ; reducing agent: Hg c. e− e−
g. Oxidising agent: Cl2 ; reducing agent: F .
4. a. 2Br− (aq) + SO4 2− + 4H+ (aq) → Br2 (l) + SO2 (g) +
2H2 O(l) K+(aq) NO3−(aq)
Cl2(g)
b. 2Al(s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2AlCl3 (s)
− + Zn
c. I2 (s) + H2 S(g) → 2I (aq) + S(s) + 2H (aq) platinum anode (–)
− + 2+
d. 5Cu(s) + 2NO3 (aq) + 8H (aq) → 5Cu (aq) + 2NO(g) + cathode (+)
4H2 O(l)
− + 2+ Zn2+(aq)
e. Cu(s) + 2NO3 (aq) + 4H (aq) → Cu (aq) + 2NO2 (g) +
2H2 O(l)
CI−(aq) CI−(aq) Zn2+(aq)
f. 3CuO(s) + 2NH3 (g) → 3Cu(s) + 3H2 O(l) + N2 (g)
− −
g. PbS(s) + 4H2 O2 (l) → PbSO4 (s) + 4H2 O(l) Cathode: Cl2 (g) + 2e → 2Cl (aq)
2− +
h. 2Cr2 O7 (aq) + 16H (aq) + 3CH3 CH2 OH(aq) → Anode: Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e−
3+ d.
4Cr (aq) + 11H2 O(l) + 3CH3 COOH(aq) e −
e −
2+ −
5. a. Zn(s) → Zn (aq) + 2e
2+ −
b. Fe (aq) + 2e → Fe(s) +
K (aq) NO (aq)3
−
2+ 2+
c. Zn(s) + Fe (aq) → Zn (aq) + Fe(s) C/Pt Fe
6. a. Galvanic cell: An electrochemical cell that creates cathode (+) anode (–)
electrical energy from spontaneous redox reactions Fe (aq) 3+ Fe (aq) 2+
occurring within the cell. Fe (aq) 2+
b. Internal circuit: The electrolyte in the two half-cells and 3+

Fe (aq)/Fe (aq) 2+ Fe (aq) 2+
the salt bridge. 3+ − 2+

c. External circuit: The external wiring that connects the
Cathode: Fe (aq) + e → Fe (s)
anode and cathode. Anode: Fe(s) → Fe2+ (aq) + 2e−
9. a.
d. Cathode: A solid conductive surface where reduction
e− e−
occurs.
e. Anode: A solid conductive surface where oxidation
occurs. NO3−(aq) K+(aq)
f. Salt bridge: The electrolyte connecting the anode and
AI Cu
cathode compartments. anode (–) cathode (+)
g. Inert electrode: An unreactive electrode, such as carbon
or platinum, used as a conductive surface on which the
redox half-reaction can occur. AI3+(aq) Cu2+(aq)
7. a. Yes
b. No
c. Yes Reduction: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
d. No Oxidation: Al(s) → Al3+ (aq) + 3e−
8. a. Overall: 3Cu2+ (aq) + 2Al(s) → 3Cu(s) + 2Al3+ (aq)
e− e−
b. There would be no electron flow — the transformation
from chemical energy to electrical energy would stop.
K+(aq) NO3−(aq) c. The intensity of the blue colour would slowly fade to
become colourless as the Cu2+ ions react at the cathode.
Ag Mg
10. Both Mg and Zn are stronger reducing agents than iron so,
when iron is exposed to a corrosive environment (oxygen in
the air/water from rain), the Mg or Zn will preferentially
Ag+(aq) Mg2+(aq) corrode, thus protecting the iron from corrosion.
+
Ag (aq) 2+
Mg (aq)
11. Typically, a battery is a series connection of two or more
cells, although it is common (but incorrect) to refer to
Cathode: Ag+ (aq) + e− → Ag(s) single cells as batteries.
Anode: Mg(s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2e−
582 ANSWERS
12. Commercial cells use an electrolyte paste to prevent the c.
contents of the cell from mixing. They also use separators
to prevent mixing of the anode and cathode compartments. Equation
13. a. 4Al(s) + 3O2 (g) + 6H2 O(l) → 4Al(OH)3 (s) Anode (−) C2 H5 OH(l) + 3H2 O(l) → 12H+ (aq)
b. 2Al(s) + 6H2 O(l) → 2Al(OH)3 (s) oxidation + 12e− + 2CO2 (g)
3.5 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions Cathode (+) 12H+ (aq) + 12e− + 3O2 (g) → 6H2 O(l)
reduction
1. a. The student noted the direction of electron flow. Electrons
flow from the site of oxidation (the anode) to the site of Overall C2 H5 OH(l) + 3O2 (g) → 3H2 O(l)
reduction (the cathode). + 2CO2 (g)
b. Electrons can flow from a reducing agent to an oxidising
agent only if there is a difference in the half-cell reduction 3. Any two of the following would be correct.
potential. In a copper–copper cell there is no difference in •
More efficient due to fewer energy transformations.
helf-cell reduction potential. •
Fewer greenhouse gases produced in the overall
c. Ag(s) < Cu(s) < Ni(s) < Pb(s) < Fe(s) < Al(s) < Mg(s). manufacture/use of energy production.
The larger the voltage, the stronger the reducing agent • Lower maintenance due to fewer moving parts
strength. • Lower running costs
2. a. E0cell = +2.01 V • Lower weight, which results in greater fuel economy.
b. The copper electrode would become larger because it 4. • As a compressed gas in high-pressure tanks
would have an increasing layer of a salmon pink solid • As a liquid in tanks (stored at −253 °C)
(copper) deposited on it (increase in mass). The colour • As a solid by either absorbing or reacting with metals
intensity of the blue copper sulfate solution would fade or chemical compounds, or storing in an alternative
over time. solid hydride compound.
c. Positive 5. Advantages include:
d. a • water is the only by-product (non-polluting and no
e. Al(s) → Al3+ (aq) + 3e− carbon emissions)
• greater efficiency.
Disadvantages include:
4 Fuel cells as a source of energy • hydrogen is difficult to store
4.2 Fuel cells • hydrogen is difficult to initially manufacture and has a
limited life cycle of H2 .
4.2 Exercise
1. Electrochemical cells use stored chemical energy that they
4.3 Review
convert into electrical energy. Fuels cells require a 4.3 Exercises
continuous supply of fuel, which, when combusted with
oxygen gas, converts chemical energy into electrical energy. 4.3 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
2. a. 1. A.
2. A.
Equation 3. C.
4. D.
Anode (−) H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) → 2H2 O(l) + 2e−
5. D.
oxidation or
6. A.
2H2 (g) + 4OH− (aq) → 4H2 O(l) + 4e−
7. D.
Cathode (+) ½ O2 (g) + H2 O(l) + 2e− → 2OH− (aq)
reduction or
O2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) + 4e− → 4OH− (aq) 1. a. A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts
chemical energy into electricity without combustion as an
Overall H2 (g) + ½ O2 (g) → H2 O(l) intermediary step. There is also a continual supply of
or reactants.
2H2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l) b. In fuel cells, operating and maintenance costs are lower
because they can be used continually rather than being
b. discarded when depleted. Fuel cells often need the supply
Equation of only one reagent, as oxygen can be readily sourced
from the atmosphere.
Anode (−) CH4 (g) + 2H2 O(l) → 8H+ (aq) + 8e− 2. a. Sample answer: In spacecraft, fuel cells are more
oxidation + CO2 (g) advantageous than internal combustion engines due to:
high energy conversion efficiency, easy maintenance and
Cathode (+) 8H+ (aq) + 8e− + 2O2 (g) → 4H2 O(l) low temperature operation.
reduction b. Sample answer: Limitations of fuel cells include:
Overall CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → 2H2 O(l) + CO2 (g) expensive, not fully technologically developed, and
ANSWERS 583
difficulties with the distribution, storage and primary cells are not catalysts, as the areas of oxidation
transportation of fuels (particularly hydrogen gas). and reduction are separated.
+ −
3. a. CH4 (g) + 2H2 O(l) → CO2 (g) + 8H (aq) + 8e 2. a. Cars powered by hydrogen would not be truly carbon
+ −
b. O2 (g) + 4H (aq) + 4e → 2H2 O(l) neutral because the hydrogen gas to power the cars would
c–f. See figure at foot of the page.* need to be made in power stations (and potentially by
4. a. 2C8 H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) → 16CO2 (g) + 18H2 O(l) burning fossil fuels) resulting in carbon dioxide
b. Fuel cells are more efficient at transforming the chemical formation/global warming/greenhouse gas emission/acid
energy in the fuel. Also, they are more environmentally rain production and because manufacturing the hydrogen
friendly because less carbon dioxide is released per unit cars produces polluting gas.
of transformed energy. b. An advantage of using hydrogen instead of petrol is that
c. anode: combusting hydrogen will not produce carbon dioxide or
C8 H18 (l) + 16H2 O(l) → 8CO2 (g) + 50H+ (aq) + 50e− sulfur dioxide pollutants.
cathode: O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− → 2H2 O(l) c. Advantages of storing hydrogen as a solid hydride rather
d. 2C8 H18 (l) + 25O2 (g) → 16CO2 (g) + 18H2 O(l) than as a gas include:
While finding the overall equation, remember that the • hydrogen gas is very flammable and storing
electrons in the half equations must be cancelled out. The hydrogen as a solid hydride (MgH2 ) is safer because
answers to questions a and d are the same. it is not flammable [1 mark]
5. Fossil fuels are non-renewable and their use is a major • a solid will occupy a much smaller volume than a
contributor to global warming. Electrochemical cells, and gas, saving weight and therefore increasing overall
fuel cells in particular, can use renewable fuels (e.g. efficiency. [1 mark]
hydrogen gas obtained from water using solar energy for
electrolysis) and are therefore a sustainable alternative to
fossil fuels. 5 Rate of chemical reactions
6. Electricity produced from an electrochemical cell involves 5.2 How does a chemical reaction occur?
just one energy transformation (chemical energy to electrical
energy) and has a relatively high level of efficiency. Both Practice problem 1
hydro-electricity schemes and coal-fired power stations To increase the number of collisions:
produce electricity less efficiently because they involve • increase temperature
multiple energy transformations. • increase concentration or pressure.
a. potential → kinetic → mechanical → electrical Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
b. chemical → thermal (when combusted) → thermal (in
steam) → mechanical → electrical Practice problem 2
a. No change.
b. The graph will be stretched to the right.
+ −
1. a. C3 H8 (g) + 6H2 O(l) → 3CO2 (g) + 20H (aq) + 20e
+ −
b. O2 (g) + 4H (aq) + 4e → 2H2 O(l) [1 mark] 5.2 Exercise
c. Sample answer: Using propane as a fuel in a fuel cell 1. Reacting particles must collide, the collisions must have
rather than combusing propane results in more efficient correct orientation, and collisions must possess the minimum
energy transformation and less CO2 is evolved per unit of amount of energy required to break bonds.
transformed energy. 2. With increasing temperature, the graph will be stretched to
d. The electrodes of a fuel cell must be porous, and they the right and flatten slightly (a lower peak). An increase in
must catalyse the half-cell reactions. Electrodes in concentration will cause no change to the graph.
c–f* electrical current

e−
– +
depleted depleted oxygen

methane out and product gases
(H2O) out
O2
H+
CH4
H2O
polymer
membrane
methane in oxygen in
584 ANSWERS
3. Increasing the temperature will increase the average kinetic 3. This is not possible because the products would have to have
energy of the particles, therefore, more particles will have a an enthalpy higher than that of the activated complex
higher energy, resulting in the area under the graph at higher (transition state).
energies becoming larger. 4. a. Forward reaction is lower than backward reaction
4. The area under the graph becomes larger because there are b. Forward reaction is higher than backward reaction
now more particles in the sample. However, the position of
the maximum peak will not shift because the distribution of 5.4 Factors affecting the rate of a chemical
particle energies will not have altered — there has been no reaction
change in temperature. Practice problem 4
5. a. Collisions occur at random. Some of these will slow
particles down, while others will speed particles up. This Set A.
results in a range of velocities and energies.
5.4 Exercise
b. There will always be some particles in the tail of the
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution, at or above the activa- 1. Increase temperature, increase concentration or pressure,
tion energy of the reaction which possess enough energy increase surface area, use of a catalyst
to break bonds upon collision. However, this number may 2. Fireworks need their powder to react quickly with oxygen.
sometimes be so small that it is effectively negligible. A large surface area (powder) facilitates this.
6. a. Both graphs will mimic the energy graph, however the 350 3. Rate will increase due to a higher frequency of collisions
K graph will be shifted to the right because particles will caused by the particles being closer together.
have a higher average velocity at 350 K compared to 298 K. 4. a. Concentration of H2 CO3 decreases as it is used up, which
b. The graph for hydrogen gas will be stretched to the right decreases the rate of CO2 production.
to reflect the higher average velocities of the hydrogen b. The rate of carbon dioxide production (and hence the rate
molecules. Both samples are at the same temperature, of forward reaction) would be higher if the drink was
therefore the average energies of the particles in both warm.
samples will be the same. However, because H2 molecules 5. Powdered coal has a higher surface area than the same
are lighter than CH4 molecules, they will need to move amount of lump coal.
faster to achieve the same energy. 6. a. Powder, 2 M HCl and a hot water bath
c. The graphs will be the same. Both samples are at the same b. Strip, 0.5 M HCl and a cool water bath
temperature and have particles of the same mass 7. a. The molecules in the gas/air mixture may not initially
(Mr = 44 in both cases). have enough energy to overcome the activation energy
barrier and hence do not react. However, a spark provides
5.3 Exothermic and endothermic reactions enough energy for some of the molecules to do so and so
the reaction starts.
Practice problem 3 b. Following on from (a), energy is given out and this
a. Exothermic (∆H is negative) provides the energy for further molecules to overcome the
b. 100 kJ mol-1 . activation energy barrier. This enables the reaction
(explosion) to build up and continue.
5.3 Exercise
1. a. Exothermic (∆H is negative) 5.5 Catalysts and reaction rates
b. i. ∆H = –30 kJ mol-1 .
ii. Ea = 20 kJ mol-1 .
5.5 Exercise
iii. Ea = 20 kJ mol-1 . This is the same as the minimum 1. No. A catalyst lowers the activation energy, it does not
energy required to break the reactant bonds. change the enthalpy of the reactants or the products,
iv. Energy released = 50 kJ mol-1 . therefore ∆H will remain unchanged.
2. The activation energy must be low. 2. See figure at foot of the page.*
2*
uncatalysed
reaction
pathway
activation energy
catalysed (Ea)
reaction
Energy
pathway
with without
catalyst catalyst
Progress of reaction
ANSWERS 585
3. A catalyst lowers the activation energy. 5. D.
6. B.
Number of molecules
7. B.
8. C.
Ea* — catalysed 9. B.
Ea — uncatalysed 10. D.

1. a. Slow
b. Fast
X c. Moderate
Ea* Ea
Energy d. Moderate
4. e. Fast
f. Moderate
2. A catalyst lowers the activation energy of a reaction; that is,
it makes it easier to break the bonds in reactants. This is
Ea described as ‘providing an alternative reaction pathway’.
3. Castor sugar is finely ground and has a much greater
surface area than granulated sugar. Consequently, more
castor sugar particles are exposed to the sulfuric acid
molecules, resulting in an increased frequency of collision
Energy
between the reacting particles.

4. Particles are continuously colliding with each other. All
Products ∆H > 0 such collisions are elastic — energy is conserved; some
particles will slow down and others will speed up, resulting
in a wide range of velocities. The Maxwell–Boltzmann
Reactants distribution curve represents this spread of energies.
= effect of catalyst X 5. a.
= effect of catalyst Y
kinetic energy, E
= No catalyst
Reaction Progress Ea* — catalysed
5. a. Powdered form has more surface area.
Ea — uncatalysed
b. The temporary bonds between X and AB weaken the AB bond.
c. The catalyst is improving the orientation for collisions to
be successful.
d. Once formed, molecules of CA leave the surface thus freeing
it up to repeat the process with more molecules of AB. Ea* Ea
Energy
5.6 Review Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
b. See figure at foot of the page.*
5.6 Exercises
When temperature is increased, there are more particles
5.6 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions with an energy greater than the activation energy, and
1. B. faster reaction rate results.
6. a. The necessary reactions happen at a quicker rate as the
2. D.
3. A. average energy of the colliding particles is greater and
4. C. thus able to overcome the activation energy barrier.
5b*
T1
T2 > T1 Particles at T+20ºC with energy
T2 greater than activation energy

kinetic energy E
Particles at T+20ºC with energy

greater than activation energy
Ea
Kinetic energy, E
586 ANSWERS
b. The steel wool has a greater surface area and hence is b. The new method is quicker.
more exposed to the oxygen in the air. c. Because the temperature and concentration is the same
c. The manganese dioxide is acting as a catalyst; allowing across both methods, these factors will not influence
peroxide to decompose faster, producing oxygen collision rate and hence rate of reaction.
continually. In the new method, the greater surface area of B (and thus
d. Increased temperature causes a faster reaction due to of contact between the two immiscible liquids) would
particles colliding with more energy. lead to more collisions between A and B, and hence more
e. The reaction slows because the concentration of successful collisions, and a faster rate of reaction.
reactants decreases as they are used up. d. As liquid B now interacts with liquid A for a longer time,
f. The chemicals in the infrared film are sensitive to heat. the droplets of B in the spray will become coated with C
With cooling during storage, the rate at which these as their reaction is a surface reaction. The collected C will
chemicals react is lowered. not therefore be pure. This could be minimised by making
7. a. The reactant molecules are consumed; resulting in a the droplets in the spray as small as possible.
progressive decrease in the frequency of successful e. Increased temperature will result in more collisions
collisions of reactant molecules. between molecules of A and B. The contact time between
b. Four reactant gas molecules are being converted into the two liquidscan be reduced.
three product gas molecules. 3. a. Increasing S2 O82− (aq) concentration produces a faster rate
8. a. A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction in reaction 1.
without being consumed. It provides an alternative Keeping I- (aq) volume constant and doubling S2 O2− 8
(aq)
reaction pathway with a lower activation energy. volume results in a decrease in the time taken for the blue
colour to appear; that is, the rate of reaction 1 is increased.
b. b. Comparing trials 1 and 3
uncatalysed
Keeping S2 O2− 8
(aq) volume constant and doubling the
I- (aq) volume results in a decrease in the time taken for
the blue colour to appear; that is, the rate of reaction 1 is
tungsten catalyst
increased.
Enthalpy
330 kJ mol–1 c. The reaction times would increase

N2(g) + 3H2(g) d. Adding water as indicated ensures concentration does not
163 kJ mol–1
become another variable in the experiment, as this would
ΔH = +92 kJ mol–1 vary the frequency of collisions between reacting particles
2NH3(g) and thus affect the rate of the reaction.
e. To identify when reaction 1 reaches the same
stoichiometric point for each trial, the appearance of the
blue colour is used to indicate when the same amount of
Reaction pathway S2 O3−3
(aq) is used up, leaving I2 in excess to react with
−1 starch.
c. Ea = 238 kJ mol (note: question is about reverse
reaction)
d. Ea = 71 kJ mol
−1
(note: question is about reverse 6 Extent of chemical reactions
reaction) 6.2 Reversible and irreversible reactions
9. a. Lipase, an enzyme, acts as a catalyst, thereby lowering
the activation energy. 6.2 Exercise
b. It is the same because catalysts are not consumed in 1. Irreversible reaction: the reactants form products that cannot
chemical reactions. be converted back into reactants. Only the forward reaction
10. Increase in surface area for solid reactants, an increase in is possible. Reversible reaction: the reactants react to form
pressure for gas reactions, an increase in concentration for products, the products can react to form reactants. Both the
reactions occurring in solutions and using an appropriate forward and backward reactions can occur.
catalyst. 2. The rate of a reaction measures how quickly reactants are
converted into products. The extent of a reaction measures
5.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions the quantity of reactants that are converted into products.
1. a. The rate of production of C be higher during the initial 3. The rate at which the hydrogen peroxide decomposes (under
stages in both reactions because the reactant concentration normal conditions) is very slow.
is greatest at this stage in both scenarios. 4. Reaction I: type 4
b. Equal amounts of A and B are used, leading to equal Reaction II: type 1, type 2, type 3
amounts of C produced. A catalyst does not affect the Reaction III: type 2
nature of the products. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
c. Y is a catalyst. The rate of reaction is increased. 5. The provision of more time or the addition of a catalyst
The concentration of Y stays the same. would provide evidence for the isolation of type 2.
d. Repeat experiment under identical conditions (except) Distinguishing between types 1 and 3 would prove more
without X present. difficult. A more sensitive method for detecting any product
2. a. Endothermic may work.
ANSWERS 587
6.3 Homogenous equilibria 6.4 Exercise
Practice problem 1 1. a. The very high value of Kc = 10140 suggests the reactants
are completely converted into products.
a. The concentration of N2 O4 at t1 will be equal to its
b. No. The high equilibrium constant means this can be
concentration at t2 .
considered a complete reaction.
b. N2 O4 is increasing but at an ever slower rate until the reaction [ ]2
reaches equilibrium. After this its value stays constant. CIF3
2. a. i. Kc = [ ] [ ]3
6.3 Exercise Cl2 F2
1. The dynamic nature of equilibrium refers to the fact that [NO]2
ii. Kc = [ ][ ]
reaction is still taking place, it has not stopped. The rate of N2 O2
the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse [ ]2 [ ]2
reaction. The result is that all amounts therefore stay H2 O Cl2
iii. Kc = [ ]
constant. [HCl]4 O2
2. Answers will vary. Sample responses can be found in your [ ][ ]
digital formats. CF4 CO2
iv. Kc = [ ]2
3. a. Static: Radioactive iodine would be found only in I2 . COF2
b. Dynamic: Radioactive iodine will be distributed between [ ]4
I2 , I− and I−
3
. PF5
v. Kc = [ ] [ ]10
4. a. forward reaction > reverse reaction
P4 F2
b. forward reaction > reverse reaction
−2
c. forward reaction = reverse reaction b. i. Kc units = M
d. forward reaction = reverse reaction. ii. Kc units = no unit
5. a. There would be no further changes to any of the −1
iii. Kc units = M
concentrations.
b. Z increases because there is a net forward reaction. iv. Kc units = no unit
It increases at 3 times the rate that Y decreases and −7
v. Kc units = M
3 3. 2A + B ⇌ C + 2D
at times the rate that X decreases (due to the
2 4. Kc = 4.0
stoichiometry of the reaction). Note: There are no units.
c. The concentration of X = 2.5, Y = 1.5 and Z = 1. 5. a. m(Z) = 17 g (2 significant figures)
4
6. A reaction depends on successful collisions (see topic 5). b. Kc (new) = 3.57 M
Statistically, the more particles there are, the more successful 6. a. Kc (2) = 0.617
collisions there will be. Reactions slow down as their b. Kc (2) = 2.62
2
reactants are being used up. When this occurs to a reaction, 7. Kc = 31 M
its reverse reaction will speed up as the number of its 8. a. There are no units (concentrations cancel out).
reactants have increased by the first reaction. b. Kc (2) = 0.16
9. After evaluating the reaction quotient (Q) for each
6.4 Calculations involving equilibrium systems
experiment, experiment 4 is the only one where Q = K.
Practice problem 2 Therefore experiment 4 is at equilibrium.
][[ ]2 Worked solutions can be found in your digital formats.
CO2 H2 O
Kc = [ ] [ ]2 6.5 Measuring the efficiency of a reaction or
CH4 O2 process
Practice problem 3 Practice problem 8
Kc = 31 M−1 % yield = 62.65%
Practice problem 4 Practice problem 9
Kc (2) = 0.00400 M−1 % atom economy = 51.1%
Practice problem 5
6.5 Exercise
Kc = 1.2 M
1. % yield = 86.3%
Practice problem 6 2. a. % atom economy = 17%

[ ] b. 100% (there will be no waste products — all atoms are
NH3 = 0.089 M
used to make desired products)
Practice problem 7 3. % yield = 89.7%
The reaction is not at equilibrium. As Q > Kc there is a net

backward reaction. The rate of the reverse reaction is faster than
the rate of the forward reaction.
588 ANSWERS
6.6 Le Châtelier’s principle d. Lower the temperature of the exit gases. Methanol, a
polar molecule, will condense before both CO and H2 .
Practice problem 10 Unreacted CO, H2 can then be recycled.
The reaction would partially oppose the removal of the e. % atom efficiency = 100% (methanol is the only product)
hydrogen by attempting to replace some of it. This is achieved 6. a. The equilibrium constant for reaction II is greater than
by the forward reaction becoming temporarily faster than the the equilibrium constant for reaction I.
backward reaction. The ‘position’ of the equilibrium would, b. Respiration is effectively removing O2 , a reactant in the
therefore, shift to the right. The forward reaction is favoured. original equation. This forces the equilibrium to the left,
favouring decomposition into Hb4 and O2 .
Practice problem 11 c. The reverse reaction of reaction II is not triggered by
a. The addition of water immediately lowers the total respiring cells because:
concentration. The system responds by increasing the 1. the equilibrium constant is very high. Reaction is
number of moles in an effort to compensate. The amount of essentially irreversible.
I− 2. Respiring cells do not use up CO, so there is no
3 present would decrease.
b. If the volume was decreased the reactant CaCO3 would removal of this from the equilibrium.
increase. If the volume was increased, the the products CaO d. So long as there is a critical but small amount of
and CO2 would increase. uncombined haemoglobin present, adding O2 will drive
the formation of oxyhaemoglobin to the right, i.e. will
Practice problem 12 make more efficient use of the small number of
The reaction is exothermic. uncombined haemoglobin that is present.
7. a. At t1 there was a decrease in temperature.
Practice problem 13 b. Between times t1 and t2 there is a net backward reaction.
c. If substance D was added at t3 there would be no effect.
Oxygen transport in the body relies on an equilibrium reaction 8. a. The lines indicate a system at equilibrium.
between haemoglobin and oxygen. b. Increase in volume (water added)
Hb4 + 4O2 ⇌ Hb4 (O2 )4 c. Additional substance A was added
In the lungs, the high concentration of O2 forces this reaction d. If a catalyst was added at t3 the time between t3 and t4
to the right. Formation of Hb4 (O2 )4 is favoured. On reaching the would be decreased.
tissues, O2 is being removed by respiration. This removal forces e. All results would be the same
the reaction to the left. Decomposition of Hb4 (O2 )4 is favoured 9. a. Endothermic
thus releasing O2 to the tissues. Upon return of the Hb4 to the b. New reaction is reverse of original reaction. The new Kc
lungs, the cycle begins again. will therefore be the reciprocal of the original one.
1
6.6 Exercise Kc (2) = × 10−3
6.25
1. Temperature is the only variable where a change effects the
position of the equilibrium. Exothermic and endothermic = 160
reactions are affected differently by temperature. 10. a. Increased pressure will maximise the yield of methanol.
2. a. Produces a net forward reaction to partially replace the b. Lowering the temperature will increase the yield of
removed product methanol.
b. Produces a net forward reaction to partially use up the c. If carbon monoxide (CO) was added the yield of
added reactant methanol would be increased.
c. Produces a net forward reaction that turns four d. Changing temperature is the only way to change the
molecules into two, thus partially countering the effect value of the equilibrium constant.
of the increased pressure 11. a. It is a reaction between ammonia and oxygen to make
d. A net backwards reaction nitrogen monoxide and water.
e. No change. b. The reaction is exothermic due to the negative energy
3. The position of the equilibrium will be: value given in kJ mol−1
a. Produces net back reaction. c. To obtain a high value for Kc (i.e. favour the forward
b. Reaction is unchanged reaction) the reaction should be carried out at low
c. Produces net back reaction temperatures.
d. Produces net forward reaction. d. The formation of products would be favoured by low
4. The student is correct in saying that an increase in pressure pressure.
will cause the system to move to the right. However,
assuming the temperature is kept constant, there will be no 6.7 Review
change in the value of the equilibrium constant.
5. a. High temperatures 6.7 Exercises
b. Low temperatures 6.7 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
c. The ZnO/Cr2 O3 catalyst allows a suitable rate to be
achieved at a lower temperature. This lower temperature 1. A
is preferable for maximising the extent/yield. 2. C.
3. C.
4. A.
ANSWERS 589
5. D. c. Rate of forward reaction = rate of back reaction.
6. A. d. y = 2; z = 3
7. B. e. Kc = 6.9
8. C. 9. a.The system was in the process of reaching equilibrium.
9. D. b.The system was at equilibrium.
10. A. At time, t, we can see that the concentration of two c.Some HI being removed
substances decreases. This must correspond to the reactants d.The spike in the graph indicates that some HI was added.
A and B. The stoichiometry of the reaction indicates 2 mol e.The volume was lowered.
B for every mole of A. Hence B is the middle line. At time, f.No, because there are equal numbers of moles on each
t, the concentration of one substance increases, which side of the equation.
corresponds to substance C. Hence from top to bottom the 10. Kc = 1.7
graphs represent substances C, B, A.
6.7 Exercise 2: Short answer questions 1. a. Change 1: darken; Change 2: stay the same Change 3:
1. Isla is correct. lighten
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. b. Le Châtelier’s principle states that if a change is made to a
2. Kc = 4.2 M
−1 system at equilibrium it will partially oppose it (if
possible).
3. a. [I2 ] = 0.067 M Change 1: Adding KBr adds Br− ions to the right-hand
b. The value of Kc is temperature dependent. side. The system opposes this change with a net backward
4. a. Hb4 + 4O2 ⇌ Hb4 (O2 )2 reaction and more Br2 is produced making it darker.
b. Hb4 + 4CO → Hb4 (CO)4 . This reaction is extremely Change 2: As NaCl is not involved in the reaction there
difficuilt to reverse. would be no change.
[ ] [ ]
Hb4 (O2 )4 Hb4 (CO)4 Change 3: As the reaction is endothermic increasing the
c. K(a) = [ ] [ ]4 , K(b) = [ ] temperature would favour the forward reaction,
Hb4 O2 Hb4 [CO]4
consuming the brown Br2 (g), resulting in the solution
d. K(b) >> K(a) becoming lighter in colour.
e. When CO is inhaled, it readily replaces O2 in 2. a. Q = 11.1 M−1
oxyhaemoglobin. Once formed, Hb4 (CO)4 is very stable b. Q > Kc so rate of the backward reaction is greater than the
due to the high value of the equilibrium constant for the rate of the forward reaction
reaction shown in (b). The stability of Hb4 (CO)4 c. Q = 10 M−1 . Two rates being equal means the system is at
prevents O2 being carried to the cells, and cell death equilibrium, hence Q = Kc .
occurs relatively quickly. d. The initial rate of the forward reaction (second
5. a. Equilibrium has been achieved in experiments 2 and 5, experiment) will be greater than the initial rate of the
as Q = Kc = 4. forward reaction (first experiment).
b. A net forward reaction will occur in experiments 1, 3 e. The initial rate of the backward reaction (second
and 6 as Q < K. A net back reaction will occur for experiment) will be greater than the initial rate of the
experiment 4 as Q > K. backward reaction (first experiment).
6. a. Exothermic reaction f. Q = 10 M−1 System would be at equilibrium. A catalyst
b. Fewer particles on the right-hand (product) side affects only the rate, nothing else.
−2 3. a. At the right hand end of the graph, the top line is C and
7. a. Kc = 1.85 M
b. p = 42.9T kPa bottom two are A and B (already labelled).
c. The amount of NH3 would increase. b. x = 2; y = 2.
8. a. c. Kc = 0.1 M
d. Addition of C, shown by the sharp increase in the
concentration of C, and the gradual equilibration of A, B
3.0 and C.
e. Endothermic as Kc has increased with temperature.
C
Concentration
Alternatively, it could be explained that the reaction is

2.0 endothermic because a net forward reaction has occurred
after time t2 .
B 4. a. Sample asnwer: Safety concerns include: CO is highly
toxic; HCN is highly toxic; H2 is flammable. The toxicity
1.0 A of CO and HCN could be managed by, wearing a
respirator/conducting experiment in a fume hood. H2 gas
risks can be minimised by ensuring production in small
volumes only, and avoiding naked flames.
0
15 30 45 60 [ ][ ]
[HCN] CO2 H2
Time (seconds) b. Kc = [ ]
[CO]2 NH3
b. Rate of forward reaction > rate of back reaction.
590 ANSWERS
c. [CO] = 0.0025 M Because there are charged particles that are free to move,
[NH3 ] = 0.0013 M the solution conducts electricity.
[HCN] = 0.0042 M 4. Positively charged (left) side of the apparatus: oxygen gas
[HCN]eq = [CO2 ]eq = [H2 ]eq = 0.0042 M Negatively charged (right) side: hydrogen gas
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
d. Kc = 9.3
5. Electrodes must conduct electricity from their external
Kc has no units. circuit connections to their surfaces. Glass is a
e. i. No change.
non-conductor.
ii. Increased.
6. a. The cathode has a negative charge because it is
5. a. NO production is favoured because the necessary
connected to the negative terminal of the power supply.
reactants, N2 and O2 , are present in the air being used to It receives electrons from the external circuit. Electrons
burn the petrol and the temperature in the engine is are removed from its surface by the process of reduction.
sufficient to bring about NO production. b. The anode has a positive charge because it is connected
b.
to the positive terminal of the power supply. Electrons
are added to its surface by the process of oxidation, and
these flow back into the external circuit, towards the
cathode.
7. Reactants in a galvanic cell would react spontaneously if
they were placed in the same compartment. Reactants in an
[NO]
electrolytic cell do not react until a critical amount of

energy is supplied, so a single compartment cell can be
used.
8. Sample answer: The electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride:
if the anode is inert, oxygen gas is produced. If the anode is
copper, Cu2+ ions are produced.
9. Cathode: Li
Time Anode: I2
c. As the reaction is endothermic (∆H = 181 kJ mol-1 ) an 10.
+ −
a. K (l) + e → K(l)
increase in temperature will favour the forward reaction b. The cathode is negative (−).
and more NO will be produced. −
c. 2Br (l) → Br2 (g) + 2e .
−
d. The anode is positive (+).

7 Production of chemicals by + −
e. 2K (l) + 2Br (l) → 2K(l) + Br2
electrolysis and rechargeable 7.3 Predicting reactions that occur during

batteries electrolysis
7.2 What is electrolysis? Practice problem 3
Practice problem 1 Cathode: Ag+ (aq) + e- → Ag(s). Silver metal will form.
Anode: 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e- . Oxygen gas will
a. Cathode K+ (l) + e− → K(l) form.
Anode 2I− (l) → I2 (g) + 2e− Overall:
+ −
b. 2K (l) + 2I (l) → 2K(l) + I2 (g) Ag+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l) → Ag(s) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq)
Minimum voltage required: 0.43 V
Practice problem 2
Cathode: K+ ions and H2 O molecules Practice problem 4
Anode: NO− 3
ions and H2 O molecules. The NO−
3
ions can be Cathode: Pb2+ (aq) + 2e− → Pb(s) Lead metal will form.
ignored because they are inert. Anode: Fe(s) → Fe2+ (aq) + 2e− . Fe2 + will form.
Overall:
7.2 Exercise Fe(s) + Pb2 + (aq) → Pb(s) + Fe2 + (aq)
1. Cathode: Potassium metal. Minimum voltage required: 0.31 V
Anode: Chlorine gas. Chloride ions will be oxidised at the
anode forming chlorine gas. 2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e− 7.3 Exercise
(The overall reaction would be: 2K+ + 2Cl− → 2K(s) + 1. Cathode: Zn (aq) + 2e− → Zn(s)
2+
Cl2 (g)). Anode: 2Br (aq) → Br2 (l) + 2e−
−
2. Sample answer: Overall: Zn2+ (aq) + 2Br− (aq) → Zn(s) + Br2 (l)
• hydrogen gas (bubbles) produced around the−cathode + −
2. a. Cathode: 2H (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
• pH increases around the cathode (due to OH Anode: Ag(s) → Ag+ (aq) + e−
production) Overall: Ag(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Ag+ (aq) + H2 (g)
• blue colour around the anode (due to Cu2+ ions). b. This solution cannot be electrolysed using nickel
3. Pure water is a non-conductor because it does not contain electrodes because Ni and H+ ions react spontaneously.
any mobile ions. Adding a small amount of KNO3 provides
some mobile K+ (aq) ions and some mobile NO3 − (aq) ions.
ANSWERS 591
− −
3. Cathode: 2H2 O(l) + 2e → H2 (g) + 2OH (aq) b. Alumina does not dissolve in water, so cryolite is used as
Anode: 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H (aq) + 4e−+
a solvent instead. Even if it alumina did dissolve in
4. Cathode: water reacts in preference to Al3+ water, water would react preferentially at the cathode.
Anode: water reacts in preference to Cl− 5. The electrolysis of water would cause oxygen to begin to be
Minimum cell voltage required: 2.06 V produced at the anode. If the dilution continued, eventually
5. a. Cathode: lead metal, Pb(s). Anode: chlorine gas, Cl2 (g). only oxygen would be produced.
+ + −
b. Cathode: lead metal, Pb(s). Anode: O2 and H . 6. Na and F are extremely weak oxidising agents and
6. a. Copper metal reducing agents respectively and will therefore not interfere
b. Lead metal with the desired reactions at the cathode and anode.
3+ −
c. Hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions 7. Cathode: Al (l) + 3e → Al(l)
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. Anode: C(s) + 2O2− (l) → CO2 (g) + 4e−
2+ −
7. a. Cathode: Ni (l) + 2e → Ni(s) The carbon cathode acts as an inert electrode and therefore
Anode: 2I (l) → I2 (g) + 2e−
−
remains intact, whereas the carbon anode is consumed in
Overall: Ni2+ (l) + 2I− (l) → Ni(s) + I2 (g) the oxidation reaction that takes place.
2+ −
b. Cathode: Ni (aq) + 2e → Ni(s) 8. e− e−
Anode: 2I (aq) → I2 (aq) + 2e−
−
Overall: Ni2+ (aq) + 2I− (aq) → Ni(s) + I2 (aq)

8. a. Iron can be used at the cathode because it cannot be
reduced (iron does not accept electrons to produce nickel anode (+) lead cathode (–)
negative ions). It is not used at the anode because it Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) + 2e− Ni2+(aq) + 2e− → Ni(s)
would be oxidised in preference to the chloride ions (Fe
is a stronger reducing agent than Cl− ions).
b. e− e−
carbon anode (+) iron cathode (–)

2Cl−(l) → Cl2(g) + 2e− Mg2+(l) + 2e− → Mg(l)
Ni2+(aq)
Nickel will be oxidised at the anode and then will be
reduced at the cathode to plate the lead cathode. Ni(s) is a
stronger reducing agent and oxidising agent than water.
9. Reduction always takes place at the cathode according to
the reaction: Mx+ (aq) + xe− → M(s).
10. a. Anode: nickel
b. Electrolyte: nickel(II) solution
molten MgCl2
9. Ag, Zn and H2. 7.5 Comparing galvanic and electrolytic cells
2+ −
10. a. Cathode: Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
7.5 Exercise
Anode: 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e−
2+ 1. a. Energy into electrical energy.
b. The concentration of Cu ions
2+ − b. Electrical energy into chemical energy.
c. Cathode: Cu (aq) + 2e → Cu(s)
Anode: Cu(s) → Cu (aq) + 2e−
2+ 2. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
2+ 3. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
d. The concentration of Cu ions will stay constant.
11. The electrolysis is not being performed at standard
conditions. 7.6 Calculations in electrolysis using Faraday’s
12. This solution will react spontaneously to produce Sn
4+ Laws
2+
and Fe . Practice problem 5
7.4 Commercial applications of electrolysis n(X) = 0.0032 mol (2 sig. figs)
7.4 Exercise Practice problem 6

1. Sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas and hydrogen gas n(W) = 0.027 mol
−
2. OH ions are formed at the cathode and will be attracted to
the anode. Membranes impervious to OH- ions ensure that Practice problem 7
they stay in the cathode compartment so that they can form a. m(Cu) = 0.172 g
sodium hydroxide. b. V(O2 )SLC = 0.0337 L or 33.7 mL
0
3. Any metals that have an E < −0.83 V, such as magnesium
or potassium. Practice problem 8
4. a. Aluminium can be produced at a lower temperature and
therefore saves energy. The charge on the aluminium ion is 3+ (Al3+ ).
592 ANSWERS
Practice problem 9 Anode (+):
( ) Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH− (aq) → NiO(OH)(s) + H2 O(l) + e−
m(Al) = 80.6 kg 2 sig. figs
b. Anode: Iron in contact with iron(II) hydroxide.
7.6 Exercise Cathode: Inert electrode in contact with a mixture of
nickel(III) oxyhydroxide and nickel(II) hydroxide.
1. n(Cr) = 0.0073 mol c. Fe is oxidised during discharge so this electrode is the
2. a. m(Ag) = 0.805 g anode. The NiO(OH) electrode undergoes reduction as
b. V(O2 )SLC = 0.0463 L or 46.3 mL the oxidation state of Ni decreases from +3 to +2.
+
3. The charge on the gold ion is 1 + (Au ). d. Ni(OH)2 Fe(OH)2
4. t = 936 s
5. a. m(Al)= 19.3 g 7.8 Review
b. V(O2 ) = 8.84 L
6. 36.3 minutes
7.8 Exercises
7. 0 g 7.8 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
8. t = 4.09 days
1. D.
9. i. a. m(Cu) = 0.19 g
2. D.
b. V(O2 ) = 37 mL
3. B.
ii. a. m(Cu) = 2.7 g
4. D.
b. V(O2 ) = 0.52 L
5. D.
iii. a. m(Cu) = 10 g
6. C.
b. V(O2 ) = 2.0 L
7. B.
iv. a. m(Cu) = 68 g
8. C.
b. V(O2 ) = 13 L
9. D.
10. t = 39.6 s
10. A.
7.7 Rechargeable batteries (secondary cells) 11. D.
12. C.
7.7 Exercise 13. D.
1. The pH will fall. 14. B.
2. The positive terminal of the battery is positive because 15. D.
electrons flow into it during discharge. To recharge the
battery, the direction of electron flow needs to be reversed.
To achieve this, the positive terminal must be connected to 1. See table at foot of the page*.
+ −
the positive of the charging device. This means that electrons 2. a. In the solid state, Na (s) and Cl (s) ions are held firmly
will be removed (i.e. move in the opposite direction). in the ionic lattice (Na+ (s) and Cl− (s) ions are not free to
−
3. a. Cathode: Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2e → Cd(s) + 2OH (aq)
− move, whereas, in the molten (or liquid) state, Na+ (l)
b. The negative terminal. and Cl− (l) ions are free to move.
c. Cd(OH)2 (s) + 2Ni(OH)2 (s) → Cd(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) b. It is only at the electrodes that electrons can be accepted
+ 2H2 O(l) in a reduction reaction (at the cathode) and lost in an
d. Anode: oxidation reaction (at the anode), because electrons
Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH− (aq) → NiO(OH)(s) + H2 O(l) + e− move freely though the metal/graphite but not through
2+ + + 3+ 2+ the molten solution.
4. a. V (aq) + VO2 (aq) + 2H (l) → V (aq) + VO (aq)
+ H2 O(l) c. The external power supply drives the current flow in the
3+ 2+ 2+ + external circuit, which in turn drives the ion flow in the
b. V (aq) + VO (aq) + H2 O(l) → V (aq) + VO2 (aq)
+ internal circuit.
+ 2H (l)
3+ − 2+ 3. a. Cathode: sodium metal
c. Cathode: V (aq) + e → V (aq)
Anode: VO (aq) + H2 O(l) → VO2 + (aq) + 2H+ (aq) + e−
2+ Anode: bromine gas
5. a. i. During discharge: The minimum cell voltage is 3.8 V.
Anode (−): Fe(s) + 2OH− (aq) → Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2e− Overall:
Cathode (+): 2Na+ (l) + 2Br− (l) → 2Na(s) + Br2 (l)
NiO(OH)(s) + H2 O(l) + e− → Ni(OH)2 (s) + OH− (aq) b. Cathode: aluminium metal
ii. During recharge: Anode: oxygen gas and water.
Cathode (−): Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2e− → Fe(s) + 2OH− (aq) The minimum cell voltage is 2.06 V.
1*
Reaction at
Electrolyte type Electrodes
Anode(+) Cathode(−)
Molten salt Inert 2Cl− (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e− Na+ (l) + e− → Na(l)
1 M aqueous salt solution Inert 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4e− 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
6 M aqueous salt solution Inert 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e− 2H2 O(l) + 2e− → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq)
ANSWERS 593
Overall: ii. There is effectively no reaction at minimum cell
4Al3+ (l) + 12OH− (l) → 4Al(l) + 6H2 O(g) + 3O2 (g) voltage, just a transfer of copper.
c. Cathode: lead metal Overall:
Anode: chlorine gas. Cu2+ (aq) + Cu(s) → Cu(s) + Cu2 + (aq)
The minimum cell voltage is 1.49 V. Note: The reactants and products are the same.
Overall: 6. Similarities:
Pb2+ (l) + 2Cl− (l) → Pb(l) + Cl2 (g) • Oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at
d. Cathode: magnesium metal the cathode.
Anode: chlorine gas. • Anions migrate to the anode and cations migrate to
The minimum cell voltage is 3.73 V. the cathode.
Overall: • Circuit requires an electrolyte between the electrodes.
Mg2+ (l) + 2Cl− (l) → Mg(l) + Cl2 (g) • Electrons move through the ‘external circuit’ and ions
4. a. Cathode: hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions. move through the ‘internal circuit’.
Anode: oxygen gas and water Differences:
The minimum cell voltage is 1.23 V. Galvanic cell
Overall: • Cell polarity is determined by the reactions occurring
2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) within the cell.
b. Cathode: hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions. • Chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy.
Anode: oxygen gas and hydrogen ions • The anode is negative and the cathode is positive.
The minimum cell voltage is 2.06 V. Electrolytic cell
Overall: • Cell polarity is determined by the external power
2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 2H2 (g) source.
c. Cathode: hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions. • Electrical energy is transformed into chemical energy.
Anode: oxygen gas and hydrogen ions • The anode is positive and the cathode is negative.
The minimum cell voltage is 2.06 V. 7. Lead–acid accumulators are secondary cells and, as such,
2H2 O(l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) can be recharged. When recharged, the chemical energy
d. Cathode: zinc metal that is transformed from the electrical energy used in the
Anode: bromine liquid charging process is stored until needed.
The minimum cell voltage is 1.85 V. 8. Option c. is the closest to such conditions.
Overall: 9.
Zn2+ (aq) + 2Br− (aq) → Zn(s) + Br2 (l) e− e−
e. Cathode: hydrogen gas and hydroxide ions.
Anode: iodine (aq) copper anode (+)
The minimum cell voltage is 1.37 V. Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e−
tin key ring as the cathode (–)
Overall: Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s)
2H2 O(l) + 2I− (aq) → H2 (g) + 2OH− (aq) + I2 (l)
f. Cathode: hydrogen gas
Anode: chlorine gas
The minimum cell voltage is 1.36 V.
Overall:
2H+ + 2Cl− → H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
g. Cathode: hydrogen gas Cu2+(aq)
Anode: oxygen gas and hydrogen ions 10. In each part of this question the number of faradays =
The minimum cell voltage is 1.23 V. n(e− )
Overall: a. 2.0 faradays
2H2 O(l) → 2H2 (g) + O2 (g) b. 5.0 faradays
5. a. i. Cathode: copper metal c. 1.7 faradays
Anode: oxygen gas and hydrogen ions d. 0.23 faradays
The minimum cell voltage is 0.89 V. e. 0.014 faradays
Overall: 11. a. Q= 289 C
2Cu2+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l) → 2Cu(s) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) −
b. n(e )= 0.00300 mol
ii. Cathode: copper metal c. n(Cr) = 0.00100 mol
Anode: copper ions d. The charge on the chromium ion is 3+.
There is effectively no reaction at minimum cell
12. V(O2 ) = 0.145 L
voltage, just a transfer of copper.
V(H2 ) = 0.289 L
Overall:
13. t = 47 minutes
Cu2+ (aq) + Cu(s) → Cu(s) + Cu2+ (aq)
14. a. m(Sn) = 1.10 g
b. i. Cathode: copper metal
b. No magnesium will be deposited.
Anode: oxygen gas and hydrogen ions
15. t = 1.28 hours
The minimum cell voltage is 0.89 V.
Overall:
2Cu2+ (aq) + 2H2 O(l) → 2Cu(s) + O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq)
594 ANSWERS
7.8 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions 8 Structure and nomenclature of
1. a. e− e− organic compounds
8.2 The carbon atom
Practice problem 1
inert inert Energy = 6624 kJ
anode (+) cathode (–)
= 6.6 × 103 kJ
Br –
8.2 Exercise
Ni2+
1. C.
2. C=C bonds are stronger than C−C bonds because they have
twice the number of electrons between the nuclei. This
causes a shorter, stronger and more stable bond.
NiBr2(aq) 3. Energy = 1130 kJ
− −
b. Anode: 2Br (aq) → Br2 (l) + 2e 4. H
2+ − H
Cathode: Ni (aq) + 2e → Ni(s)
Overall: 2Br− (aq) + Ni2+ (aq) → Br2 (l) + Ni(s) C C H C C H
c. The minimum cell voltage is 1.34 V.
H H
d. If nickel electrodes were used nickel ions would be the
strongest oxidising agent and nickel metal would be the The bond angles in C2 H4 are 120° whereas in C2 H2 they are
strongest reducing agent. 180°. The difference in bond angles is 60°.
−1
Anode: Ni(s) → Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− 5. 1812 kJ mol .
Cathode: Ni2+ (aq) + 2e− → Ni(s)
2. a. Q = 304 C 8.3 Structure and naming of organic
b. n(Cu) = 0.00157 mol compounds
−
c. n(e ) = 0.00315 mol
Practice problem 2
d. 96 520 C
e. NA = 6.0 × 1023 Semi-structure: CH3 CH2 COCH3 .
3. m(Cl2 ) (90% efficiency) = 1.67 kg Skeletal structure:
4. a. The cathode is the negative electrode and the anode is the
positive electrode.
− −
b. 2Cl (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
+ − O
c. Na (l) + e → Na(l)
d. The perforated iron plate keeps products apart, which
prevents products reacting spontaneously.
Practice problem 3
e. If an iron anode was used, the possibility of Fe being 4-ethyl-2,3-dimethylhexane
oxidised would need to be considered. Because Fe is a
stronger reducing agent than Cl− ions it will be Practice problem 4
preferentially oxidised to Fe2+ ions and Cl2 would not be a. The functional group is carboxyl (COOH). The homologous
produced. series is the carboxylic acids.
2+ +
f. Ca ions are a weaker oxidising agent than Na ions. b. 2,4-dimethylpentanoic acid
+
Therefore, Na ions are the preferred reactant.
They are still able to undergo reduction to Na. 8.3 Exercise
g. V(Cl2 ) at SLC = 13.9 L
5. a. Cathode 1. C18 H38
+ −
b. i. Ag (aq) + e → Ag(s) 2. Molecular formula: C3 H8
+ −
ii. Au (aq) + e → Au(s) Empirical formula: C3 H8
+
c. i. Ag(s) → Ag (aq) + e
− Semi-structural formula: CH3 CH2 CH3
+
ii. 2H2 O(l) → O2 (g) + 4H (aq) + 4e
− Skeletal structure:
d. Ag is a better reducing agent than H2 O, but Au is not.
e. The concentration of silver ions does not drop because
3. a. 4,5-dibromohex-2-ene
those consumed at one electrode are replaced at the other. b. CH3 CHBrCHBrCHCHCH3 or CH3 (CHBr)2 (CH)2 CH3
Gold ions are consumed at the cathode but are not c. C6 H10 Br2
replaced at the anode. d. C3 H5 Br
f. m(Au) = 0.612 g
ANSWERS 595
4. Structural diagram: b. Propylethanoate
H Structural diagram:
H C H H H H O
H H
H C C C O C
H O C C C H H
H H H C
H H H H
H
Semi-structural formula: Semi-structural formula:
CH3 CH(CH3 )CH2 OH or (CH3 )2 CHCH2 OH CH3 COOCH2 CH2 CH3 or CH3 CH2 CH2 OCOCH3
Skeletal structure: Skeletal structure:
OH O
5. Butanoic acid:
O
O H H H 10. a. There are two methyl(CH3 ) groups and one ethyl
(−CH2 CH3 ) group.
C C C C H b. 5-ethyl-3,3-dimethyloctane.
O H H H 8.4 Functional groups and naming priority
H Practice problem 5
Octanoic acid:
3-amino-2-methylpropanal
H H H H H H H O
H C C C C C C C C
8.4 Exercise
1.
H H H H H H H O Functional Name Priority Homologous
group series
H
6. a. 3,3-dimethylpentan-2-amine COOH/CO2 H Carboxyl 1 Carboxylic acids
b. cyclohexane
c. cyclopropane C=O/CO Carbonyl 4 Ketones
d. benzene NH2 Amino 6 Amines
e. 4-chlorohex-2-yne
f. methyl butanoate OH Hydroxyl 5 Alcohols
7. The CO in the molecule is indicative of a ketone.
8.
COO Ester 2 Esters
H H O
2. CH3 CHNH2 (CH2 )3 OH
H C C C 3. i. a. 4-chlorobut-1-ene
H H N H b. CH2 CH(CH2 )2 Cl or Cl(CH2 )2 CHCH2
c.
H
9. a. Ethylpropanoate
Structural diagram: CI
H H O
ii. a. 2-bromo-3-chloro-4-methylpentane
H C C O C b. CH3 CHBrCHClCH(CH3 )2 or
H (CH3 )2 CHCHClCHBrCH3
H H C c. Br
H H
C
H
H
Semi-structural formula: Cl
CH3 CH2 COOCH2 CH3 or CH3 CH2 OCOCH2 CH3 iii. a. 4-hydroxy-3-methylbutanoic acid
Skeletal structure: b. CH2 OHCH(CH3 )CH2 COOH or
O HOOCCH2 CH(CH3 )CH2 OH
c. O
OH
O
HO
596 ANSWERS
iv. a. 2-bromopentan-3-one or 2-bromo-3-pentanone Practice problem 7
b. CH3 CHBrCOCH2 CH3 or CH3 CH2 COCHBrCH3
a. Answer B. CH3 CHBrF
Br
8.5 Exercise
1. Chiral carbons have bonds that result in no plane of
c. O symmetry and the molecule mirror images are
v. a. 3-aminopropanal non-superimposable. Achiral molecules have symmetry and
b. H2 N(CH2 )2 COH or CHO(CH2 )2 NH2 their mirror images can be superimposed.
2. Enantiomers are called optical isomers because they will
H2N O
c. rotate plane-polarised light in opposite directions when it is
4. No. IUPAC name is 5-chlorohexan-2-amine because the passed through a sample of each one.
amino functional group takes priority over hydrocarbons. 3. Stereoisomers are those where the atoms or groups have the
HO same connectivity but different spatial arrangement.
5. Structural isomers have different connectivity of atoms or
6. H groups.
4. Note the central chiral carbon has not been drawn in the
O
H H O structure.
F Cl F Cl
H C C C C
H H
H H N H H3C H3C
O
H
5. Butane only has two structural isomers: butane (n-butane)
H
and 2-methylpropane.
CH3 (CHOH)2 CONH2 or H2 NCO(CHOH)2 CH3 . butane
H H H H
8.5 Isomers
H C C C C H
Practice problem 6
butan-1-ol H H H H
H H H H 2-methylpropane
H
H C C C C O H
H H H H H C H
H H
butan-2-ol
H C C C H
H H H H
H H H
H C C C C H
6. Optical isomerism/stereoisomerism
H H H
O 7. The ether functional group R−O−R’ can be formed from
C2 H6 O.
H
H H
2-methylpropan-1-ol
H C O C H
H H H
H H
H C C C O H
8. The geometric stereoisomer is cis-hex-3-ene.
H H 9.
H C H
2-methylpropan-2-ol trans–pent–2–ene cis–pent–2–ene

H (2E)–pent–2–ene (2Z)–pent–2–ene
O
H H
H C C C H
H H
H C H
ANSWERS 597
10. See figure at foot of the page*. 6. a. ent-2-ene
b. chloroethene
8.6 Review c. dichloro-difluoromethane
d. ethanol
8.6 Exercises e. 2,2-dimethylpropane
8.6 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions f. hexan-2-ol
g. 1,1-dibromo-2,2-dichloroethane
1. A.
7. a. H
2. C.
3. B. H C H
4. B.
5. C. H H H H
6. B. H C C C C C H
7. B.
8. B. H H O H H
9. D.
H
10. B.
b. H
8.6 Exercise 2: Short answer questions H H O H

1. a. H H C C C C H
C H H H H
H H H c. H
b. H H H C H
C C H H H
H H
H C C C C O H
c. H C C H
d.
H H H
F Cl
H C H
H C C H
H H H
d. H
2. Triple bonds are shorter in bond length and have more
electrons participating in the covalent bonds. H C H
3. Bond energy = 168 kJ H H H H
4. a. A compound comprising only carbon and hydrogen
atoms H C C C C C H
b. A family of carbon compounds where each member of
H H O H
the family differs from the preceding member by a
−CH2 − group H C H H
c. A hydrocarbon containing only single C−C covalent
H
bonds e. H H H H
d. A hydrocarbon containing one or more double C=C or O
triple C≡C covalent bonds H C C C C C
e. Molecules with the same molecular formula but different
H H H H O H
structural formulas
5. An alkane is a hydrocarbon containing only single C−C
covalent bonds. An alkene is a hydrocarbon containing
one or more double C=C covalent bonds.
10* O
H H O
H H H O
H C C C H H
C
H C C C C H
H H C C
H H H H H C H H C
H H
H
H H
butanal 2-methylpropanal butanone
598 ANSWERS
f. H 5. a. i. H
H C H H C H
H H
H
O
H C C C H
H C C C
O H H H
H H O
g. H H H
O
H
H C C C C ii. The functional group is a hydroxyl group.
O H iii. This is a tertiary alcohol because the carbon bonded
H H H
to the O−H group is attached to three other carbon
h. H H H H O
atoms (alkyl groups).
H C C C C C H b. CH3 CH2 COOCH3 / CH3 (CH2 )2 COOCH3
or
H H H H CH3 OOCCH2 CH2 CH3 / CH3 OOC(CH2 )2 CH3
i. H Cl H c. i. cis-but-2-ene
H
CH3 CH3
H C C C N
H C C
H H H
j. H H
O
H H H H trans-but-2-ene
H C
H CH3
O C C C C H
C C
H H H H CH3 H
k. H H O H
ii. C4 H8 (g) + 6O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 4H2 O(l)
3
H C C C C H iii. V(CO2 ) = 2.66 × 10 L
Or using the universal gas equation:
H H H
V(CO2 ) = 2.65 × 103 L
l. H H H
H C C C C C H 9 Categories, properties and

H H H reactions of organic compounds
8. a. methylamine/methanamine
b. 3-aminobutanal 9.2 Explaining trends in physical properties
c. 3-hydroxypropanoic acid Practice problem 1
d. 1,3-dichloropropanone
Propane is a symmetrical hydrocarbon with weak dispersion
9. H H
forces only operating between molecules. This results in it
C C boiling at a relatively low temperature.
F F 1-chloropropane has the electronegative Cl atom that causes the
cis–CH2CF2 molecule to become polar. Permanent dipole–dipole attractions
also exist between molecules, which are much stronger than the
H F dispersion forces. This explains why its boiling point is
C C considerably higher than that of propane.
F H 9.2 Exercise
trans–CH2CF2
1. The intermolecular forces are dispersions forces, also
10. a. Stereoisomerism, therefore they are optical isomers.
known as van der Waals forces. They are temporary dipole
b. The type of isomerism present is stereoisomerism. These
moments that form as electrons move around, creating
molecules are cis–trans isomers. attractions between neighbouring molecules with opposing
c. Structural isomerism. These molecules contain the same
temporary charges.
atoms in different arrangements, therefore they are The intramolecular forces are the forces within the
positional isomers. molecule that hold it together. These are very strong
covalent bonds.
8.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions 2. a. CH3 OH: dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding
1. C. b. CH3 CH3 : dispersion forces only
2. D. c. CH3 CH2 Cl: dispersion forces and dipole–dipole
3. B. d. CH3 NH2 : dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding
4. A.
ANSWERS 599
3. a. Propan-1-ol is a straight chain hydrocarbon with strong intermolecular forces (dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding).
Propan-2-ol has a lower flashpoint because it is a branched chain alcohol resulting in weaker intermolecular forces between
molecules.
b. The forces between propan-1-ol molecules are stronger than the forces between propan-2-ol molecules, so propan-1-ol will
have a higher boiling point.
4. Both methanol and ethanol are soluble in water because they can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. Methane and
ethane, as non-polar molecules, are unable to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules and are therefore insoluble.
5. Butanamide has a higher boiling point than ethyl ethanoate because it has hydrogen bonding between its molecules, while ethyl
ethanoate has weaker dipole–dipole attraction between its molecules.
6. a. Candle wax is a solid at room temperature and melts at temperatures in a range of 50–60 °C suggests the alkane chains are
long compared to those that exist in the gas and liquid states at SLC.
b. Dispersion forces between the wax and oils allow miscibility. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
7. a. Hexane is not suitable for removing salt from water. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
b. Hexane will be able to separate oil from soy beans. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
c. Hexane will be able to remove oil contaminants in water. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
8. Carbon tetrachloride is non-polar reducing its ability to dissolve in water. Dichloromethane has permanent, unsymmetrical
dipoles resulting in hgiher solubility. However, the smaller dichloromethane, collectively, has fewer intermolecular forces acting
resulting in a lower boiling point.
9. H H H
O H C C O
H3C CH3
H H
Compound A Compound B
10. Ethyl ethanoate and ethyl butanoate both have dipole–dipole attractions with water. Ethyl butanoate, with longer hydrocarbon
sections results in fewer dispersion forces between themselves or with other non-polar molecules. As a result, it is easier for the
smaller ethyl ethanoate to dissolve in water. The boiling point also increases as the size of the ester increases due to the number
of intermolecular forces acting. We observe this trend in a homologous series.
9.3 Organic reactions

Practice problem 2
NaOH or OH–
H3C CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 H3 C CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
Cl OH
Cr2O72– or MnO4–
H3C CH CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 H3 C C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
H+
OH O
9.3 Exercise
1. 1,1-dichloroethane would be made in two steps using chlorine gas and UV light to catalyse the reaction.
2. H H H H H H
H C C C H + Cl2 H C C C H
H Cl Cl H
1,2-dichloropropane
H H H H H H
H C C C H + H2 H C C C H
H H H H
propane
H H H H H H H H H
H C C C H + HCl H C C C H H C C C H
H Cl H H or H Cl H
1-chloropropane 2-chloropropane
600 ANSWERS
3. If bromine was added to ethane, the red colour of the bromine would remain because there would be no reaction. However, if
bromine was added to ethene, the bromine would undergo an addition reaction with the ethene and the reaction mixture would
turn colourless. Only unsaturated molecules react with the bromide.
4. a. 3-methylbutan-1-ol
b. 3-methylbutanoic acid. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
CH3 O
CH3 CH CH2 C
OH
5. The O−H group needs to be on the end of a chain to be able to form the three covalent bonds with the two oxygen atoms in a
carboxyl functional group.
6. CH3 COOH(aq) + KOH(aq) → CH3 COOK(aq) + H2 O(l)
or
CH3 COOH(aq) + OH− (aq) → CH3 COO− (aq) + H2 O(l)
7. a. H O
H H H H
H C C
O C C C C H + H2O
H
H H H H
b. H H H H
H
N C C C H + H2O
H C
C H H H
H
O
8. a. Hydrogen gas H2 (g) needs to react with ethene in the presence of a metal catalyst such as Ni or Pt.
b. Steam H2 O(g), heat and an acid catalyst (e.g. H3 PO4 ) are required.
c. Chlorine gas Cl2 (g) is required.
d. First add HCl(g) to produce chloroethane then add NH3 (g) with an aluminium catalyst.
e. First add H2 O(g), heat and H3 PO4 to produce ethanol. Then add acidified K2 Cr2 O7 to produce ethanoic acid. React this with
propan-1-ol in the presence of concentrated H2 SO4 to produce the ester.
⃯
[O] ⃯
[O]
9. a. C5 H12 O C5 H10 O2 /CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 OH CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 COOH
⃯
[O] ⃯
[O]
b. C5 H12 O C5 H10 O/CH3 CH2 CH2 CHOH CH3 CH3 CH2 CH2 COCH3
10. Hydrolysis refers to the addition of water across the ester link. This causes the reformation of a carboxylic acid and alcohol.
Acid or alkaline catalysts are required for the hydrolysis. Condensation between a carboxylic acid and alcohol eliminates water
in the form of OH from the COOH and H from OH. The ester link is formed joining the two reactants in the presence of an acid
catalyst.
9.4 Reaction pathways

Practice problem 3
% yield = 91%
Practice problem 4
% atom economy = 80%
9.4 Exercise
1. H H H H
H C C H + NaOH H C C H + NaCl
H Cl H O H
H H H H
C C + H 2O H C C H
H H H O H
H H Cl H H O H
UV
H C C H + Cl2 H C C H + NaOH H C C H
H H H H H H
ANSWERS 601
2. Cl2, UV NaOH
2–
Cr2O7 , H+
CH3CH3 CH3CH2Cl CH3CH2OH CH3COOH
H2SO4(l)
CH3COOCH2CH3
3. % yield = 86.6%
4. m(CO2 ) = 181 g
5. % atom economy = 100%
6. Method 1 has the higher atom economy for the production of hydrogen gas.
%method1 = 17.6(18%)
%method2 = 7%
7. HO O
H2O(g) MnO4–
H3C CH CH CH3 H3C CH CH2 CH3 H3C C CH2 CH3
H3PO4 ; 300 °C H+
8. a. Start with 2-chloropropane and react it with NaOH to produce propan-2-ol. Oxidise the secondary alcohol to the ketone using
a strong oxidant in acid, such as potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 ) or potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ).
b. React 2-chloropropane with NH3 (g) in the presence of an aluminium catalyst such as Al2 O3 .
9. a. alumina, Al2 O3
−
b. acidified Cr2 O2−
7 , K2 Cr2 O7 , or MnO4 , KMnO4
c. H2 SO4 (l)
d. H3 PO4 on silica
10. a. H H H H
Cl2
hv
H H H H
b. H2O(g) Cr2O7
2–
H3C CH2 CH2
H3C CH2 CH CH2 H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 OH
H+ C O
H3PO4 ; 300 °C
HO
9.5 Review
9.5 Exercises
1. C.
2. B.
3. B.
4. B.
5. D.
6. C.
7. A.
8. A.
9. A.
10. C.

1. a. CH3 Cl: dispersion forces and dipole–dipole attractions
b. CH3 OCH3 : dispersion forces and dipole–dipole attractions
c. CBr4 : dispersion forces only
d. CH3 CH2 NH2 : dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding
e. H2 CCH2 : dispersion forces only
f. CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2 CHO: dispersion forces and dipole–dipole attractions
g. cis–CH2 Cl2 : dispersion forces and dipole–dipole attractions
h. HCOOH: dispersions forces and hydrogen bonding
602 ANSWERS
2. Propan-1-ol. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
3. A substitution reaction is a reaction in which an atom is replaced by another atom or group.
4. a. H2 C=CH2 + HI → CH3 CH2 I
b. H2 C=CHCH3 + H2 → CH3 CH2 CH3
c. H2 C=CH2 + Br2 → CH2 BrCH2 Br
d. H2 C=CHCH2 CH3 + Cl2 → CH2 ClCHClCH2 CH3
e. CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2 O
f. CH3 CH3 + Cl2 → CH3 CH2 Cl + HCl
g. H2 C=CH2 + H2 O → CH3 CH2 OH
h. CH3 CH=CHCH3 + H2 → CH3 CH2 CH3 CH3
5. X = C2 H4 , Y = C2 H5 OH and Z = Br2 .
6. Esterification is a condensation reaction. The reactants are carboxylic acid and alcohol, and the products are an ester and water.
7. H H H H H H H O
2–
Cl2/UV NaOH Cr2O7 /H+
H C C H H C C H H C C H H C C
H H H Cl H O H H O H
ethane chloroethane ethanol ethanoic acid
8. % yield = 80.0%
9. % atom economy = 76%
10. Atom economy is a measure of how much of the mass of the reactants transfers into the desired product. As all of the atoms in
the reactants are directly present in the product, the economy is 100%.

1. D.
2. B.
3. B.
4. m(CO2 ) = 73.3 g
⃯
UVlight
5. a. C2 H6 (g) + Br2 (l) C2 H5 Br(l) + HBr(g)
⃯
UVlight
C2 H5 Br(l) + Br2 (l) C2 H4 Br2 (l) + HBr(g) [2 marks]
OR
⃯
UVlight
C2 H6 (g) + 2Br2 (l) C2 H4 Br2 (l) + 2HBr(g)
b. 1,2-dibromoethane
c. % atom economy = 53.4%
d. C2 H4 (g) + Br2 (l) → C2 H4 Br2 (l)
All atoms from the reactants end up part of the desired product, therefore the atom economy is 100 per cent.
e. i.
H H H H
Br C C Br + NaOH(aq) Br C C O H
H H H H
2–
H+ Cr2O7
H O H O
MnO4–
Br C C O H Br C C H
H+
H H
ii. 2-bromoethanoic acid
ANSWERS 603
10 Analysis of organic compounds 10.3 Infrared spectroscopy
10.2 Mass spectrometry Practice problem 2
Practice problem 1 C=O peak at 1670–1750 cm-1 corresponds to C=O.
Deduce a structure that has C=O and C−H bonds, with a
The peak at m/z = 50 corresponds to [CH335 Cl]+ .
molecular formula C3 H6 O. The molecule has the structural
The peak at m/z = 52 corresponds to [CH337 Cl]+ . formula CH3 COCH3 .
The peak at m/z = 15 corresponds to [CH3 ]+
10.2 Exercise 10.3 Exercise

1. Mass spectra are produced when positively charged ions are 1. Absorption of infrared radiation causes vibrational changes
detected in a mass spectrometer. A beam of electrons to the covalent bonds in molecules. The wave number at
knocks out an electron, causing the molecule to become which parts of molecules absorb in proportion to the
positively charged. Sample responses can be found in your frequency or energy of the vibration gives clues about the
digital formats. types of covalent bonds present.Detield sample responses
2. The molecular ion peak is caused by the ionisation of the can be found in your digital formats.
whole molecule and its m/z ratio is equivalent to the molar 2. a. In a homologous series, each member increases by CH2 ,
mass. The base peak is the most abundant ion relative to the so there will be more peaks scattered throughout the
other fragments detected in the sample and is assigned a fingerprint and other areas of the spectrum.
value of 100. b. A fingerprint region can be useful for identifying pure
3. The abundance of other peaks are assigned values based on samples. As the bonding in a molecule is unique, so will
the proportion of them being detected. be the infrared absorption wave numbers and number of
4. The m/z ratio can be thought of as a mass scale because peaks.
usually only one electron is removed per molecule in the 3. C=O (esters) at 1750 cm-1
spectrometer. C−O (esters) at 1230 cm-1
5. Any of: C−H at 2800–3150 cm-1
C2 H4 O2 (g) + e− → C2 H4 O+ 2 (g) + 2e
−
4. a. C=O (acids) 1700 cm-1 ; O−H (acids) 2500−3500 cm-1
− + − b. Spectrum B
C2 H4 O2 (g) + e → [C2 H4 O2 ] (g) + 2e
c. Ethanoic acid, CH3 COOH, has a molar mass of 60 g
C2 H4 O2 (g) → C2 H4 O+
2 (g) + e
−
mol-1 and propanoic acid, CH3 CH2 COOH, has a molar
+ +
6. [C2 H4 O2 ] (g) → [CH3 CO] (g) + • CHO(g) mass of 74 g mol-1 .
7. a. Peak Z 5. Compound X is the carboxylic acid. Compound Y is the
+
b. Peak Y corresponds to CH3 CO alcohol.
Peak X corresponds to CH3 + 6. Compound X is a primary amine.
8. a. 59 Compound Y is a primary amide.
b. 30
c. C3 H9 N+ or [C3 H9 N]+ 10.4 NMR spectroscopy
d. CH4 N+ or [CH4 N]+ or [CH2 NH2 ]+
e. C3 H9 N+ (g) → CH4 N+ (g) + • C2 H5 (g) Practice problem 3
+ +
[C3 H9 N] (g) → [CH4 N] (g) + • C2 H5 (g) 1, 1-dichloroethane. (CH3 CHCl2 ).
Cl H
+ +
[CH3 CH2 CH2 NH2 ] (g) → [CH2 NH2 ] (g) + • CH2 CH3 (g)
9. a. m/z = 29 H C C H
+ +
b. CH2 CHO and/or C3 H7 . It is likely both, which
Cl H
explains it being the highest peak on the spectrum.
c. It is called the base peak because it is the most abundant
ion detected. 10.4 Exercise
d. Butanal, C4 H8 O. Sample responses can be found in your 1. The area under the peaks is proportional to the number of
digital formats. nuclei contributing to the resonance.
10. a. The peak at m/z = 98 indicates the two chlorine atoms 2. Environment is a reference to the unique chemical shift
are both 35 Cl isotopes while the peaks at 100 and 102 because of the connectivity of atoms in a molecule and the
indicate 35 Cl/37 Cl and 37 Cl/37 Cl combinations. field strength required to flip the spin of nuclei. Different
C2 H435 Cl2 (g) → [C2 H435 Cl2 ]+ (g) + e− connectivity will result in unique environments. Each peak
b.
C2 H435 Cl2 (g) + e− → [C2 H435 Cl2 ]+ (g) + 2e− or set of peaks represents a unique environment.
c. Cl H 3. Low-resolution 1 H NMR spectra show unique
environments and peak area to determine the number of
H C C H hydrogen atoms contributing to the signal. High-resolution
Cl H
spectra show splitting, which allows the use of the n+1 rule
to determine the number of adjacent hydrogen atoms to
The fragment at m/z = 83 suggests a loss of CH3 . This is
those producing the signal.
absent from the 1,2-dichloroethane spectrum.
4. TMS is excellent at shielding its nuclei, which means its
nuclei resonate at lower frequencies for a particular strength
604 ANSWERS
of the applied magnetic field. TMS is inert and volatile, 10.
H H H Cl
which makes it suitable to be recovered and it won’t react
with the sample. H C C H H C C H
5. CH3 CH2 Cl consists of R−CH3 , R−CH2 −X.
Cl Cl H Cl
The CH3 group will produce a signal close in the
1,2-dichloroethane, CH2ClCH2Cl 1,1-dichloroethane, CH3CHCl2
0.9−1.0 ppm range for a 1 H NMR spectrum and the
R−CH2 −X will produce a signal at the 3.0−4.5 ppm CH2 ClCH2 Cl will only produce a single peak with no
range. splitting. This peak will been seen at approximately
6. Methyl propane:
3.8 ppm.
CH3 CHCl2 will produce two unique hydrogen
environments. R−CH3 will produce a doublet. The
H
chemical shift will be further downfield at approximately
H C H 2.0 ppm. The other hydrogen environment will be split into
H H a quartet of peaks. The chemical shift is approximately
H C C C H 5.9 ppm. The integration will show a ratio of 3:1 when
comparing the doublet to the quartet. Sample responses can
H H H be found in your digital formats.
The three CH3 groups are in the same environment because
they are all connected to the same carbon atom. There 10.5 Combining spectroscopic techniques
would be two peaks in the ratio of 3:1.
Practice problem 4
Butane:
a. C3 H6 O2
+
H H H H b. A: m/z = 29 [C2 H5 ]
B: m/z = 45 [COOH]+
H C C C C H C: m/z = 57 [C3 H5 O]+
H H H H
D: m/z = 74 [C3 H6 O2 ]+
−1
Butane will also produce two peaks in a 1:1 ratio. c. i. 2500−3500 cm ⇒ OH in a carboxylic acid
−1
7. 1-bromopropane has three different carbon environments, ii. 1680−1740 cm ⇒ a C=O (carboxylic acids) group
−1
therefore there will be three peaks on the spectrum. iii. 1000−1300 cm ⇒ a C−O bond
2-bromopropane only has two environments due to the CH3 d. As there is an −OH bond, a C=O bond and a C−O bond, it
groups being in identical environments and only producing is a carboxylic acid.
one peak. H H
O
H Br H H C C C
H C C C H H H O H
H H H e. Propanoic acid
2-bromopropane, (CH3)2CHBr (2 peaks) 10.5 Exercise

H H Br 1. Ethanol, C2 H5 OH will produce a molecular ion on a mass
spectrum of m/z = 46. Butan-1-ol, C4 H9 OH, will produce a
H C C C H
molecular ion peak of m/z = 74. There will also be different
H H H fragments produced from the two molecular ions.
1-bromopropane, CH3CH2CH2Br (3 peaks) The infrared spectra will show a broad absorption at both
8. There are two different carbon environments in 3200−3600 cm-1 and 1050−1410 cm-1 that is characteristic
2-methylpropan-2-ol. of O−H(alcohols) and C−O(alcohols). Butan-1-ol will show
CH3 a spectrum with more peaks in the 500−1500 region because
it has more bonds to absorb the IR radiation.
H3 C C OH 2. In the NMR spectrum the different functional groups
produce different shifts. Ethanol will produce a RCH2 OH
CH3 peak in the 50–90 ppm range. Ethanal will produce the
2-methylpropan-2-ol RCHO peak in 190—200 ppm range characteristic of
aldehyde functional groups.
9.
Hydrogen set or Splitting Relative Chemical The 1 H NMR spectra will differ by the number of unique
atom pattern peak shift (ppm) hydrogen environments. Ethanol will produce three sets of
height peaks whereas ethanal will only produce two. Ethanol will
also produce a set of four peaks (quartet) and a set of three
CH3 CH2 COOH Triplet 3 0.8−1.0 peaks (triplet) and a singlet due to the CH3 CH2 OH sequence.
CH3 CH2 COOH Quartet 2 2.1−2.7 Ethanal will produce a quartet at 9.4−10.0 ppm due to the
neighbouring CH3 group. The other signal at approximately
CH3 CH2 COOH Singlet 1 9−13 2 ppm will be split into two peaks (doublet) due to the
neighbouring CHO group from the CH3 .
ANSWERS 605
3. a. The Cl atom has two isotopes (35 Cl and 37 Cl) that produce c. The solvent of which the analyte is carried through the
molecular ion peaks at 78 and 80 m/z. stationary phase.
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. d. Retention time (Rt ) is the time it takes for a component of
b. C3 H7 Cl the analyte to be detected as it passes out of the column.
c. Two, because there are two sets of peaks with different e. A quantitative measure and is proportional to the amount
chemical shifts. or concentration of the component present in the analyte.
d. The septet is seen downfield due to the presence of the f. The print out of peaks that have been detected due to the
electronegative chlorine atom. This causes de-shielding of components in the analyte being detected.
the hydrogen nuclei from the magnetic field so they g. The instrument that performs the analysis and includes
achieve resonance at a higher frequency. the column, pump, solvent reservoir and a detector.
e. H Cl 2. a. Increasing the column will increase the time it takes for
H C H all components to be detected. This is one measure
C C employed to separate many components in an analyte
H H H H where peaks may overlap in shorter columns.
b. Pumping the mobile phase through a column with
4. a. The IR spectrum indicates there are significant
increased pressure will be result in shorter retention times.
absorptions caused by the carbon to oxygen bonds.
c. Generally, increasing the temperature of the mobile phase
C=O (1780 cm-1 )
will increase the solubility of the analyte in the mobile
C−O (1200 cm-1 )
phase. Therefore, it will desorb from the stationary phase
b. The 13 C NMR spectrum is in the ppm range for an ester,
at a faster rate and result in a shorter retention time.
indicating the functional group C=O.
3. Adsorb and desorb are referring to the interaction between
c. Four, because there are four distinct peaks at different
the surface of the stationary phase and the analyte. When an
chemical shifts.
analyte is moved through a column, the components will
d. H O H H adsorb to the surface of the stationary phase then desorb
H C C O C C H
back into the mobile phase and continue to move through the
column.
H H H 4. Rt of methanoic acid < ethanoic acid < propanoic acid <
5. CH3 H3C butanoic acid
CH3 N CH NH2 5. RPLC uses a non-polar stationary phase and a polar mobile
phase. Sample responses can be found in your digital
CH3 H3C
formats.
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. 6. Rt pentanoic acid < pentanol < pentane
10.6 Chromatography 7. a. Peak 4 Sample responses can be found in your digital
Practice problem 5 formats.

b. A pure standard would be run through the column under
a. Methanol the same conditions to see if the times match.
b. c. Peak 3 represents the highest concentration of amino acid.
1800
d. A series of serine standards would be run to produce peak
1600 areas above and below that of the area in the sample. A
1400 calibration graph of peak area versus serine concentration
1200 could be plotted and the peak area of the sample
Peak area
1000
compared with those of the standards in order to
determine the concentration.
800
8. a. Pure stanozolol would be run through the HPLC and its
600 retention time recorded. A urine sample would be
400 analysed and if a unique retention time of stanozolol is
200 observed then its presence is detected.
b. Provided a unique retention time of stanozolol is detected,
0
2 4 6 8 10 12
a series of standard stanozolol solutions would be run to
Concentration of butanoic acid (mg L–1)
determine the peak area corresponding to various
−1 concentrations of stanozolol. Urine samples could then
c. 7.2 mg L
have the peak area of detected stanozolol compared with
the area of the standards to determine the concentration.
10.6 Exercise
c. 2.5 mg L-1 . A calibration graph, can be found in the
1. Detailed sample responses can be found in your digital worked solutions in your digital formats.
formats. d. A concentration of 5.0 mg L-1 falls outside the range of
a. The chemical(s) you are qualitatively or quantitatively the calibration graph.
investigating. e. The sample could be diluted so that its concentration
b. The substance that the analyte adsorbs to and desorbs results in a peak area within the range of the standards.
from as it is moved by the solvent.
606 ANSWERS
Alternatively, standards of a higher concentration could 10.8 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
be run to extend the range of the calibration graph. 1. a. m/z = 86
b. m/z = 57
10.7 Volumetric analysis by titration c. The peak at m/z = 57 corresponds to [CH3 CH2 ]•
Practice problem 6 d. O
%(m/v) = 70.0% (accept 70.0 − 70.2) CH3CH2 C CH2CH3
Yes the contents of the bottle fall within the specifications 2. Ethanoic acid has a peak in the region 2500−3500 cm
−1
shown on the label. due to the O−H(acid). Ethanoic anhydride has no peak in
this region.
Practice problem 7 3. a. R3 −CH3 (1.0 ppm); R2 −CH2 (1.3 ppm); R1 −COOH
[CH3 CHO]original = 1.61 M (10.5 ppm)
b. There would be four peaks for the CH2 group.
10.7 Exercise c. H H
O
1. a. Pipettes H C C C
b. Burette
H H O H
c. Conical flask/beaker
2. a. The solution it will deliver 4. a. H H H H H H
b. The aliquot solution
c. Distilled water H C C C O H H C C C H
d. Distilled water H H H H O H
3. Phenolphthalein/phenol red/thymol blue indicator.
2− propan-1-ol
4. The Cr2 O7 ion is orange because the oxidation state of the H
Cr ion is +6. When is it reduced to Cr3+ in a typical redox propan-2-ol
titration a green colour is observed. b. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
5. c(KH(C8 H4 O4 )) = 0.0999 M
Propanone
6. a. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2 O(l) H O H
or
H+ (aq) + OH− (aq) → H2 O(l) H C C C H
b. c(NaOH) = 0.0860 M
H H
c. The reacting solutions are colourless. The indicator is
needed to detect the end point. +
d. Yes. The concentration is now accurately known. c. [CH3 CO]
+ +
7. c(HCl) = 0.124 M d. CH3 COCH3 → CH3 CO • +CH3
e. Two peaks in the 13 C NMR spectrum of compound B.
8. c(CH3 COOH) = 40.4 g L-1
5. Separation occurs through the processes of adsorption and
9. a. m(C2 H2 O4 ) = 0.900 g
desorption on to and from the surface of the stationary
b. [NaOH] = 2.11 M
phase. The larger the surface area, the greater the degree of
c. Burette rinsed with water: calculated [NaOH] lower
adsorption and desorption, producing better separation.
Unsuitable indicator: end point falsely reached before true
6. The original mixture most likely contained substance X.
titre value therefore calulated [NaOH] higher than actual
value.
7. a. The standards would allow the dichlorobenzyl alcohol
d. The reliability of the student’s titres could be improved by
peak from the original chromatogram to be identified
increasing the number of titres/trials.
because the peak would have the same retention time as
10.8 Review the standards.
b. A set of standards is used and then the area under their
10.8 Exercises peaks is obtained to determine the relationship between
10.8 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions concentration and peak area (a calibration curve), thus
enabling the unknown concentration of other samples to
1. C.
be determined by interpolation.
2. C.
c. The manufacturer’s claim is true. Sample responses can
3. B.
be found in your digital formats.
4. C.
8. a. Compound E
5. A.
b. Compound A
6. D.
9. a. CH3 COOC6 H4 COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) →
7. A.
CH3 COOC6 H4 COONa(aq) + H2 O(l)
8. B.
b. m(aspirin) = 0.431 g
9. D.
10. a. c(C6 H8 O6 ) of the diluted solution = 0.00620 M
10. B.
b. m(C6 H8 O6 ) = 0.109 g
c. 52.0 mg/100 g.
ANSWERS 607
10.8 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions 5. a and b
1. D. CH3 H CH2 COOH
O
2. A. +
H2N CH C N CH COOH
3. B.
O H H
4. D.
−4
5. a. n(C4 H6 O5 ) = 3.88 × 10 mol alanine aspartic acid
b. %(m/m) = 5.19%
−1
c. i. 800 mg L
ii. %(m/m) = 0.400% CH3 O CH2 COOH
−
iii. The MnO4 reacted with citric acid, tartaric acid and + H2O
malic acid. The HPLC chromatogram shows three H2N CH C N CH COOH
organic acids, which would have reacted with the H
oxidant in the titration leading to a false higher titre
volume and therefore a false, higher concentration of peptide bond
malic acid. c. Enzyme-catalysed condensation
d. Ala-Asp
11 Key food molecules e. 204.0 g mol
–1
11.2 Proteins 6. a. Phe-Val-Asn

b. phenylalanine, valine and asparagine
Practice problem 1 c. Covalent bonds called peptide bonds
See figure at foot of the page.* d. Covalent bond called a disulfide link
7. 6
11.2 Exercise 8. Hydrogen bonding
9. In glutamic acid there is a carboxyl functional group in the
1. a. Meat, eggs and cheese
side chain. This could result in hydrogen bonding between
b. The body include the growth and repair of cells, acting
residues, where the hydrogen in the peptide links could
as hormones, preventing infection as antibodies, forming
bond with the oxygen atom in the carboxyl functional
muscle fibres, and carrying atoms and small molecules
group.
around the body.
10. a. Essential amino acids cannot be synthesised by animals
2. The tertiary structure
from the other materials in their diets. Non-essential
3. H O
amino acids can be synthesised within the body.
N C b. Essential: histidine; non-essential: alanine.
H O H
amino carboxyl
4. Two examples are arginine and lysine.
Practice problem 1* peptide bond
H O H O H O H O
H
H2N C C OH N C C OH H2N C C N C C OH + H2O
CH2 H CHCH3 CH2 H CHCH3
OH CH3 OH CH3
Serine Valine Ser-Val
608 ANSWERS
11.3 Carbohydrates
Practice problem 2
10.5 × 104 g mol−1
11.3 Exercise
−1
1. M(C6 H12 O6 ) = 180 g mol
2. a. Dairy foods, fruit, grains, legumes, starchy vegetables and sugary foods
b. To provide energy
3. a. Glucose + fructose → sucrose
Glucose + glucose → maltose
Galactose + glucose → lactose
b. CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH
O O O O
H H H OH H H H OH
H H H H
+ + H2O
OH H OH H OH H OH H
OH OH OH H OH O H
H OH H OH H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose β-Maltose
c. Enzyme-catalysed condensation reactions
d. Glycosidic link (ether)
glycosidic link
O O O O
H H H OH H H H OH
H H H H
+ + H2O
OH H OH H OH H OH H
OH OH OH H OH O H
H OH H OH H OH H OH
α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose β-Maltose
e. Hydroxyl groups
4. Similarities: Both are simple carbohydrates consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. They are both polar and soluble in water.
Differences: Galactose is a monosaccharide; lactose consists of galactose and glucose monomers combined in a condensation
reaction to form a disaccharide.
5. 6.48 × 104 g mol−1
6. The three polysaccharide polymers consist of glucose monomers. Glycogen and starch are formed from 𝛼-glucose and cellulose
is formed from 𝛽-glucose. Starch is made up of two other polymers: amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen has many branches,
amylopectin has less and amylose is a tight coil. Every second monomer in cellulose is inverted and the polymer strands are held
together by extensive hydrogen bonding.
7. a. Starch
b. Cellulose
c. Glycogen
d. Starch
e. Cellulose
8. a. Glucose contains hydroxyl groups O H.
b. Sucrose contains hydroxyl groups O H and a glycosidic O link.
H O
O H O
N C
c. Aspartame contains amino, H, carboxyl, O H, ester, C O amide N C and benzene
functional groups.
9. Aspartame is used in diet foods because only a small amount of it is needed to provide sweetness.
10. Aspartame is a methyl ester. It is used as a sweetener and combines well with different foods without adding extra kilojoules so
it is beneficial when weight loss is desired.
ANSWERS 609
11.4 Fats and oils 4. a. Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits, kiwi fruit and red
capsicums.
11.4 Exercise b. Vitamin D is found in fish like salmon and sardines, and
1. a. Lauric, myristic, palmitic and stearic acid egg yolks.
b. Palmitoleic and oleic acid 5. Water-soluble vitamins cannot be stored by the body.
c. Linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acid Fat-soluble vitamins remain stored in fatty deposits.
2. a. C3 H8 O3 6. Fat-soluble vitamins tend to accumulate in the body
b. C18 H36 O2 7. Vitamin C has four hydroxyl groups around the outside of
3. Arachidonic the molecule whereas vitamin D2 has mainly non-polar
4. Ethanoic has only one methyl group and also a carboxyl methyl groups and one hydroxyl group.
group, which can hydrogen bond with water molecules. 8. a. This molecule is fat-soluble because there are very few
Myristic acid has a 13-carbon hydrocarbon chain, which is polar groups attached, mainly methyl groups.
hydrophobic and so will not dissolve in water. b. This molecule is water-soluble because there are a
5. a. Trans-fatty acid number of hydroxyl groups that can form hydrogen
b. Saturated fatty acids bonds with water.
c. Longer fatty acids 9. C6 H8 O6
6. Palmitic acid: CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH 10. Ascorbic acid
Oleic acid: CH3 (CH2 )7 CH=CH(CH2 )7 COOH
Linoleic acid: 11.6 Review
CH3 (CH2 )4 CH=CHCH2 CH=CH(CH2 )7 COOH
7. a. C11 H23 COOH.
11.6 Exercises
b. CH3 (CH2 )4 CH=CHCH2 CH=CH(CH2 )7 COOH. 11.6 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
8. O 1. A.
CH2 O C (CH2)16CH3 Stearic acid
2. D.
3. C.
O
4. C.
CH O C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3 Oleic acid 5. C.
O 6. C.
7. A.
CH2 O C (CH2)12CH3 Myristic acid 8. C.
9. Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that must come 9. B.
from our diet because the body cannot produce them. 10. B.
Examples include alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) and linoleic 11. A.
acid (LA). 12. A.
10. Linoleic acid. It is an omega-6 fatty acid. 13. A.
14. D.
Activity: A beriberi bad experiment 15. C.
1. Dr. Eijkman’s experiment showed good practice by having a
control group and test group. 11.6 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
2. The flaw in experimental technique in Dr. Eijkman’s second 1. They have bonded to a central carbon atom, an amino
experiment was that the chickens were fed a different food group, carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and a R-group
from the initial experiment. (side chain).
3. Vitamin B1 2. Glutamine has the R-group −CH2 −CH2 −CONH2 (an
4. Hydrogen bonded to oxygen or nitrogen amide group at the end). Glutamic acid has the R-group
5. Dr. Eijkman could have improved the experimental design of −CH2 −CH2 −COOH.
this experiment by having the same conditions for the two 3. a. Amino acids react together in a condensation reaction to
groups of infected chickens but fed one group brown rice form a dipeptide and water.
and the other group white rice over the same period of time b. CH2OH O H O
and observed the effects.
H N C C N C C O H
11.5 Vitamins H H H CH2SH
11.5 Exercise
CH2SH O H O
1. Vitamins are organic compounds that are needed in very
small quantities on a regular basis as part of a healthy diet. H N C C N C C O H
2. Vitamins are essential for humans because they operate in
cells to help catalyse cellular reactions. H H H CH2OH
3. Vitamin D
610 ANSWERS
4. a. Theronine H unavailable to the water molecules. Amylopectin is made of
H O open-branched polymer chains of 𝛼-glucose. The loose
N C C branched chains of glucose molecules allow access to water
H OH molecules for hydrogen bonding so amylopectin is soluble
CH
amino and more easily digested than amylose.
HO CH3 carboxyl 10. 1.04 × 105 g mol-1
group group
b. See figure at foot of the page.* 11.
5. a. Hydrogen bonding OH
b. Dispersion forces, covalent bonds (disulfide bridge) and
C O
hydrogen bonds
6. a. 6 CH2 O CH2
O
b. 27
H2N C C N C C
c. See figure at foot of the page.*
7. Serine
O CH3
H H H
CH2 OH
H2N CH COOH These hydrogen atoms can hydrogen

bond to the oxygen atoms in water
8. C12 H22 O11
9. Starch comprises two different polymers: amylose and These atoms can hydrogen bond with
amylopectin. Amylose is made of tightly packed linear the hydrogen atoms in water
polymer chains of in a coil of 𝛼-glucose hydrogen bonded 12. a. It has one double bond and is a long-chain carboxylic
together. It is insoluble because most of the hydrogen acid.
bonds are involved in holding the coil together and b. See figure at foot of the page.*
4b*
H H H O CH3CHOH O H O
H O
N C C + N C C H N C C N C C O H
H OH H OH H H H H
CH H
HO CH3 Glycine
6c* H O H O H O
H N C C OH H N C C OH H N C C OH
H H H CH3 H CH2COOH
glycine H2O alanine H2O aspartic acid
H O H O H O
H N C C N C C H C C OH + 2H2O
H H H CH3 H CH2COOH
peptide bonds
12b* glycerol
CH2 CH CH2 CH2 CH CH2
OH OH OH O O O
CH(CH2)7COOH
CH(CH2)7CO
CH(CH2)7CO
CH(CH2)7CO
cid H
ic a OO
o l e ) 7C
mit (CH
2
pal CH
palmitoleic acid
CH
2) 5
(CH + 3H2O
CH 3
water
CH3(CH2)5CH
CH3(CH2)5CH
CH3(CH2)5CH
CH3(CH2)5CH
CH (
3 CH
2 )5 CH
palm CH(C
ito H2 ) C
leic a 7 OO
H
cid a fat molecule
(triglyceride)
ANSWERS 611
c. In an esterification reaction, the alcohol functional group 11.6 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions
of one molecule reacts in a condensation reaction with 1. B.
the carboxyl functional group of a carboxyl acid to form 2. C.
the ester functional group. When a triglyceride forms in 3. A.
a reaction between glycerol 4. D.
(a triol) and three fatty acid molecules, three ester groups 5. A.
form; it is an esterification reaction. 6.
13. See figure at foot of the page.*
14. The polar −OH groups on carbohydrates form hydrogen
bonds with water. The long hydrocarbon side chains in fats O O
are non-polar and do not form bonds with water. Therefore H
H2N N
carbohydrates are soluble in water and fats are not soluble N OH
in water. H
CH3 O
15. See table at foot of the page.*
16.8 The amino acids are (from left to right): alanine,
16. n(H2 ) = 8.4 moles phenylanaline and glycine.
2.0
7. a. Glucose and fructose
17. Normal functioning of the body requires some fatty acids
b. CH2OH
not synthesised by the body. These fatty acids must come
O H
from the diet and are therefore known as essential fatty
acids. They are described as omega-3 fatty acids because, H OH
in numbering from the methyl, or omega, end (instead of OH CH2OH
the usual functional group end), the first carbon double
bond is located on carbon-3. OH H
18. Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid are fructose
omega-3 fatty acids, and arachidonic is an omega-6 fatty c. Enzyme-catalysed condensation reaction
acid because if we count from the methyl end the first d. Hydroxyl and glycosidic
double bond is on the third carbon for the first two e. In increasing order of sweetness: glucose, sucrose,
compounds and on the sixth carbon for the third compound. fructose
19. It is possible to have a deficiency of vitamin C because it is f. C12 H22 O11
water soluble (due to the presence of several −OH groups) 8. 1.70 × 103
so is not retained by the body. By comparison, vitamin D is
a fat-soluble vitamin (long hydrocarbon chain and only one
−OH group present) so it can accumulate in the body.
20. This molecule would be soluble in water due to the
presence of the hydroxyl functional groups and N and O
atoms that can form H bonds with water.
13* H O O
H
H C O C (CH2)11CH3 HO C (CH2)11CH3
O H C OH O
H C O C (CH2)13CH3 + 3 O H C OH + HO C (CH2)13CH3
O O
H H
H C OH
H C O C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3 HO C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
H
H
15*
Saturated fatty acids Unsaturated fatty acids
Structures Only contain single C−C bonds Monounsaturated fatty acids contain one C=C bond.
Polyunsaturated contain more than one C=C bond
Properties Occur as straight chain molecules that can be packed Occur as bent molecules, which prevents tight pack-
tightly, which increases the dispersion forces between ing of molecules. The effect of dispersion forces is
molecules, increasing melting and boiling points. lower than in straight chain molecules resulting in lower
melting and boiling points.
Susceptibility to Single C−C bonds are not susceptible to oxidation. Double bonds increase susceptibility to oxidation as
oxidation oxygen reacts across double bond (more likely to
become rancid)
612 ANSWERS
12 Metabolism of food in the 2. See figure at foot of the page.*
3. Dispersion forces with another non-polar group.
human body 4. Glycine is the only amino acid to have two hydrogen atoms
12.2 Metabolism of food attached to the central carbon because the R-group in
glycine is just a hydrogen atom.
12.2 Exercise 5. In the lock-and-key model the substrate fits perfectly into
1. So that they can be easily absorbed into the bloodstream. the shape of the active site. In the induced fit model active
2. a. Carbohydrates → (hydrolysis) → disaccharides → site changes shape to firmly bond to the substrate.
(hydrolysis) → monosaccharides → glucose → 6. a. Denaturation is a change in the structure or function of a
(condensation polymerisation/respiration) → glycogen/ protein due to disruptions of interactions in the
energy secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures, where the
b. Fats and oils → (hydrolysis) → glycerol and fatty acids → 𝛼-helix and 𝛽-sheets uncoil and change their shape. The
(condensation reaction) → triglycerides → stored energy primary structure is not affected.
c. Proteins → (hydrolysis) → amino acids → (condensation b. Denaturation can occur by the action of heat, pH
reaction) → proteins → growth and repair changes, radiation, presence of particular organic
3. a. Hydrolysis reactions are the chemical breakdown of a compounds, or heavy metal ions.
compound due to reaction with water. For example, 7. CH2 COO–
maltose is hydrolysed to two molecules of glucose.
b. Condensation reactions occur when two molecules
H2N CH COO–
combine to form a larger molecule with the elimination of
a small molecule, such as water. For example, two amino 8. The conditions in the stomach are acidic but in the
acids combining to form a dipeptide and water. small intestine they are alkaline.
4. a. Condensation 9. a. The optimum temperature is the temperature at which
b. Condensation an enzyme is most effective.
c. Hydrolysis b. Optimum temperature is 37 °C and optimum pH is 8.
d. Condensation 10. a. This minimizes random error and increases the accuracy
e. Hydrolysis of the results.
f. Hydrolysis b. The control experiment was the one carried out
g. Hydrolysis with water.
5. a. Glycerol and saturated fatty acids c. Amylose
b. Glucose d. pH, type of enzyme, concentration of enzyme, volume
c. Amino acids of solution and amount of iodine used.
d. Glucose e. Optimum temperature: 37 °C, (pH 6.7−7.0)
e. Glycerol and unsaturated fatty acids
Practice problem 1
f. Glucose
OH SH
12.3 Enzymes as protein catalysts H CH2 H CH2

O O
12.3 Exercise N C C N C C
1.
H H
H O H H O H
without enzyme serine cysteine
with enzyme 12.4 Denaturation and hydrolysis of proteins

12.4 Exercise
1. a. The secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of
proteins
b. The primary structure of proteins
2* active site
enzyme substrate enzyme-substrate enzyme products

complex
ANSWERS 613
2. a. See figure at foot of the page.* b. Starch is a condensation polymer of 𝛼-glucose, while
b. Cysteine, alanine, phenylalanine and valine cellulose is a condensation polymer of 𝛽-glucose. In
3. The primary structure consisting of chains of amino acids is starch, the 𝛼-glucose monomers link up regularly when
covalently bonded, and therefore is not disrupted when they polymerise, but in cellulose, alternate 𝛽-glucose
denaturation occurs. monomers are inverted when they link up. Starch
4. A peptide link is lost comprises two different polymers: amylose (linear
5. A carboxyl group and amino group are formed polymer chains) and amylopectin (branched polymer
6. Amino acids chains). Cellulose comprises only one type of
7. a. 4, Cys-Ala, Ala-Gly, Gly-Gly, Gly-Ala unbranched polymer chain that forms extensive
b. 3, Cys, Ala, Gly hydrogen bonds to other unbranched polymer chains.
c. 3, Cys-Ala, Ala-Gly, Gly-Gly 2. Humans do not have the enzymes to digest cellulose
d. 3, Cys-Ala-Gly, Ala-Gly-Gly, Gly-Gly-Ala whereas animals like cows have bacteria that do have the
e. Zero enzyme to digest cellulose.
8. When an egg is cooked the proteins in the ‘white’ part of the 3. See figure at foot of the page.*
egg are denatured by the heat. Different bonds are formed 4. a. Lactose is soluble in milk because milk has a high water
between the peptide chains and this is visible by the ‘white’ content and the lactose can readily form hydrogen bonds
going from transparent to opaque. with water molecules. Butter and cheese have a lower
water content and a higher fat content which make the
12.5 Carbohydrates polar lactose molecule less soluble.
b. C12 H22 O11 .
12.5 Exercise 5. a. A hydrolysis reaction.
1. a. Starch and cellulose are carbohydrates that have been b. Glucose and galactose.
formed by condensation polymerisation of glucose.
2a*
H 3C CH3
H O H O CH2 O CH
H O
N C C N C C N C C N C C + 3 O
H OH H H
CH2SH H CH3 H H H H
H 3C CH3
H O H O CH2 O CH
H O
Enzymes
N C C OH + H N C C OH + H N C C OH + H N C C
H OH
CH2SH H CH3 H H H H
3* CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

H O H H O H H O H H O H
H H Maltase H H
+ H H +
OH H OH H OH H OH H
HO O OH O HO OH HO OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH
Maltose Water Glucose Glucose

H O H O H H O H O H
H Sucrase H
+ H H +
OH H H HO OH H H HO
HO O CH2OH O HO OH HO CH2OH
H OH OH H H OH OH H
Sucrose Water Glucose Fructose
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

H O OH HO O OH H O OH
H Lactase H H
CH2OH + H H +
OH H OH H OH H
OH O O H O H H HO H
H
OH H H OH H OH H OH
Water Galactose Glucose
H H
H OH Lactose
614 ANSWERS
6. Some people do not have the enzyme lactase to breakdown 12.7 Coenzymes
milk so the lactose passes into the large intestine where
bacteria breakdown the lactose into small carboxylic acids
12.7 Exercise
and gases, which cause the unpleasant symptoms. 1. Coenzymes are small, organic, non-protein molecules that
7. The glycaemic index (GI) is used to indicate how quickly are required to temporarily and loosely bind with the active
carbohydrates influence glucose levels in the blood. The GI site in the enzyme to accommodate the substrate so that it fits
is determined by giving a group of people a particular mass into the site.
of carbohydrate (usually 50 g) and measuring their glucose 2. Coenzymes can make the active site a better fit for a
levels over three hours. These readings are then compared particular substrate. They can also act as carriers of
with eating pure glucose. The highest value is 100 for electrons, atoms or small groups of atoms from one substrate
glucose. to another.
8. Low GI foods help to prevent diabetes and also make 3. Coenzymes are changed in particular reactions but
people feel full for longer, which assists in limiting weight regenerated in other reactions.
gain. 4. Vitamins
9. Glucose is readily and directly broken down in respiration 5. NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine nucleotide) and coenzyme A.
to provide energy; it does not need to be converted into 6. Enzymes are large complex protein molecules; coenzymes
other substances. are smaller organic compounds that are not proteins.
10. 90 mg in 100 mL (1 dL) 7. NADH is a reducing agent because it is oxidised and loses
electrons.
12.5 Fats and oils 8. Coenzymes can transfer electrons, alkyl groups and acetyl
groups.
12.5 Exercise
1. a. C3 H8 O3
12.8 Review
CH2 (OH)CH(OH)CH2 OH 12.8 Exercises
OH
HO OH
b. It is a triol. 1. D.
2. a. See figure at foot of the page.* 2. C.
b. Ester (−COO−), hydroxyl (−OH) and carboxyl 3. B.
(−COOH). 4. D.
3. Oxidative rancidity is the deterioration of lipids by reaction 5. D.
with atmospheric oxygen. 6. C.
4. Oxygen from the air readily reacts across the reactive double 7. B.
bonds present in unsaturated fats, making them more 8. A.
susceptible to rancidity. 9. B.
5. Aldehydes −CHO, ketones −CO− and carboxylic acids 10. A.
(carboxyl group) −COOH 11. C.
6. Antioxidants are reducing agents and are therefore 12. D.
preferentially oxidised. A natural antioxidant is vitamin C 13. B.
(ascorbic acid); synthetic antioxidants include butylated 14. D.
hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) 15. C.
and propyl gallate. 16. C.
+ − 17. B.
7. a. C6 H8 O6 (aq) → C6 H6 O6 (aq) + 2H (aq) + 2e
b. This is an oxidation reaction because there is a loss of 18. B.
electrons and increase in oxidation number. 19. D.
c. Two hydroxyl groups are oxidised to two carbonyl groups. 20. A.
8. The presence of light and heat will increase the likelihood
that the oil will become rancid. 12.8 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
9. Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. 1. Enzymes and inorganic catalysts both increase the rate of a
reaction. However, enzymes can speed reactions to a much
greater degree than inorganic catalysts. Enzymes operate
2a* O O
CH2 O C (CH2)14CH3 CH2 OH HO C (CH2)14CH3

O O
3H2O
CH O C (CH2)14CH3 CH OH + HO C (CH2)14CH3
O O
CH2 O C (CH2)14CH3 CH2 OH HO C (CH2)14CH3

tripalmitin glycerol palmitic acid
ANSWERS 615
under much milder conditions. Enzymes operate within b. The acid disrupts the bonds in the secondary and tertiary
narrower temperature and pH ranges. Enzymes are much structures but not the strong covalent peptide bonds in
more selective than inorganic catalysts as each enzyme the primary structure. New bonds form between the
catalyses a particular type of reaction, so there are many unwound chains of the protein. This formation of a new
different enyzmes within our bodies. Inorganic catalysts structure is called coagulation.
can increase the rate of many different reactions. 8. a. Digestive enzymes are proteins. It is important to wash
2. a. at normal room temperatures so the proteins are not
CH2
denatured.
b. Digestive enzymes are used to remove biological stains
+
H3N CH COOH containing starches, lipids or proteins from clothes.
b. c. The specific shape of the enzyme allows the bonding of
CH2
the substrate (biological molecule) to the active site and
–
decreases the activation energy by providing an
H2N CH COO alternative pathway for the hydrolysis of starches, lipids
c. and proteins. The resulting sugars, fatty acids, glycerol
CH2
and amino acids are removed during the rest of the
+ – washing process.
H3N CH COO 9. If hot water is used to remove the blood, it can cause the
3. a. An enzyme is a biological catalyst. It is a complex blood protein to denature and coagulate. In this process, the
protein that increases the rate of a chemical reaction protein molecules bind to the fibres of the material, making
without being changed. them harder to remove.
b. Each enzyme is specific and catalyses a particular 10. a. Pineapple contains an enzyme called bromelain.
reaction. It interacts with a substance called the Enzymes and acids from fruits such as pineapples can
substrate. denature muscle and connective proteins in meat so that
c. Enzymes each have a unique three-dimensional shape it is more tender.
that is determined by the nature of the bonding and side b. The enzyme is denatured when the can is heated during
chains in the protein. The reactant molecule (substrate) the canning process.
fits into a region in this shape that is called the active site. 11. pH, temperature, volume of solutions, concentration of
d. A coenzyme is a non-protein compound that may be enzyme, concentration of substrate.
necessary for the effective functioning of an enzyme. 12. C8 H15 O5 N3 (s) + 2H2 O(l) → C2 H5 O2 N(s) + C3 H7 O2 N(s)
4. a. An enzyme is said to fit together with a substrate like a + C3 H7 O3 N(s)
lock and key. The substrate fits perfectly into the shape 13. Amylose and amylopectin both consist of chains of
produced by the relevant enzyme. 𝛼-glucose monomers. Amylose has a linear structure with
b. See figure at foot of the page.* tightly wound coils bound by hydrogen bonding and is
5. Denaturation is an alteration of a protein’s shape that makes insoluble. Amylopectin is a branched, loosely-arranged
the protein unable to carry out its usual function. polymer and is soluble. Amylose changes the colour of
6. By heat, a change in pH, a change in salt concentration or iodine to blue-black but amylopectin produces a reddish
the presence of heavy metals. colour.
7. a. The acid build-up via the production of lactic acid 14. GI is a measure of how a carbohydrate affects blood
causes disruptions in the hydrogen bonding due to the glucose levels. The more amylose that is present, the slower
increase in H+ ions in the milk from the acid. These the rate of digestion and the lower the GI. Food B would
disruptions cause the milk protein caseinogen to have the higher GI value because it has more amylopectin,
denature. The proteins denature by unfolding and which is more easily digested.
interacting with each other, clumping together. The 15. Lactose intolerance arises because an individual does not
presence of these lumps is called curdling. have enough of the lactase enzyme to break down the
4b* catalyst
A+B C+D
Reactant Reactant molecules Two product
molecules combine molecules
A C
B D
enzyme active site Enzyme combines Enzyme

molecule (indentations) with reactants unchanged
for a short time by the reaction
substrate (A and B)
616 ANSWERS
lactose in milk. This means that the lactose continues into d. This is a different reaction with a different substrate so
the large intestine where bacteria breaks it down into small another enzyme, with an active site specific to the new
carboxylic acids and gases, which can cause the symptoms substrate, is used to accommodate this new substrate.
described. Lactose intolerance increases from childhood. 4. a. Fats and oils are insoluble in water so they must be
People of Asian, African, South American, southern emulsified by bile. Bile breaks up the fat globules into
European and Australian Aboriginal heritage are more smaller droplets with greater surface area. The lipase can
likely to become lactose intolerant than people of northern react with the small droplets to break down the fat.
European descent. b. Glycerol, fatty acids and monoglycerides
16. Cellulose is a polymer of 𝛽-glucose with alternate c. Lipase increases the rate of hydrolysis of the oils and fats.
molecules inverted. Extensive hydrogen bonding holds the d. At high temperatures, the lipase is denatured and becomes
chains together, making cellulose insoluble. It is ineffective because its structure is destroyed.
indigestible by humans because humans lack the necessary e. The tertiary structure of a protein gives the shape of its
enzyme to break the structure down. It is described as fibre active site.
and is necessary to the human diet because it contributes to f. Co-lipase acts as a coenzyme. It binds with the active site
digestion by helping to push food through the digestive of the enzyme to ensure the correct conformation of the
system. enzyme to accept the substrate.
17. See figure at foot of the page.* 5. The central carbon atom in alanine is chiral. It has four
18. Fatty acids can be saturated (have only C−C bonds), different atoms or groups of atoms bonded to it. This allows
monounsaturated (have one C=C bond) or polyunsaturated it to have non-superimposable mirror images and it is
(have more than one C=C bonds). The double bond in therefore an enantiomer.
unsaturated fats make these fats more susceptible to
oxidation than saturated fats because oxygen in the air 13 Energy content of food
reacts across the double bond.
19. a. Rancidity is the natural process of decomposition of fats
13.2 Energy values of carbohydrates,
or oils by either hydrolysis or oxidation or both. This proteins and fats and oils
process of degradation often gives rise to an unpleasant 13.2 Exercise
odour and taste in foods, making them either unpalatable
1. Digestion, maintaining the heartbeat, breathing, nervous
or unhealthy to ingest.
b. Compounds that limit oxidative rancidity in foods are
system, movement, heat generation and maintaining
called antioxidants. constant body conditions
c. Antioxidants limit rancidity in foods because they slow
2. 82.2 kJ
down oxidation and prevent (or limit) food from 3. 1.9 × 103 kJ
spoiling. They can do this because they are relatively 4. Saturated fats are mostly made up of saturated fatty
strong reducing agents that are preferentially oxidised. acids, which have single carbon to carbon bonds, for
Vitamin E is an antioxidant, so it prevents canola oil example: lauric, myristic or palmitic acids.
from becoming rancid. 5. Cellulose
d. Other methods of limiting oxidation in foods include 6. Monosaccharides (e.g. glucose) and disaccharides
vacuum packaging, storage in a nitrogen atmosphere, (e.g. maltose)
cold storage, storage in opaque/dark containers or 7. a. Yes
storage in a dark cupboard. b. Protein : 409.7 kJ
20. Enzymes are organic protein molecules while coenzymes Fat : 1102.6 kJ
are organic non-protein molecules. Enzymes act as catalysts Carbohydrate : 457.6 kJ
while coenzymes assist some enzymes to act as catalysts. Total energy : 2.0 × 103 kJ
The berry bar has slightly more energy than the nut
12.8 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions bar.
1. B. 8. a. Butter or margarine
2. A. b. Water
+
3. a. CH3 CH2 OH → CH3 CHO + 2H + 2e– 9. a. Monounsaturated refers to the fact that it has one
+ +
b. NAD + H + 2e– → NADH carbon to carbon double bond.
+
c. CH3 CHO + H2 O → CH3 COOH + 2H + 2e– b. The oleic acid in olive oil contains a double bond
which causes a bend in the fatty acid chains. This
17*
H O O
H
H C O C (CH2)11CH3 HO C (CH2)11CH3
O H C OH O
H C O C (CH2)13CH3 + 3 O H C OH + HO C (CH2)13CH3
O O
H H
H C OH
H C O C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3 HO C (CH2)7CH CH(CH2)7CH3
H
H
ANSWERS 617
prevents the molecules getting very close together, 13.4 Principles of calorimetry
resulting in weaker intermolecular dispersion forces
allowing more movement of molecules and forming a 13.4 Exercise
2
liquid. 1. 3.13 × 10 kJ
c. 2C18 H34 O2 (l) + 51O2 (g) → 36CO2 (g) + 34H2 O(l) 2. a. 21 kJ g
−1
10. 63 minutes b. To prevent heat escape and improve the accuracy of the
experiment, use a metal shield to help contain the heat
13.3 Energy values of carbohydrates, and direct it to the water.
proteins and fats and oils c. A biscuit is a mixture and so will not have molar mass.
The appropriate units are grams.
13.3 Exercise
3. a. Calorimetry is a method used to determine the changes
1. a. Glucose, C6 H12 O6 in energy of a system by measuring heat exchanges
b. In the liver and muscles with the surroundings.
c. Glycogen b. When carrying out a reaction in a calorimeter not all of
2. Brain the heat produced goes into the water due to imperfect
3. 15.9 kJ insulation or absorbance by parts of the calorimeter.
4. Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide via an By calibrating the instrument these factors are taken
oxidation reaction, which is exothermic. into account and allows the relationship of temperature
5. Monosaccharides contain hydroxyl (−OH) and glycosidic to heat to be more accurately calculated.
(−O−) functional groups. c. There would be no difference to the calculations
6. H H
because 1 °C is the same as 1K and it is the difference
O
of two temperatures being used.
H C C O carboxyl d. If 50.0 mL was used in a calibration instead of
100.0 mL the change in temperature of the water
H O O H
would be greater. The calibration factor would be
H lower (this can be determined by using the equation:
hydroxyl
VIt
7. The cramps could be due to the build-up of lactic acid calibration factor = .
because there is a limited supply of oxygen resulting in ∆Tc
anaerobic respiration. The reaction for the breakdown of 4. ∆Tr = 0.492 °C
glucose in the absence of oxygen produces lactic acid. 5. a. Sample answer: The student would use an electric
C6 H12 O6 (aq) → 2CH3 CH(OH)COOH(aq) heater, connected into an electric circuit, to pass a
8. a. C6 H12 O6 (aq) → 2CH3 CH2 OH(aq) + 2CO2 (g) known quantity of energy through 100.0 mL of water
b. Fermentation in the same calorimeter used for the experiment. Then,
c. The carbon dioxide produced causes bubbles in dough, by calculating the change in temperature of the water
which helps the bread to rise. in the calorimeter, the calibration factor (CF) can be
VIt
calculated from the relationship CF = where
Practice problem 1 ∆T
∆T = change in temperature of the 100 mL of water.
Energy going into the water: −1
b. ∆H = −54.9 kJ mol
q = 8.15 kJ
c. A higher concentration of base than acid was used to
Energy per gram:
ensure that all of the acid had reacted.
7.54 kJ g−1
d. There would be no change because the amount in
moles of the limiting reactant did not change.
Practice problem 2 e. Random errors might involve measurement of the
Calibration factor = 332 J °C−1 solution volume and temperature, and not stirring the
reaction mixture during the reaction. Random errors
Practice problem 3 can be minimised by repeating experiments. Another
error is heat losses due to insufficient insulation.
∆H = +2.80 kJ mol−1 6. a. Bomb calorimeters are used for reactions involving
combustion reactions (which produce gases); solution
Practice problem 4 calorimeters are used for reactions that take place in
∆H = −37.9 kJ mol−1 solution, such as dissolution or neutralisation.
b. Bomb calorimeters have a pressurised container for the
reaction to take place, an oxygen supply and an
Practice problem 5 ignition source. The bomb calorimeter is designed for
Energy per gram = 8.93 kJ g−1 reactions involving gases and requires a tightly sealed
container.
3 −1
Practice problem 6 7. a. 1.18 × 10 J °C
3 −1
b. 3.0 × 10 J g .
CF = 7.40 kJ °C−1
618 ANSWERS
c. The reaction involves gases as reactants and/or 13.5 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions
products. All reactants and products must be contained 1. a. 15 g fat
to determine the overall energy transfers in the b. Energy in 15 g of fat = 5.6 × 102 kJ
reaction. Therefore, a bomb calorimeter is required. c. Mass of protein = 40.9 g
d. Cereal is a mixture and consequently does not have a
d. Remaining mass = 44 g
molar mass, so grams are the appropriate unit to use. which is probably mainly water.
13.5 Review 2. a. CH3 (CH2 )14 COOH + 23O2 → 16CO2 + 16H2 O
b. Palmitic acid is saturated because all of the carbon to
13.5 Exercises carbon bonds are single.
2
13.5 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions c. 7.80 × 10 kJ
d. 2.39 g
1. D.
2. A. 3. 10 kJ g−1
3. D. 4. 39.9 kJ g−1
3 −1
4. A. 5. a. 5.4 × 10 J g
5. D. b. There would be random errors associated with
6. D. uncertainty in the measurement of the current, voltage,
7. C. time and temperature for the calibration. There would
8. D. also be random errors with the measurement of the
9. C. mass and temperature in the combustion process. The
10. B. consequence of random error is to obtain a result that
can vary either above or below the expected result. The
13.5 Exercise 2: Short answer questions effects of random error can be minimised by repeating
measurements. Other factors are incomplete reaction
1. Carbohydrate = 272 kJ
and insulation issues.
Protein = 119 kJ
Fat = 333 kJ
Total = 7.24 × 102 kJ 14 Practical investigation
2. 9.4 × 102 kJ. 14.2 Key science skills in chemistry
3. Oxidation reactions
4. Both produce energy from oxidation reactions and Practice problem 1
produce CO2 and H2 O. Both can be stored. To write a research question, the IV and DV first should be
Carbohydrates produce energy more quickly and use determined. The IV is the type of clothing and the DV is the
less oxygen; fats take longer and use more oxygen. speed in which Jill rolls down the hill.
5. ∆H = −140 kJ Research question: A research question needs to be testable
6. CH3 (CH2 )10 COOH + 17O2 → 12CO2 + 12H2 O and clearly outlines what is occurring in the investigation.
7. Slightly less than 2 × 2816 = 5632 kJ mol−1 Aim: An aim must clearly link the relationship between the
≈ 5600 kJ mol−1 . IV and DV.
8. From 10 minutes the lactic acid starts to increase as the Hypothesis: A hypothesis predicts the relationship between
lungs and heart are not delivering enough oxygen to the the IV and DV. It is often written in the form ‘If [statement
muscles. From 18 minutes the lactic acid concentration involving independent variable], then [statement involving
starts to decrease as the athlete replaces the oxygen so dependent variable].’
that aerobic respiration can begin to take place. It takes Sample responses can be found in your digital formats.
about 27 minutes to get back to the starting level of
lactic acid. 14.2 Exercise
9. 587 J °C−1 1. In order to be a testable question, it must link the
−1 independent and dependent variable and be able to
10. 306 kJ °C
11. a. 176 J ° C
−1 investigate through scientific method and be practicable.
−1 2. A logbook is important because it shows evidence of each
b. −7.26 kJ mol
c. The calorimeter was poorly insulated resulting in
step of an investigation, allowing work to be validated as
considerable heat loss in both the calibration stage your own.
3. The dependent variable is measured by the investigator
and the actual reaction.
d. The assumption in this experiment is that the reaction and is influenced by the independent variable. The
has gone to completion. independent variable is manipulated and changed by the
12. a. 17.3 kJ g−1 investigator.
4. To make sure that the dependent variables measured are
b. The biscuit is a mixture (not a pure substance) and
consequently does not have a molar mass. Grams is only influenced by the independent variable and not
the appropriate unit. unfairly influenced by other factors.
c. The energy obtained is less than the experimentally
determined value because not all of the food that is
ingested is completely digested and so not all of the
energy will be absorbed.
ANSWERS 619
5. a. The independent variable is the changing temperature. 14.4 Exercise
The dependent variable is the rate of combustion. 1. Reliability is linked with the repeatability of an
b. Controlled variables included the type of fuel used and investigation and whether or not someone could follow
likely included factors such as the measuring your protocol and get similar results. However, validity is
equipment used. more about the credibility of data and if it shows what it
c. The investigation is not controlling the concentration was intended to.
of the fuel at different temperatures, so it would be 2. Yes, an experiment needs to be replicated in order to be
impossible to tell if results were from increasing the seen as reliable.
temperature or the concentration. Concentration should 3. Results would not be considered reliable if repetitions of
be controlled and kept consistent across all three tests. an investigation lead to vastly different answers.
6. a. Type of bread 4. Findings are said to be valid when variables have been
b. Change of temperature controlled, the results address the hypothesis and the
c. Some examples of controlled variables the size of purpose of the investigation and bias has not been used to
bread, the mass of the bread, the age of the bread, the manipulate or alter results.
amount of water in the test tube, and the thermometer 5. Some examples of procedures that could have an impact
used to record the temperature. of the internal validity of results include:
7. B.
8. B, A, E, F, C, D
• Not correctly testing the variable outlined in the
hypothesis
9. a. Sample answer: If alkanes have a higher boiling point
than alkenes then heating an alkane and alkene with
• Misinterpreting measurements
6. Reliability can be affected by the validity of an
the same number of carbons would show that the experiment. An experiment might be invalid because the
alkene became a gas at a lower temperature. technique used did not control variables properly. It
b. B.
would also not be considered reliable if others achieved a
very different set of results due to other factors
14.3 Concepts specific to an investigation influencing the dependent variable.
Practice problem 2 7. Precision is a measure of how close various
measurements are to each other. Accuracy is how close to
a. 1.496 × 108
the expected and known quantity a result is. Sample
b. 2.8 × 10-8
responses can be found in your digital formats.
c. 9.0 × 108 or 9 ×108
8. A strength of quantitative data is it provides a clearer
understanding of trends and patterns in results. A
14.3 Exercise weakness is that it can be harder and more
1. Key terms can be defined either within a report or in a time-consuming to collect.
glossary. Sample responses can be found in your digital A strength of qualitative data is that it is often easy and
formats. quick to collect. A weakness is that it can be subjective
2. Representations are useful in scientific reporting because (i.e. one person might class a colour as blue, and another
they allow us to show complex and abstract concepts in might state it is purple).
an easy-to-understand form, enhancing the clarity in
scientific communication. 14.5 Ethics, health and safety
3. a. 6.67 × 10-4
b. 1.5 × 10-14
14.5 Exercise
-1
c. 9.0 × 105 or 9 × 105 1. a. Sample answer: 0.5 mol L of sodium hydroxide can
4. a. 0.0006524 cause serious eye and skin irritation. Appropriate
b. 512 340 safety precautions would be wearing gloves, glasses
c. 15.4 and lab coats during use, and immediately rinsing off
d. 0.01201 with running water if it comes into contact with eyes or
e. 450 skin.
f. 0.000002457 b. Sample answer: Beakers, being made of glass, can
g. 0.00009024 break or chip, leading to possible cuts or lacerations.
Appropriate precautions include immediately reporting
14.4 Scientific research methodologies and sweeping up broken glass (do not pick it up with
your hands), and discarding any damaged beakers
Practice problem 3 because these are more prone to breaking.
a. Student 1 c. Sample answer: Methane is extremely flammable.
b. Student 1 Appropriate safety precautions would be not using
c. The student with the most precise data was student 2, and ignition sources near methane and only producing
the student with the most accurate data was also student 2. methane in small quantities.
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. d. Sample answer: Bunsen burners are sources of
ignition. The blue roaring flame is extremely hot and
difficult to see, and can lead to burns. Damage to the
bases, jet and tubes can cause flames and increased
620 ANSWERS
temperatures, which may also lead to burns. Safety 4. The following line graph would be an appropriate choice.
precautions including avoiding touching the bunsen
burner while hot, especially while on the roaring Volume of ice cube recorded every 5 minutes It
flame, and tying back any loose clothing or long hair 35
before use.
Volume of ice cube (cm3)

2. Sample answer: Ethics may be important when 30
confidentiality or personal beliefs are involved. Sample
responses can be found in your digital formats. 25
3. Sample answer:
20
• Identifying hazards with equipment or chemicals
• Suggesting standard handling procedures 15
• Outlining the correct disposal of chemicals
• Outlining any first aid that might be required 10
• Providing information for the practical, including
the location, time and date. 5
4. Sample answer: chemicals produced in an experiment
0
(not just those used), further information about allergies,
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
contacts to emergency hotlines, and clear information
Time (mins)
about how many students will be in each group and at can be seen that as time passes, the volume of the ice cube
each bench. decreases. On average, it decreases by approximately
5. Answers will vary between schools and different 4 cm3 per minute, except between 10 and 15 minutes,
laboratories. when the rate of size reduction is slower, and between 0
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats. to 5 minutes, when the rate of size reduction is slightly
6. Students should wear safety glasses to prevent the faster. This may be due to minor changes in room
chemical from reaching their eyes, and gloves and lab temperature, a different surface temperature or the surface
coats to avoid exposure to skin. It should be kept away area of the ice cube.
from any ignition sources and used in either a fume hood 5. An outlier should be mentioned and discussed, with an
or a well-ventilated area. outline of possible reasons for its occurrence. However, it
is usually excluded when calculating averages or trying to
14.6 Methods of organising, analysing and add a line of best fit.
evaluating primary data 6. 11.42 mL or 11.43 mL
7. A burette reading is taken from the top down. This
Practice problem 4 reading should be 7.32 mL.
a. 0.12 ± 0.005 g 8. a. 9.6 ± 0.25 cm
b. 0.195 ± 0.0005 g b. 8.5 ± 0.125 cm
c. 11.9 ± 0.05 cm
14.6 Exercise 9. a. Measuring cylinder
b. Volumetric flask
1. A random error is chance variation in measurements and
c. Conical flask
usually affects the precision of data. They can be
improved by repeating an experiment. A systematic error
usually affects the accuracy of an experiment, and is often
14.7 Models and theories to understand
due to equipment errors. This means they cannot be observed phenomena
improved by repeating the experiment using the same 14.7 Exercise
equipment.
1. Models can be useful because they:
Sample responses can be found in your digital formats
2. Taking multiple results and averaging them out or by
•Allow us to visualise objects and concepts we can’t
see (i.e. atoms)
using more precise equipment (i.e. if measuring 3 mL, use
a measuring cylinder with marks every 1 mL, not a beaker • Make abstract concepts tangible
with marks every 10 mL). • Provide explanatory frameworks for a variety of
chemical concepts, allowing for more in-depth
3. a. A bar graph would be most appropriate, because one
concepts to be explored.
variable is qualitative (household liquid) and the other
2. Some limitations of models include:
is quantitative (pH).
b. A line graph would be most appropriate because both
• An oversimplification of complex situations,
because models cannot show every detail
variables (pH and temperature) are quantitative and a
line graph would allow for trends to be seen. However, • A misrepresentation of the concept in the real world
when conditions are not as carefully controlled
a scatterplot with a line of best fit might also be
appropriate. • The ever-changing nature of models and research
means that models aren’t definite.
c. A line graph would be most appropriate because a
3. A model is a representation of a phenomena, whereas a
variable (temperature) is being observed over time.
theory is a well-supported explanation of a phenomena.
d. A histogram would be most appropriate because
Often, we can use a model to represent a theory.
frequency and intervals are being used.
ANSWERS 621
4. Theories allow us to understand phenomena because they 4. In-text: (Taylor, Stubbs and Stokes, 2020)
are based on investigations and observations, and provide Reference list: Taylor, N, Stubbs A., Stokes, R. (2020)
us with a structured idea that can be applied to different Jacaranda Chemistry 2 VCE Units 3 & 4. 2nd edition.
concepts. Sample responses can be found in your digital Milton: John Wiley & Sons.
formats. 5. a. 4 significant figures.
b. 3 significant figures.
14.8 Nature of evidence and key findings of c. 4 significant figures.
investigations d. 3 significant figures.
6. a. 13
14.8 Exercise b. 3.7
1. A hypothesis is supported based on the evidence we have c. 76.3
at the time and how this is interpreted. However, the d. 0.6
nature of evidence is that as new knowledge becomes e. 227
available, the evidence we obtain can change. Therefore, f. 68.82
we cannot definitively prove a hypothesis, but rather 7. a. 53 g/mL.
support it with what we have at that point in time. b. 34.8 g.
2. Three examples of strong evidence include quantitative c. 2.9 mol.
data that was obtained when investigating a single d. 110 g
variable, data that was not influenced by bias, and data
that has been obtained through a reliable method and 14.10 Review
repeated and obtained by other investigators.
3. Key findings communicated in your discussion should
14.10 Exercises
include information about trends and patterns in your 14.10 Exercise 1: Multiple choice questions
data, the relationship to chemical concepts and theory,
1. B.
and a clear answer to the question of your investigation.
2. B.
4. It is important to link your results to chemical concepts to
3. C.
demonstrate how it is being used to show and support
4. A.
theory and phenomena. It gives an investigation more
5. D.
validity.
6. B.
14.9 Conventions of scientific report writing 7. D.
and scientific poster presentation 8. A.
9. D.
Practice problem 5 10. C.
a. 738300 nmol
b. 0.08233 km 14.10 Exercise 2: Short answer questions
Practice problem 6 1. a. Quantitative data includes the energy content and the
temperature change of water when burning the food
0.28943 mol
type
b. You could measure this using a thermometer or a
14.9 Exercise calorimeter (solution or bomb)
1. a.0.14 L c. Qualitative data includes qualities around the food
b.670 g — for example colour. You could observe if burning
c.0.762 184 m the food lead to water boiling and the extent of this
2. a.1670 000 (rather than recording the temperature)
b.0.198 mmol d. You could use visual observations to record this
3. a.The introduction is used to summarise key background qualitative data.
concepts, explain any other research that has been done 2. a. Independent variables are manipulated by the
in this field, outline key terms, explain the purpose of investigator. Dependent variables are measured and are
your investigation and why you choose the question, the result of changes to the independent variable
and outline the hypothesis being explored. b. Models are representations of ideas, phenomena and
b. The discussion is used to outline any trends and processes, whereas a theory is an explanation of a
patterns in your data, describe any outliers and how phenomena. Often models can be used to represent
they were treated, evaluate your results and link them theories.
to theory, discuss any errors, uncertainties and c. Systematic errors are those that affect the accuracy of a
limitations, describe the precision, accuracy, reliability measurement, that cannot be improved by repeating an
and validity of your investigation, and suggest experiment. They are usually due to equipment or
improvements and future investigations. system errors. Random errors are chance variations in
c. The conclusion acts to sum up your investigation, measurements that affect the precision of results, but
provide a clear answer to your question and link back can be improved by repeated experiments.
to your aim and your hypothesis.
622 ANSWERS
d. Primary sources of data are from the initial source of d. Measuring cylinder and scales
data collection, often through direct investigation. Factors that may affect accuracy include, calibration,
Secondary data is a summary of analysed primary data. tolerance and student capability.
e. Uncertainty is around the limit to the precision of a e. Responses will vary. Sample responses can be found in
piece of equipment (i.e. is a measurement on a ruler your digital formats.
0.011, 0.012 cm). Error is factors affecting the 2. a. Sample answer: To examine how the volume of a gas
accuracy of the experiment and how close results are to is impacted by changing pressure.
their true value. b. The hypothesis must clearly link the IV and DV, and
3. a. 6 significant figures must be tentative and testable.
b. 8.12010 × 102 °C c. Sample answer:
4. a. 12.5%;interpolation Qualitative data: seeing if the pressure causes the
b. 14.1%:extrapolation volume to increase or decrease.
c. It would be difficult to give a reliable estimate of the Quantitative data may include recorded volume of the
ethanol level. gas.
d. Sample answer: As the ethanol concentration d. Sample response: Factors that may lead to different
increases, the peak area increases in a linear pattern results by students include:
when using gas chromatography. A calibration curve • Different interpretation of the volume
allows for the ethanol concentration of an alcoholic • Different conditions under which the experiment
beverage to be determined based on the peak area is conducted — some might be looking at the
measured in the readings. practical in warmer conditions compared to
5. a. The graph should have a clear heading, scale and others
labelled axis Sample responses can be found in your • Different methods of changing the pressure
digital formats. applied to the volume
b. There is an initial steady increase of the temperature • Different types of gases (or purity of gases) being
over the first 180 seconds. This levels off between 180 used.
and 210 seconds, in which it then begins to slowly e. Sample response available in your digital formats.
decrease. 3. a. See figure at foot of the page.*
c. The conclusion would be that temperature increases b. Some trends shown in the data include:
over a period of time before it decreases. • A negative correlation/downwards trend, the time
for hydrogen bubbles to appear decreases as the
14.10 Exercise 3: Exam practice questions concentration of HCl increases
1. a. Vicki has not taken enough safety precautions — she • As the concentration of HCl increases, the graph
only was only wearing gloves. She should be wearing levels off, and the time drop for bubbles to appear
suitable protective clothing including a lab coat and is not as prominent
safety glasses, and ensure long hair is tied back. • On average, the time for bubbles to –1appear drops
b. The mass of the balloon and flask around 2 seconds for every 1 mol L increase in
c. Sample answer: the concentration
• Amount of calcium carbonate powder c. The smooth line joining the points is a much more
• Type of balloon accurate representation of the data, as it shows that the
• Amount of hydrochloric acid relationship is not quite linear, as the rate of the time
• Same batch of calcium carbonate drop decreases as concentration increases — there is
• Same scales used for measurements not a perfect correlation between the two
The effect on concentration on the time of

3a* hydrogen production
12
Time for hydrogen bubbles
10
to appear (sec)
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Concentration of HCI (mol L–1)
ANSWERS 623
4. a. An error that may have occurred includes: c. 0.25 °C. This means that there is a level of uncertainty
• Faulty thermometer and scales— (systematic with the data and the results obtained by each
error): make sure all thermometers and scales individual) are not as accurate as they could be
have been calibrated or test the temperature and d. Sample answers:
mass using three different thermometers and get • The inability to exactly interpret boiling point (as
an average. it is a subjective)
• Incorrectly recorded measurements (random • The inability to completely control room
error): Repeat the experiment multiple times and temperature
take an average or get another student to check • The lack of accuracy in the recorded results (due
the measurement to the thermometer used)
Sample response available in your digital formats. • The lack of repetition in the method
b. 10.7 kJ g−1 • The starting temperature were not consistent
c. The known energy content of carbohydrates in 16 kJ e. Bar graph with the type of molecule on the horizontal
g-1 . Accuracy requires data to be closest to the known axis and the boiling point on the vertical axis. This is
value. Joe’s data had a maximum deviation of 5.9 kJ the best choice as one variable is qualitative and the
g-1 from the actual value, whereas Robert had a other is quantitative.
maximum deviation of 6.1 kJ g-1 . Therefore Joe is f. Sample conclusion:
more accurate than Robert. It was found that propanoic acid had the highest
d. 14 000 J g−1 (or 1.4 × 104 J) recorded boiling point, however the exact value for this
5. a. The student provided a tentative explanation in their could not be determined as it was above 100 °C. The
hypothesis. highest boiling points that followed were that of
Sample response available in your digital formats. propan-1-ol, propan-2-ol, propanone and lastly
b. It does not provide accurate results in regards to the propanal. The hypothesis was supported, as propanoic
liquids that boil above 100 °C such as propanoic acid. acid did have the highest boiling point.
This means that the results for this cannot be
determined, as it may be 100.1 °C or 150.1 °C.
624 ANSWERS
GLOSSARY
absolute zero the lowest temperature that is theoretically possible; 0 K
absorbed taken into another substance
aquifer underground rock layers that contain water; this groundwater can be extracted using a well
abundance the relative amount of a substance
accuracy how close an experimental measurement is to a known value
acid rain rain that has a pH lower than 5
active site a region on an enzyme that binds to a reactant molecule (substrate) during a reaction
addition reactions reactions in which one molecule bonds covalently with another molecule without losing
any other atoms
adipose a form of fatty tissue used to store energy
adsorption the adhesion of atoms, ions or molecules from a gas, liquid or dissolved solid to a surface
aim a statement outlining the purpose of an investigation, linking the dependent and independent variables
alcohols organic hydroxyl compounds containing the −OH group
aliphatic describes organic compounds in which carbon atoms form open chains
aliquot the liquid from a pipette
alkaline fuel cell (AFC) fuel cell that converts oxygen (from the air) and hydrogen (from a supply) into
electrical energy and heat
alkanols alcohols containing only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
alkenes the family of hydrocarbons that contain one carbon–carbon double bond
alkyl groups hydrocarbon branches joined to the parent hydrocarbon chain (e.g. CH3 (methyl) CH2 CH3
(ethyl))
alkynes the family of hydrocarbons with one carbon–carbon triple bond
allotropes different physical forms in which an element can exist
amide link formed when a carboxyl group reacts with an amino group in a polymerisation reaction
amino acids molecules that contain an amine and a carboxyl group
amphoteric describes amino acids that can behave as both acids and bases
amylopectin consists of 300–5000 𝛼-glucose units; combines with amylose to form starch
amylose consists of 50–300 𝛼-glucose units in a continuous chain formed from C1–C4 linkages only;
combines with amylopectin to form starch
anaerobic respiration breakdown of glucose in the absence of oxygen
analytes the components of a sample
anode the electrode at which oxidation occurs. In a galvanic cell, it is the negative electrode, because it is
the source of negative electrons for the circuit. If the reducing agent is a metal, it is used as the electrode
material.
antioxidants a substance that slows oxidation
arenes aromatic, benzene-based hydrocarbons
aromatic describes a compound that contains at least one benzene ring and is characterised by the presence
of alternating double bonds within the ring
aspartame a common artificial sweetener
atom economy measurement of the efficiency of a reaction that considers the amount of waste produced by
calculating the percentage of the molar mass of the desired product compared to the molar mass of all
reactants
𝛼-helices hydrogen bonds are formed between an oxygen atom of a C=O bond and a hydrogen atom of a
N−H bond that is four amino acids away on the same chain
GLOSSARY 625
𝛽-pleated sheets two sections of the peptide chain line up and are held together in a sheet-like structure by
hydrogen bonds between one oxygen atom of a C=O bond and a hydrogen atom of a N−H bond in the
parallel or anti-parallel sheet
backbone a peptide chain of covalently bonded nitrogen and carbon atoms
bar graphs graphs in which data is represented by a series of bars. They are usually used when one variable
is quantitative and the other is qualitative.
base peak the most abundant ion in a mass spectrum
benzene an aromatic hydrocarbon with the formula C6 H6
bias the intentional or unintentional influence on a research investigation
bile a liquid produced by the liver to aid digestion through emulsification
biodiesel a fuel produced from vegetable oil or animal fats and combined with an alcohol, usually methanol
bioethanol ethanol produced from plants, such as sugarcane, and used as an alternative to petrol
biofuel renewable, carbon-based energy source formed in short period of time from from living matter
biogas fuel produced from the fermentation of organic matter
Boyle’s law describes the relationship between pressure and volume of a gas, such that for a fixed amount
of gas at constant temperature, pressure is inversely proportional to volume. p1 V1 = p2 V2
bomb calorimeter an insulated steel container enclosed in water used to perform measurements of heat of
combustion
bond length the distance between two nuclei involved in covalent bonding
burette a graduated glass tube for delivering known volumes of a liquid, especially in titrations
button cell a small, long-life cell used in devices such as calculators, hearing aids, pacemakers, cameras
and watches
C-terminal the end of a peptide chain with a free carboxyl group
calibrated ensure an instrument’s accuracy
calibrating finding a relationship between two quantities
calibration curves a graph of reading versus concentration
calorie a measurement of heat energy needed to raise 1 g of water. 1 °C = 4.18 joule
calorimeter apparatus used to measure heat changes during a chemical reaction or change of state
calorimetry a method used to determine the changes in energy of a system by measuring heat exchanges
with the surroundings
carbohydrates general name for a class of carbon compounds that include sugars, starch and cellulose.
Carbohydrates contain the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
carbon neutral no net release of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
catalyst a substance that alters the rate of a reaction without a change in its own concentration
categorical data also known as qualitative data, this is when data has labels or names rather than a range of
numerical quantities
cathode the electrode at which reduction occurs. In a galvanic cell, it is the positive electrode, because the
negative electrons are drawn towards it and then consumed by the oxidising agent, which is present in the
electrolyte.
cell potential difference the difference between the reduction potentials of two half-cells
cellular respiration process that occurs in cells to oxidise glucose in the presence of oxygen to carbon
dioxide, water and energy
cellulose the most common carbohydrate and a condensation polymer of D-glucose. Humans cannot
hydrolyse cellulose, so it is not a source of energy.
chain isomers a type of structural isomer that involves more branching
Charles’ law describes the relationship between temperature and volume of a gas, such that for a given
V V
amount of gas at constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature. 1 = 2
T1 T2
chemical calibration calibration of a calorimeter using a combustion reaction with a known ΔH
626 GLOSSARY
chemical energetics a branch of science that deals with the properties of energy and the way it is
transformed in chemical reactions
chemical shift the horizontal scale on a NMR spectra
chiral describes compounds containing an asymmetric carbon atom or chiral centre. The molecule cannot
be superimposed upon its mirror image.
chiral centres asymmetric carbon atoms
chromatogram a chart that results from analysis by chromatography
cis–trans isomers types of stereoisomers that are formed when the same two different groups are bonded to
each of the carbon atoms in a carbon–carbon double bond. A cis isomer has identical groups on the same
side of the double bond; a trans isomer has the groups on opposite sides.
climate change changes in various measures of climate over a long period of time
closed system a system in which all the reactants and products are contained in some manner with no
escape to the surrounding environment
coagulation the process of turning a liquid into a solid
coal the world’s most plentiful fossil fuel; formed from the combined effects of pressure, temperature,
moisture and bacterial decay on vegetable matter over several hundred million years
coenzyme an organic non-protein molecule required to temporarily and loosely bind with the protein
molecule to form an active enzyme
column graphs see bar graphs
combustion rapid reaction of a compound with oxygen
concentration fraction essentially, the concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the
conclusion a section at the end of a report that relates back to the question, sums up key findings and states
whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected
concordant describes titres that are within a defined volume of each other, such as 0.10 mL
condensation reaction a reaction in which molecules react and link together by covalent bonding with the
control group a group that is not affected by the independent variables, and is used as a baseline for
comparison
controlled variables variables that are kept constant across different experimental groups
covalent bonds bonds involving the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
D-glucose an isomer that occurs in nature
Daniell cell one of the first electrochemical cells to produce a reliable source of electricity; it uses the redox
reactions between zinc metal and copper ions to produce electricity
denaturation change in the structure or function of a large molecule, such as a protein
dependent variable the variable that is influenced by the independent variable. It is the variable that is
measured.
desorption the removal of a substance from or through a surface; the opposite of adsorption
dipeptide formed when two amino acids combine
dipolar ion an ion containing equal positive and negative charges
direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) a new technology that is powered by pure methanol
disaccharides two sugar molecules (monosaccharides) bonded together
discussion a detailed area of a report in which results are discussed, analysed and evaluated, relationships to
concepts are made, errors, limitations and uncertainties are assessed, and suggestions for future
improvements are made
dry cell an electrochemical cell in which the electrolyte is a paste, rather than a liquid; also called a
Leclanché cell
GLOSSARY 627
dynamic nature of equilibrium refers to the fact that at equilibrium forward and backward reactions are
occurring at the same rate
efficiency efficiency (of energy conversion) the ratio between useful energy output and the energy input
electric calibration calibration of a calorimeter by supplying a known quantity of electricity
electrical potential the ability of a galvanic cell to produce an electric current
electrochemical cell cell that generates electrical energy from chemical reactions
electrodes a solid used to conduct electricity in a galvanic half-cell
electrolysis the decomposition of a chemical substance (in solution or the molten state) by the application
of electrical energy
electrolytic cell an electric cell in which a non-spontaneous redox reaction is made to occur by the
application of an external potential difference across the electrodes
electron configuration the number of electrons and shells they occupy (e.g. 2,4 or 1s2 2s2 2p2 )
electroplating adding a thin metal coating by electrolysis
eluent a substance used as a solvent in separating materials
emulsifier a substance that increases the surface area of fat by breaking it into smaller droplets
enantiomers chiral molecules that are non-superimposable mirror images of one another
end point the experimentally determined equivalence point at which the indicator just changes colour or the
pH curve becomes vertical
energy profile diagram a graph or diagram that shows the energy changes involved in a reaction from the
reactants through the intermediate stages to the products
enhanced greenhouse effect the effect of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
as the result of human activity
enthalpy a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system; the total energy in a
substance
enzymes proteins that catalyse chemical reactions
equilibrium constant the value of the concentration fraction at equilibrium; also called the equilibrium
constant, Kc
equilibrium law the relationship between the concentrations of the products and the reactants, taking into
account their stoichiometric values
equilibrium reaction a reaction in which both forward and reverse reactions are significant
equivalence point where two reactants have reacted in their correct mole proportions in a titration
error differences between a measurement taken and the true value that is expected; they lead to a reduction
in the accuracy of the investigation
essential amino acids amino acids that cannot be synthesised by animals from materials in their diets and
therefore must be supplied directly in the diet
essential fatty acids fatty acids that must come from our diet because the body cannot produce them; often
called omega fatty acids
esterification the process of ester formation
ethanol an alcohol with two carbons produced from fermentation of glucose by yeast
ethics acceptable and moral conduct determining what ‘right’ and what is ‘wrong’
excited state when electrons moved to higher energy orbitals when energy is applied
exothermic describes a chemical reaction or process in which energy is released to the surroundings
experimental group test groups that are exposed to the independent variable
external circuit circuit composed of all the connected components within an electrolytic or a galvanic cell
to achieve desired conditions
falsifiable there has to be a way to be prove the hypothesis wrong
Faraday constant a constant that represents the amount of electric charge carried by 1 mole of electrons
628 GLOSSARY
Faradays first law of electrolysis The amount of current passed through an electrode is directly
proportional to the amount of material released from it.
Faradays second law of electrolysis When the same quantity of electricity is passed through several
electrolytes, the mass of the substances deposited are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent
or equivalent weight.
fat a triglyceride formed from glycerol and three fatty acids
fatty acids long-chain carboxylic acids usually containing an even number of 12–20 carbon atoms
fibrous describes long fibres in proteins that serve a structural role in the body; insoluble in water
fingerprint region the lower end of the infrared spectrum
flashpoint the temperature at which a particular organic compound gives off sufficient vapour to ignite in air
fossil fuels fuels formed from once-living organisms
fracking the process of pumping a large amount of mainly water under high pressure into a drilled hole, in
order to break rock so that it will release gas or oil
fractional distillation the process of separating component fuels based on their different boiling points
fuel a substance that burns in air or oxygen to release useful energy
fuel cell an eletrochemical cell that produces electrical energy directly from a fuel
functional group elements in Group 17 (7) of the periodic table: F, Cl, Br, I and At
functional isomerism isomers containing different functional groups
globular describes proteins with a compact rounded shape and are usually soluble
glucose a simple carbohydrate stored in the liver or muscles
glycaemic index (GI) a figure representing the relative ability of a carbohydrate food to increase the level
of glucose in the blood
glycerol an alcohol; it is a non-toxic, colourless, clear, odorless and viscous liquid that is sweet-tasting and
has the semi-structural formula CH2 OHCH(OH)CH2 OH
glycogen the storage form of glucose in animals. It has a similar structure to amylopectin but is even more
highly branched.
glycosidic link a particular type of ether bond
green chemistry a relatively new branch of chemistry that emphasises reducing the amounts of wastes
produced, the more efficient use of energy and the use of renewable and recyclable resources
greenhouse effect a natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the
Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by
greenhouse gases.
haemoglobin the oxygen-carrying pigment and predominant protein in red blood cells
half-cell one half of a galvanic cell containing an electrode immersed in an electrolyte that may be the
oxidising agent or the reducing agent depending on the oxidising strength of the other cell to which it is
connected
Hall–Héroult the method of aluminium production used in primary aluminium smelters throughout the
world
halogens elements in Group 17 of the periodic table: F, Cl, Br, I and At
heat content a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of a system
heat of reaction the heat evolved or absorbed during a chemical reaction taking place under conditions of
constant temperature and of either constant volume or, more often, constant pressure
heterogeneous reaction a reaction in which some of the substances involved are in different phases
histograms a graph in which data is sorted in intervals and frequency is examined. This is used when both
pieces of data are quantitative. Columns are not separated in a histogram.
homogeneous reaction a reaction in which all of the substances involved are in the same phase
homologous series a series of organic compounds that have the same structure but in which the formula of
each molecule differs from the next by a CH2 group
GLOSSARY 629
HPLC high-performance liquid chromatography; method used to separate the components of a mixture
hydrogenation the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated compounds, such as fatty acids
hydrolysis a hydrolytic reaction; the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water
hydrophilic describes a molecule more likely to interact with water and other polar substances
hydrophobic describes non-polar molecules that repel water molecules
hygroscopic a tendency to absorb water vapour from the atmosphere
hypothesis a tentative, testable and falsifiable statement for an observed phenomenon that acts as a
prediction for the investigation
immiscible does not form a homogeneous mixture when mixed with another liquid
independent variable the variable that is changed or manipulated by an investigator
indicator a chemical compound that changes color and structure when exposed to certain conditions and is
therefore useful for chemical tests
induced fit model a model of enzyme action where, in the presence of a substrate, the active site may
change in order to fit the substrate’s shape
infrared (IR) describes spectroscopy that deals with the infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum
internal circuit a circuit within a conductor. Anions flow to the anode and cations flow to the cathode.
iodine number used to measure the degree of unsaturation. The iodine number is the mass of iodine that
reacts with 100 g of a fat or oil.
irreversible reaction a reaction which, to all practical purposes, occurs only on the forward direction
kelvin the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature, equal in magnitude to the degree Celsius
kinetic energy energy associated with movement, in doing work
kinetic molecular theory of gases Gas particles are in continuous, random motion. Collisions between gas
particles are completely elastic.
kilojoule (kJ) a unit of energy
Law of Conservation of Energy Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only changed from one form
into another or transferred from one object to another.
L-amino acids the stereoisomer of amino acids that is found in proteins in organisms. Enzyme-catalysed
reactions occur only between molecules with this particular stereoisomerism.
lactic acid organic acid, C3 H6 O3 , present in muscle tissue as a by-product of anaerobic respiration
lactose milk sugar
Le Châtelier’s principle When a change is made to an equilibrium system, the system moves to counteract
the imposed change and restore the system to equilibrium.
lead–acid accumulator a battery with lead electrodes using dilute sulfuric acid as the electrolyte; each cell
generates about 2 volts
Leclanché cell see dry cell
limitations factors that have impacted the interpretation and/or collection of findings in a practical
investigation
line graphs graphs in which points of data are joined by a connecting line. These are used when both pieces
of data are quantitative (numerical).
line of best fit a trend line that is added to a scatterplot to best express the data shown. These are straight
lines, and are not required to pass through all points.
lipids substances such as a fat, oil or wax that dissolve in alcohol but not in water
lithium cells cells that use lithium anodes and can produce a high voltage
lock-and-key model model of enzyme action where only molecules with complementary shapes can react
with the enzyme
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) a hydrocarbon fuel that consists mainly of air propane and butane;
non-toxic, non-corrosive, lead-free and denser than air
molar gas constant R, the constant of the universal gas equation; R = 8.31 J mol−1 K−1 when pressure is
measured in kPa, volume is measured in L, temperature is measured in K and the quantity of the gas is
measured in moles (n).
630 GLOSSARY
molar gas volume the volume occupied by a mole of a substance at a given temperature and pressure. At
SLC, 1 mole of gas occupies 24.8 litres.
mass spectrometry the investigation and measurement of the masses of isotopes, molecules and molecular
fragments by ionising them and determining their trajectories in electric and magnetic fields
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution curve a graph that plots the number of particles with a particular energy
(vertical axis) against energy (horizontal axis)
membrane cell used for the electrolysis of brine
metabolism the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
micelle a group of surfactant molecules surrounding a fat droplet with the hydrophobic ends dissolved in
the fat and polar ends dissolve in the water
mobile phase the liquid or gas that flows through a chromatography system, moving the materials to be
separated at different rates over the stationary phase
models representations of ideas, phenomena or scientific processes; they can be physical models,
mathematical models or conceptual models
molecular ion whole molecules that produce ions with a peak at the relative molecular mass of the
compound
monosaccharides the simplest form of carbohydrate, consisting of one sugar molecule
monounsaturated describes fatty acids containing only one double carbon to carbon bond
N-terminal the end of the peptide that has a free amino group
n+1 rule for simple molecules; the number of peaks is one more than the number of hydrogen atoms on the
carbon atom next to that hydrogen atom and chemically different from that hydrogen atom
natural gas a source of alkanes (mainly methane) of low molecular mass
non-essential amino acid the 11 of the 20 amino acids necessary to make proteins that humans can produce
non-essential fatty acid fatty acids that humans can synthesise from food
numerical data also known as quantitative data, this is when data involves numbers and can be measured or
counted
nutrients food molecules that organisms need to make energy, grow, reproduce and maintain a healthy life.
These are: proteins, vitamins, minerals, fats and carbohydrates.
non-renewable (with reference to energy sources) energy sources are consumed faster than they are being
formed
oligosaccharides three to ten monosaccharides bonded together
omega-3 fatty acid polyunsaturated fatty acids with a carbon to carbon double bond on the third carbon
from the methyl end
omega-6 fatty acid polyunsaturated fatty acids with a carbon to carbon double bond on the sixth carbon
from the methyl end
open system a system in which some or all the reactants or products can escape to the surrounding
environment
optical isomers see enantiomers
optimum pH the pH at which enzymes function best
optimum temperature the temperature at which enzymes function best
outlier results that are a long way from other results and seen as unusual
oxidants see oxidising agents
oxidation an increase in the oxidation number; a loss of electrons
oxidation numbers a set of rules that assist in the identification of redox reactions
oxidative rancidity the deterioration of lipids by atmospheric oxygen
oxidising agents electron acceptors
pascal (Pa) unit of pressure
petroleum viscous, oily liquid composed of crude oil and natural gas that was formed by geological
processes acting on marine organisms over millions of years; a mixture of hydrocarbons used to
manufacture other fuels and many other chemicals
peptide formed when amino acids react
GLOSSARY 631
peptide link formed when a carboxyl group reacts with an amino group in a polymerisation reaction
percentage atom economy given by the formula
% atom economy = ×
percentage yield measurement of the efficiency of a reaction by calculating the percentage of the actual
yield compared to the theoretical yield
pipette a slender tube for transferring or measuring small quantities of liquid
potential energy energy that is stored, ready to do work
polypeptides many amino acid residues bonded together
polysaccharides more than 10 monosaccharides bonded together
polyunsaturated describes fatty acids containing more than one double carbon to carbon bond
positional isomers isomers where the position of the functional group differentiates the compounds
precision how close multiple measurements of the same investigation are to each other
pressure the force per unit area that one region of a gas, liquid or solid exerts on another
primary alcohols alcohols in which the carbon atom that carries the −OH group is attached to only one
alkyl group
primary cells an electrolytic cell in which the cell reaction is not reversible
primary source direct or firsthand evidence about some phenomenon
primary standard a substance used in volumetric analysis that is of such high purity and stability that it
can be used to prepare a solution of accurately known concentration
primary structure the order of amino acids in a protein molecule
proteins large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids
proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) a fuel cell being developed for transport applications as
well as for stationary fuel cell applications and portable fuel cell applications
qualitative analysis an investigation used to identify the presence or absence of elements, ions or molecules
in a sample
qualitative data categorical data that examines the quality of something (i.e. colour, gender), rather than
numerical values
quantitative analysis an investigation used to determine the amount of a given element or compound in a
known weight or volume of material
quantitative data numerical data that examines the quantity of something (i.e. length, time)
quaternary structure structure formed when individual protein molecules link together in a particular
spatial arrangement
racemate a 50:50 mixture of two enantiomers; often occurs when optically active substances are
synthesised in the laboratory
racemic mixture see racemate
random errors chance variations in measurements
reaction quotient essentially, the concentrations of the products divided by the concentrations of the
recharging forcing electrons to travel in the reverse direction and, because the discharge products are still
in contact with the electrodes, the original reactions are reversed
redox reactions reactions that involve the transfer of one or more electrons between chemical species
reducing agents electron donors
reductants see reducing agents
reduction a decrease in the oxidation number; a gain of electrons
reduction potential a measure of the tendency of an oxidising agent to accept electrons and so undergo
reduction
632 GLOSSARY
reliability whether or not another researcher could repeat your investigation by following your method and
obtain similar results
residue what remains when two or more amino acids combine to form a peptide
respiration when monosaccharides are converted to glucose, which is used as an energy source to power
body cells including the brain, muscles and red blood cells
results a section in a report in which all data obtained is recorded, usually in the form of tables and graphs
retention time the time taken for each component of a sample to travel from the injection port to the end of
the column
reversible reaction a reaction in which the reformation of products into reactants occurs to a significant
extent
risk assessment a document that examines the different hazards in an investigation and suggests safety
precautions
salt bridge a component that provides a supply of mobile ions that balance the charges built up in the
half-cells of a galvanic cell during reaction
sample a substance to be analysed
saturated describes fatty acids containing only single carbon to carbon bonds
scatterplots graphs in which two quantitative variables are plotted as a series of dots
scientific method sometimes referred to as scientific process, this is the procedure that must be followed in
scientific investigations that consists of questioning, researching, predicting, observing, experimenting
and analysing
scientific research methodology the principles of research based on the scientific method
secondary alcohols alcohols in which the carbon atom that carries the −OH group attached is joined
directly to two alkyl groups, which may be the same or different
secondary cells electrolytic cells in which the cell reaction is reversible and which can be recharged once
their production of electric current drops; often called rechargeable batteries
secondary fuel a fuel that is produced from another energy source
secondary source comments on or summaries and interpretations of primary data
secondary structure structure formed from hydrogen bonding between carboxyl and amino groups in a
protein molecule
serving size recommended amount of food on nutrition label for one serving
side chain R group attached to an amino acid
solution calorimetry an insulated device used to measure heat changes in a solution, for example, heat of
dissolution and neutralisation reactions
percentage yield given by the formula
actual yield 100
% yield = ×
theoretical yield 1
specific heat capacity (c) energy needed to change the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 °C
spectroscopy the investigation and measurement of spectra produced when matter interacts with or emits
electromagnetic radiation
standard cell potential difference the measured cell potential difference, under standard conditions, when
the concentration of each species in solution is 1 M, the pressure of a gas, where applicable, is 100 kPa
and the temperature is 25 °C (298 K)
standard hydrogen half-cell a standard reference electrode; assigned 0.00 volts
standard laboratory conditions (SLC) 100 kPa and 25°C
stoichiometry calculating amounts of reactants and products using a balanced chemical equation
standard solution a solution that has a precisely known concentration
stationary phase a solid with a high surface area, or a finely divided solid coated with liquid. It shows
different affinities for various components of a sample mixture when separating them by chromatography.
GLOSSARY 633
stereoisomerism where two or more compounds differ only in the spatial arrangements of their atoms
stereoisomers two or more compounds differing only in the spatial arrangements of their atoms
structural isomers molecules that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
substitution reactions reactions in which one or more atoms of a molecule are replaced by different atoms
substrate the substance on which an enzyme acts
surfactant molecule a molecule that has a polar (hydrophilic) and a non-polar (hydrophobic) end, for
example, a detergent molecule
sustainable energy energy that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs
systematic errors errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement, that cannot be improved by repeating an
experiment. They are usually due to equipment or system errors.
tertiary structure structure formed from side-group interaction, including hydrogen bonding, ionic
bonding, dipole–dipole interactions and disulfide bridges, in a protein molecule
testable a hypothesis can be easily tested by observations and/or experiments
theory a well-supported explanation of a phenomena, based on facts that have been obtained through
investigations, research and observations
thermochemistry the branch of chemistry concerned with the quantities of heat evolved or absorbed during
chemical reactions
thermochemical equations balanced stoichiometric chemical equations that include the enthalpy change
thermochemical equations chemical equations that include the ΔH value
titrant a solution of known concentration
titration process used to determine the concentration of a substance by using a pipette to deliver one
substance and a burette to deliver another substance until they have reacted exactly in their mole ratios
titration curve curve used to measure the volume of a titrant against pH
titre the volume delivered by a burette
triglycerides fats and oils formed by a condensation reaction between glycerol and three fatty acids
transesterification the reaction between an ester of one alcohol and a second alcohol to form an ester of the
second alcohol and an alcohol from the original ester
uncertainty a limit to the precision of equipment, it is a range within which a measurement lies
universal gas equation PV = nRT, where pressure is in kilopascals, volume is in litres and temperature is in
kelvin
unsaturated describes hydrocarbons containing at least one double carbon–carbon bond
valence number the number of electrons occupying the orbitals in the outermost electron shell
validity credibility of the research results from experiments or from observations. Validity shows how much
results measure what they intend to and how well they show the claims they make.
viscosity a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow
vitamins organic compounds that are needed in minute quantities on a regular basis as part of a healthy diet
volumetric analysis determination of the concentration, by volume, of a substance in a solution, such as by
titration
yield amount of product
zinc–air cell cell that uses oxygen from the air as a reactant
zwitterion a dipolar ion containing equal positive and negative charges
634 GLOSSARY
“BM_IndexNew_print” — 2019/9/24 — 6:56 — page 635 — #1
INDEX
Note: Figures and tables are indicated by italic f and t, respectively, following the page reference.
A building blocks of proteins 398 brine, industrial electrolysis of

absolute zero 32, 50 difference between 399–401 222–3
absorbed 7 general structure of 398f burettes 365, 377
accuracy 528, 566 ammonia, production of 190 button cells 98, 105
acid rain 63–4, 70 amphoteric compounds 445 silver oxide cells 100–1
acid-base indicators 368 amylopectin 414, 430, 458 zinc-air cells 101, 103
acid-base reactions 366 amylose 414, 430 C
acknowledgement of references anaerobic respiration 479, 493
C-terminal 402, 430
561–2 analytes 359, 377
calibrated instruments 362, 377
author-date system 561–2 anode 86, 105, 208, 242
calibrating 480, 493
footnotes system 562 antioxidants 462, 467
calibration curves 362, 377
in-text reference 561–2 arenes 269, 294
calibration factor 483
reference list 562 aromatic compounds 266, 294
calories 475, 493
activation energy 137, 152, 442, 467 artificial sweeteners 417–19
calorimeters 480, 482–4, 493
active site (enzymes) 443, 467 aspartame 417, 418, 430
bomb calorimeters 487–90
addition reactions, alkenes 309–10, aspartic acid 418
calibration factor 483–4
325 atmospheric pressure 31–2
heat loss 490–1
adipose 461, 467 atom economy 179–80, 320–1, 325
solution calorimeters 484–7
adsorption 359, 377 atomic absorption spectrometer 527,
calorimetry 480–91, 493
aim 512, 566 527f
carbohydrates 396, 410–18, 429,
alanine, structures of 399f author-date system 561–2
475, 493
alcohols 273–4, 321 Avogadro’s hypothesis 34–5, 39
cellulose 414, 416–17, 456
functional group effect 313–15 disaccharides 411
primary alcohols 313–14 B
glycaemic index (GI) 417,
reactions of 313–15 backbone 403, 430 457–60
secondary alcohols 314–15 background knowledge 517 glycogen 414, 416
aldehydes 274, 306 bar graphs 539, 566 monosaccharides 411
aliphatic compounds 266, 293 base peak 334, 377 oligosaccharides 412
aliquot volume 365, 377 batteries see cells and batteries polysaccharides 411, 413–17, 456
alkaline batteries 99–100 beam balance 524 simple carbohydrates 412
alkaline fuel cell (AFC) 116–17, 125 benzene 269, 294 sources of 411f
alkanes 266–7 bias 531, 566 starch 414–16, 454–6
esters and amides from 321 bile 460, 467 structures and energy content
physical properties 304 biodiesel 10–12, 50 417–19
substitution reactions 312 combustion 66–7 carbon 260–1
alkanols 273, 293 environmental issues 67 carbon atom 260–4
alkenes 267–8, 293 technical issues 67–8 bonding 262–4
addition reactions 309–10 and transesterification 10 carbon 260–1
esters and amides from 322–3 bioethanol 4, 9–10, 50 carbon compounds see organic
physical properties 304 biofuels 8–12 compounds
alkyl groups 269–72, 293 biogas 4, 9, 50 carbon monoxide poisoning 192–3
alkynes 268, 293, 304 blood, transport of oxygen 191–2 carbon neutral 63, 70
allotropes 260, 294 boiling point 303 carboxyl functional group 305–6
alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) 423 Boltzmann, Ludwig 139 carboxylic acids 275–6, 321
aluminium, production of 220–2 bomb calorimeters 483, 487–90, functional group, effect of 305
amide linkage 401, 430 493, 527 reaction with amines 316
amides 306–8, 321 bond angle 262 reactions of 315–16
amines 306, 316 bond energy 262 catalysts 152
amines and amides 276–7 bond length 262, 294 and chemical reaction rates 148
amino acids 398, 430, 445 Boyle’s law 32 enzymes as 442–51
INDEX 635
catalytic converters 150 gas pressure and 145–6 conjugate redox pair 79–81
categorical data 523, 566 homogenous equilibria 162–8 conjugation 368
cathode 86, 105, 208, 242 irreversible reactions 161 continuous data 523
cell potential difference 89, 105 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution control group 522, 566
cells and batteries 105 see also fuel curves 139–41 controlled variables 510, 511,
cells; galvanic cells; secondary measuring efficiency of 178–80 566
cells (rechargeable batteries) measuring energy changes 480–2 conventions of report writing 554–5
alkaline zinc/manganese dioxide measuring reaction rates 138 covalent bonds 262, 294
cells 99–100 rate and extent of reaction 161–2 multiple carbon to 262–4
button cells 100–1 reversible reactions 160–1 cyclic hydrocarbons 268–9
dry cells 98–9 surface area and 146–8
lithium cells 101–3 temperature and 146 D
primary cells 97–101 chemical representations 518–21 D-glucose 412, 430
selection considerations 97 scientific notation 519–21 denaturation 444, 451, 467
silver oxide cells 100–1 chemical shift 346, 377 dependent variables 510, 511, 566
zinc-air cells 101, 103 chemical thermodynamics 15 derived units 558
cellular respiration 478–80, 493 chiral 287, 294 desorption 359, 377
cellulose 414, 416–17, 430, 456, 467 chiral centres 287, 294 diet 396
chain isomers 285–6, 294 identifying 288–9 digestion 439–40
change in enthalpy ჽH 17, 50, 142, chlorine gas, production 222 chemical process of 440–2
152 chromatogram 359, 377 dipeptide 402, 430
Charles, Jacque 33 chromatography formation of 398–403
Charles’ law, temperature-volume adsorption 359 dipolar ion 445, 467
changes in gas 33 desorption 359 dipole-dipole attractions 302
chemical analysis high-performance liquid direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC)
chromatography 358–65 chromatography (HPLC) 358 116, 118–19, 125
infrared spectroscopy 338–45 mobile phase 358 disaccharides 411, 431
mass spectrometry 332–8 principles 358–9 discrete data 523
nuclear magnetic resonance stationary phase 358 discussion 566
spectroscopy (NMR) 345–54 cis geometry 289 dispersion forces 301–2
organic compound analysis 331 cis-and trans-fatty acids 412f dry cell battery 98–9, 105
qualitative analysis 338 climate change 62, 70 dynamic equilibrium 163–4
quantitative analysis 361 closed system 189, 197 dynamic nature of equilibrium 163,
spectroscopy 333 coagulation 444, 467 197
volumetric analysis 365–8 coal 5–6
chemical calibration, bomb coal seam gas 7–8 E
calorimeter 489–90, 493 coenzymes 463–5, 467 efficiency of energy conversion 15,
chemical energetics 17, 50 collision theory 163–4 50
chemical equilibria 164–8 chemical reactions and 137–8 electric calibration 483, 493
graphical representations 164–8 column graphs 539, 566 electrical instruments 526
using balanced chemical equations combustion reaction 24–7, 476, 493 electrical potential 89, 105
164 concentration fraction 175, 197 electrochemical cells 86, 105 see
using thermochemical equations concentration, impact on chemical cells and batteries
164 reaction rates 145 electrochemical series 91, 105, 242
chemical reactions 164 see also concepts specific to investigations electrodes 86, 105
redox reactions 517 electrolysis 207, 242
activation energy 137 background knowledge 517 calculations 227–35
calculating ჽH values from related chemical representations 518–21 Faraday’s laws 227–35
reactions 27–9 hydrocarbons see hydrocarbons of molten ionic compounds
catalysts and 148–51 key terms 517–18 208–10
catalytic converters 150 conclusions 521, 566 process of 207–8
collision theory 137–8 concordant titres 367, 377 of water 210
concentration and 145 condensation polymerisation 401, electrolysis of aqueous solutions
and energy changes 17–18 430, 441, 467 commercial applications 220–5
equilibrium systems 168–78 condensation reactions 315, 325, effect of concentration 216–17
factors affecting rate of 145–8 420, 430 factors affecting 216–20
636 INDEX
industrial electrolysis of brine induced fit model 444 Faraday ’s first law of electrolysis
222–3 lock-and-key model 443 228, 243
ionic compounds 212–16 as protein catalysts 442–51 Faraday ’s second law of electrolysis
nature of the electrodes 217–20 substrate 443 230, 243
nature of the electrolyte 217 equations 556 Faraday, Michael 228
reaction prediction 212–20 equilibrium constant (Kc ) 168, Faraday’s laws of electrolysis
electrolytes 86, 105, 208, 242 171–3, 175–8, 197 application of 231–5
electrolytic cells 208, 242 equilibrium law 168–71, 197 first law of electrolysis 228–30
comparison with galvanic cells calculations using 173–5 second law of electrolysis 230–1
225–7 equilibrium mixtures use in industry 233–5
membrane cells 222–3 addition or removal of substances fat 475, 493
electron configuration 260, 294 182–5 fat-soluble vitamins 427–9
electronic timer 526 Le Châtelier’s principle 181–2 fats and oils 419–25
electroplating 223–5, 242 making changes to 181 essential and non-essential fatty
eluent 359, 377 temperature changes 187–90 acids 423
emulsifier 460, 467 volume changes 185–7 hydrolysis of 460
enantiomers 287–8, 294 equilibrium reactions 161, 197 omega-3 and omega 6-fatty acids
end point (titrations) 367, 377 equilibrium systems 168–78 423–5
endothermic reactions 18–20, 50, calculations using equilibrium law oxidative rancidity 462–3
142, 152 173–5 preventing rancidity 462–3
energy equilibrium constants 171–3 saturated and unsaturated fatty
changes from chemical reactions equilibrium law and Kc values acids 421–2
17–18 168–71 structural features of 420–25
definition 12 reaction is at equilibrium 175–8 fatty acids 420, 431
efficiency of conversion 15–17 equilibrium, biological application fermentation 479
in foods 480 191–6 fibrous protein 405, 431
output of fuels 44–5 equivalence point (titrations) 367, fingerprint region, infrared spectrum
units of 20–1 377 339, 377
energy conversion error sources, volumetric analysis first law of thermodynamics 13
efficiency of 15 368 flashpoint 302–4, 325
laws of thermodynamics and errors 544–6, 567 food
13–15 essential amino acids 408, 431 comparing energy values of
by plants 13 essential fatty acids (EFAs) 423, 431 475–8
by power stations 14–15 esterification 315, 325 energy content 480–2
energy diagrams 18, 142–5, 152 esters 277–8 metabolism of 439–42
energy sources 142 see also fossil and amides from alkanes 321 nutrition labels 477–8
fuels and amides from alkenes 322–3 food molecules
renewable and non-renewable 4–5 and condensation reactions 315 carbohydrates 410–18
energy transfer 262 functional group effect 306 fats and oils 419–25
energy use ethanol 273, 479, 493 proteins 387–400
environmental impacts 60–1 ethics 533–4, 567 vitamins 425–8
sustainable energy 64 Excel spreadsheet 541 footnotes system 562
enhanced greenhouse effect 42, 50, excited state 261, 294 formulas 556
61, 70 exothermic reactions 18, 50, 142, fossil fuels 4, 50
enthalpy 17, 50, 142, 152, 152, 476, 493 and acid rain 63–4
482, 493 experimental bias, minimisation of environmental impact of use 61–4
change in (ჽH) 142 531–3 and greenhouse effect 62–3
enzyme activity experimental groups 522, 567 fracking 7, 50
measuring 448–51 experiments 567 see also practical fractional distillation 6
pH level and 446–7 investigations fuel cells 114, 125
temperature and 447–8 extent of reaction 161–2 advantages 119
enzymes 442, 467 external circuit 86, 105 alkaline fuel cell 116–17
active site 443 applications 114–15
and optical isomers 443 F design 115–16
coenzyme 463–5 falsifiable 512, 567 direct methanol fuel cell 118–19
factors affecting of 444–5 Faraday constant 229, 242 disadvantages 119
INDEX 637
environmental impact of using volume-volume stoichiometry dynamic equilibrium and collision

123–4 39–40 theory 163–4
galvanic cells vs. 125t working with 29–30 dynamic nature of equilibrium
proton exchange membrane fuel general safety rules 534–7 163
cell 117–18 geometric (cis-trans) isomers heterogeneous reaction 163
types of 116–19 289–90 homogenous reaction 163
fuels 4 see also fossil fuels global warming 50, 62, 70 homogenous reaction 163, 197
energy from 12–13 globular proteins 407, 431 homologous series 266, 294
energy output calculation 45–7 glucose 410, 431, 478–80 HPLC see high-pressure liquid
and greenhouse gases 42–4 cellular respiration 478–80 chromatography
functional group 272, 294 glycaemic index (GI) 417, 431, human digestive system 440f
naming compounds with two 457–60, 467 hydrocarbons 266–72
281–4 glycaemic load (GL) 459–60 physical properties 304
and naming priority 281–4 glycerol 273, 420, 431 hydrogen 422
priority scale 282t glycine 399 gas production 222–3
functional isomers 286–7, 294 structures of 399f safety precautions 122
glycogen 414, 416, 431 storage 122
G glycosidic link 413, 431 hydrogen bonding 302
Galvani, Luigi 74 green chemistry 179–80, 197 hydrogenation 422, 431
galvanic cells greenhouse effect 42–4, 62–3, 70 hydrolysis 440, 451–4, 467
comparison with electrolytic cells greenhouse gases 42, 50, 62, 70 hydrophilic R-groups 406, 431
225–7 and fuel use 42–4 hydrophobic R-groups
features 83–4 406, 431
half-cell types 84 H hydroxyl functional group 305
spontaneous reaction predictions Haber process 190–1 hygroscopic 67, 70, 489, 493
93–6 haemoglobin 191, 197 hypothesis 512, 567
standard electrode potentials half-cells 83–4, 105 Héroult, Paul 220
89–93 Hall, Charles 220
use of standard half-cell reduction Hall-Héroult cell, aluminium I
potentials 93–6 production 220–2, 243 immiscible liquids 163, 197
gas chromatograph 526 haloalkanes 272, 312 in-text reference 561–2
gas pressure substitution reactions of 312–13 independent variables 510, 511, 567
impact on chemical reaction rates halogens 272, 294 indicators 368, 378
145 health and safety guidelines 534–7 induced fit model of enzymes
gases heat content 17, 142, 152 443–4, 467
behaviour of 30–2 heat of neutralisation 17 infrared (IR) 378
biogas 9 heat of reaction 17, 50 fingerprint region 339
Boyle’s law for pressure-volume heat of solution 17 radiation 339
changes 32 heat of vapourisation 17 spectra differences 340
Charles’ law for heterogeneous reaction 163, 197 spectrum 339–45
temperature-volume changes high-performance liquid infrared spectra, differences between
33 chromatography (HPLC) 340
coal seam gas 7–8 358–65, 377 infrared spectroscopy 338–45
kinetic molecular theory of gases analytes 359 infrared spectrum 339–45
29 calibration 362 intermolecular forces
mass-volume stoichiometry chromatogram 359 301–2
38–44 quantitative analysis 361–5 dipole-dipole attractions 302
molar gas volume and Avogadro’s retention time 359 dispersion forces 301–2
hypothesis 34–5 sample 359 hydrogen bonding 302
natural gas 7–8 types 360 internal circuit 86, 105
pressure 30–1 high-pressure liquid chromatography internal validity 531
standard conditions for measuring (HPLC) 528, 528f International Union of Pure and
33 histograms 539, 567 Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
temperature 32 homeostasis 191 259, 282–4
universal gas equation 35–7 homogenous equilibria 162–8 investigations 516–17
volume 32 chemical equilibria 164–8 iodine number 422, 431
638 INDEX
ionic compounds Maxwell, James Clerk 139 O

electrolysis of aqueous solutions of Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution oils see fats and oils
212–16 curves 139–41, 152 oligosaccharides 412, 431
electrolysis of molten ionic measurement bias 532 omega-3 fatty acid 423, 431
compounds 208–10 measuring instruments 524–8 omega-6 fatty acid 423, 431
irreversible reactions 198 membrane cells 222–3, 243 open system 189, 198
chemical reactions and 161 metabolism 440, 467 optical isomers 287, 294, 443
isomers 285–91 of food 439–42 using polarised light to distinguish
stereoisomers 285 metals, extraction of 211–12 288
structural isomers 285–7 meters 526 optimum pH 446, 468
types of 290t methylated spirits 273 optimum temperature 447, 468
mobile phase 358, 378 orbitals 260
K models 550–1, 567 ordinal data 523
Kc values 168–71 molar gas constant 35, 50 organic compounds 259
Kelvin (absolute) scale 32, 50 molar gas volume 34–5, 50 acid-base reactions 315
ketones 274–5, 306 molecular ion 333, 378 addition reactions 309
key findings of investigations 552–3 molecular modelling 264–6 alcohols 273–4, 313–15
key terms 517–18 semi-structures 264 aldehydes 274, 306
kilojoules (kJ) 475, 493 structural diagrams 264 alkanes 304
kinetic energy 12 monomers 317 alkenes 304
kinetic molecular theory of gases monosaccharides 411, 431 alkynes 304
29, 50 monounsaturated fatty acids 421, amides 306–8
431 amines 306
L multimeters 526 amines and amides 276–7
L-amino acids 443, 467 multiple carbon to covalent bonds carbon atom see carbon atom
lactic acid 479, 493 262–4 carboxylic acids 275–6, 305
lactose 442, 467 chemical analysis 331
lactose intolerance 456–7 N condensation reactions 315
Law of Conservation of Energy 13, N-terminal 402, 431 esterification reactions 315
50 natural gas 5, 7–8, 50 esters 277–8, 306
Le Châtelier’s principle 181–2, 198 nature of evidence 552 flashpoint 303
industrial chemicals and 190–1 negative ჽH value 142f functional groups 272
mathematical explanation 184–5 nickel metal hydride (NiMH) cells, haloalkanes 272
lead-acid accumulator 236–7, 243 rechargeable 238–9 hydrocarbons 266–72
Leclanché cells 98, 105 NMR see nuclear magnetic resonance intermolecular forces 301–2
limitations 548–9, 567 spectroscopy isomers 285–91
line graphs 539, 567 nominal data 523 ketones 274–5, 306
line of best fit 538, 567 non-essential amino acids 408, 431 measuring efficiency of
linoleic acid (LA) 423 non-essential fatty acids 423, 431 319–21
linolenic acid 423 non-renewable energy sources 4–5 molecular modelling
lipids 396, 420, 431 nuclear magnetic resonance 264–6
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) spectroscopy (NMR) 345–54 oxidation 313
6–7 13
C analysis 347–9 pathways 318–23
lithium cells 101–3, 105 chemical shift 346–7 physical properties of hydrocarbons
lithium ion cells, rechargeable common types 346 304
238–9 high-resolution 1H spectra 350–4 structure and naming of 264–81
lock-and-key model of enzymes identification using 13 C analysis substitution reactions 310–13
443–4, 467 347–9 outliers 543, 567
logbook 509–10 identification using proton analysis oxidants 75, 105
LPG see liquefied petroleum gas 346 oxidation 75, 105
low-resolution 1H spectra 350 oxidising agents 75, 105
M proton analysis 346 oxidation numbers
manganese dioxide 99–100 numerical data 523, 567 identification of redox reactions
mass 524–5 nutrients 456, 467 78–9
mass spectrometer 526 nutrition labels 477–8 rules for determining 76
mass spectrometry 378 nႻ1 rule 350, 378 using 77–8
INDEX 639
oxidative rancidity 462, 468 pressure rechargeable batteries 235, 243

oxidising agents 75 of gases 30–1, 51 see also secondary cells
oxygen, transported by blood 191–2 preventing rancidity 462–3 (rechargeable batteries)
primary alcohols, reactions of rechargeable, cells 97, 105
P 313–14, 325 recharging 237, 243
paper manufacturing process 222f primary cells 97–101, 105 redox reactions 74–5, 105
pascals (Pa), SI unit of pressure 30, primary data cells and batteries 89–103
50 analysing 541–3 comparison of energy
peptide link 401, 431 evaluating 543–4 transformations in 84–9
peptides 401, 431 primary data, organising environmental and safety issues
percentage atom economy 198 537–41 123–4
percentage yield 178–9, 198, using graph 538–41 fuel cells 114–24
319–20, 325 using Microsoft Excel 541 galvanic cells 83–9
petrodiesel using table 537–8 identification of 78–9
and biodiesel compared 65–9 primary sources 522, 567 oxidation numbers 75–83
combustion 66–7 primary cells 98–101
primary standard 366, 378
petroleum 5–7, 51 redox titration 372–5
primary structure of proteins 404,
pH and concentrations 525–6 reducing agents 75, 105
431
pH level, and enzyme activity 446–7 reductants 75, 105
protein 475, 493
phenylalanine 418 reduction 75, 105
proteins 397–409, 431, 475, 493
photosynthesis 13–15 reduction potential 89, 105
coagulation of 451
pipettes 365, 378 reference list 562
enzymes as catalysts 442–51
plants, as energy converters 14f reliability 531, 567
polar group substitution 313 essential and non-essential amino
acids 408–10 renewable energy sources 4–5
polar reactions 311 repeated measurements 546–8
polarised light formation of dipeptides and
polypeptides 398–403 residue 401, 431
distinguish optical isomers using respiration 440, 468
288 hydrolysis of 451–4
structure of 404–8 response bias 532
polyesters 317 results 508, 567
polymers 317 proton exchange membrane fuel cell
(PEMFC) 116–18, 125 retention time 359, 378
polypeptides 401–3, 431
Prozac 259 reversible reactions 198
formation of 398–403
chemical reactions and 160–1
polysaccharides 411, 413–17, 431
Q risk assessments 534, 567
polyunsaturated fatty acids 421, 431
positional isomers 286, 294 qualitative analysis 338, 378 S
positive ჽH value 142f qualitative data 523, 567
potential energy 12 salt bridge 83, 105
quantitative analysis 361, 378
power stations, energy conversion sample 359, 378
quantitative data 523, 567
14–15 sampling bias 532
quaternary structure 407, 431
practical investigations saturated fatty acids 421–2, 431
question 511–12
checklist 563 scatterplots 538, 567
concepts specific to 517–21 science skills, in chemistry 507–17
R
conventions 553–64 developing aims and questions
racemate 287, 294 511–12
ethics, and health and safety
racemic mixture 287, 294 hypotheses 512–14
guidelines 533–7
random errors 544, 567 logbook 509–10
models and theories 549–51
rate of reaction 161–2 scientific method 507–9
nature of evidence and key findings
552–3 RCOOR’ 277 scientific inquiry types 521t
organising, analysing and reaction mechanisms 310–11 scientific method 507–9, 565, 567
evaluating primary data 537–49 reaction quotient (Q) 175, 198 scientific notation 519–21
science skills in chemistry 507–17 reaction rates, measurement of 138 scientific poster 563
scientific research methodologies reactions scientific research methodologies
521–33 atom economy 320 521–33, 567
variables 510 measuring efficiency 319–21 characteristics of 521–2
precision 528, 567 pathway summary 321–3 minimisation of experimental bias
prefixes 557–8 percentage yield 319–20 531–3
640 INDEX
precision, accuracy, reliability and standard cell potential difference 89 titration 366, 378
validity 528–31 standard hydrogen half-cells 90 titration curves 369–71, 378
qualitative and quantitative data standard laboratory conditions (SLC) titres 366, 378
collection 522–3 18, 33, 51 concordant titres 367
techniques relevant to investigation standard solution 365, 378 top-loading balances 525, 545–6
524–8 starch 414–16, 431, 454–6, 468 topic 511
second law of thermodynamics 13 stationary phase 358, 378 trans geometry 289
secondary alcohols, reactions of stereoisomerism 443, 467, 468 transesterification 10, 51
314–15, 325 stereoisomers 287–90, 294 triglycerides 420, 431
secondary cells (rechargeable stoichiometry 40
batteries) 97, 105, 235, 243 mass-mass 41–2 U
battery life 239–40 mass-volume 38–9 uncertainty 544, 567
lead-acid accumulator 236–7 volume stoichiometry and units of measurement 557–8
nickel metal hydride (NiMH) cells, thermochemistry 40–1 universal gas equation 35–7, 51
rechargeable 238–9 volume-volume 39–40 unsaturated fatty acids 421–2, 431
rechargeable batteries 235–40 and volumetric analysis 371 unsaturated hydrocarbons 267, 294
rechargeable lithium ion cells stopwatch 526
V
238–9 structural formulas 518–19
secondary fuel 61, 70 structural isomers 285–7, 294 valence number 261, 294
secondary sources 523 chain isomers 285–6 validity 531, 567
secondary structure of proteins functional isomers 286–7 variables 510
405–6, 431 positional isomers 286 viscosity 302–3, 325
selection bias 532 substitution reactions, alkanes 312, vital vitamins 425
serving size 477, 493 325 vitamins 425–9, 431
SI (Système Internationale) units substrate 443, 468 fat-soluble vitamins 427–9
558 surface area, impact on chemical vital vitamins 425
side chains 403, 431 reaction rates 146–8 water-soluble vitamins 425–6
sustainable energy 64, 70 voltmeter 526f
side-chains or branching, effect of
volumetric analysis 378
304 symbols 555
acid-base indicators 368
significant figures 558–60 systematic errors 544, 567
error sources 368
calculating 559–60
T glassware and rinsing 366–7
complicated by zeros 559
quantitative technique 365
silver oxide cells 100–1 temperature
sources of error 368
silver-plating 223–5 and enzyme activity 447–8
standard solutions 366
simple carbohydrates 412 impact on chemical reaction rates
titration curves 369–71
simple sugars 417–19 146
titrations, stopping 367
sodium hydroxide, production temperature scales 32 volumetric procedures, steps 367f
222–3 terminology and representations 555
solution calorimeters 483–7, 493, tertiary structure 406, 431 W
527, 527f testable 512, 567 water, electrolysis of 210
sources of error 544 theory 551, 567 water-soluble vitamins 425–6
specific heat capacity 480, 493 thermochemical equation 21–9, 51, wedge-dash notation 264
spectra differences, infrared 340 479, 493 written risk assessment 534t
spectroscopy 333, 378 thermochemistry 17, 51
infrared spectroscopy 338–45 and volume stoichiometry 40–1 Y
mass spectrometry 332–8 thermodynamics 15 yield 178, 198
nuclear magnetic resonance first law of thermodynamics 13
spectroscopy (NMR) 345–9 general laws of 13–15 Z
spring balance 525 second law of thermodynamics 13 zinc 99–100
stability, carbon 262 time 526 zinc-air cells 101, 105
standard abbreviations 560–1 titrant 365, 378 zwitterions 445–6, 468
INDEX 641
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE
ELEMENTS
Alkali
metals
Group 1
Alkaline
1
metals earth metals
Hydrogen
Period 1
H
1.0 Group 2
Key
3 4 1 2 Atomic number
Lithium Beryllium Hydrogen Helium Name
Period 2
Li Be Period 1 H He Symbol
6.9 9.0 1.0 4.0 Relative atomic mass
11 12
Transition metals
Sodium Magnesium
Period 3
Na Mg Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9
23.0 24.3
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt
Period 4
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co
39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium
Period 5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh
85.5 87.6 88.9 91.2 92.9 96.0 (98) 101.1 102.9
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77
Caesium Barium Lanthanoids Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium
Period 6
Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109

Francium Radium Actinoids Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium
Period 7
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
(223) (226) (261) (262) (266) (264) (267) (268)
Alkali metal Lanthanoids

Alkaline earth metal
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
Transition metal
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium
Lathanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu
Actinoids 138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0
Unknown chemical properties
Actinoids
Post-transition metal
Metalloid 89 90 91 92 93 94 95
Reactive non-metal Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am
Halide
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243)
Noble gas
642 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS

Group 18
2
Helium
Non-metals
He
Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 4.0
5 6 7 8 9 10
Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
B C N O F Ne
10.8 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 20.2
13 14 15 16 17 18
Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Group 10 Group 11 Group 12 Al Si P S Cl Ar
27.0 28.1 31.0 32.1 35.5 39.9
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (210) (210) (222)
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson
Ds Rg Cn Nh Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
(271) (272) (285) (280) (289) (289) (292) (294) (294)
Metals
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS 643

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JACARANDA

AREA OF STUDY 1 WHAT ARE THE OPTIONS FOR ENERGY PRODUCTION?

1 Obtaining energy from fuels 3

3 Galvanic cells as a source of energy 73

4 Fuel cells as a source of energy 113

AREA OF STUDY 1 REVIEW

AREA OF STUDY 2 HOW CAN YIELD OF PROCESSES BE OPTIMISED?

5 Rate of chemical reactions 136

7 Production of chemicals by electrolysis and rechargeable batteries 206

AREA OF STUDY 2 REVIEW

AREA OF STUDY 1 HOW CAN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BE CATEGORISED?

8 Structure and nomenclature of organic compounds 259

9 Categories, properties and reactions of organic compounds 300

10 Analysis of organic compounds 331

AREA OF STUDY 2 WHAT IS THE CHEMISTRY OF FOOD?

11 Key food molecules 396

12 Metabolism of food in the human body 438

13 Energy content of food 474

AREA OF STUDY 2 REVIEW

14 Practical investigation 506

Answers ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 574

Print learnON eBookPLUS PDF eGuidePLUS

Fully aligned to the VCE Chemistry Study Design

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2.2.1 Generating energy in Australia

• additional background information easily

2 low cost of fossil fuels mean that they are in

(billion tones oil equivalent)

distinguished from curriculum content

• practice SACs clearly linked to each outcome

• practice exams for each area of study.

dot points highlighted at the start of each topic and broken .

down into Key Concepts in each sub-topic.

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Prepare for exams with every past exam

A wealth of teacher resources

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Visibility of student results

ABOUT THIS RESOURCE ix

Million metric tons

AREA OF STUDY OUTCOME CHAPTERS

1 Obtaining energy from fuels

1.1.2 What you will learn

TOPIC 1 Obtaining energy from fuels 3

1.2 Fossil fuels and biofuels

1.2.1 What is a fuel?

1.2.2 Distinction between a fossil

1.2.3 Renewable and non-renewable resources

4 Jacaranda Chemistry 2 VCE Units 3 & 4 Second Edition

FIGURE 1.3 Renewable and non-renewable energy sources.

solar energy wind waves tides fossil fuels nuclear fuels

(kinetic energy) (chemical energy)

1.2.4 Origin of fossil fuels

TOPIC 1 Obtaining energy from fuels 5

increasing temperature and pressure

distillation, coal can be converted into