UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY

A FIELD REPORT ON: INDUSTRIAL PRACTICAL TRAINING AT LAKE

TANGANYIKA BASIN

C/N NAME REGISTRATION NO PROGRAMME

1 ISSA JACOB 2015-04-03195 BSc WITH GEOLOGY
2 ZAKARIA BOAZ SISSO 2015-04-03178 BSc WITH GEOLOGY

SUPERVISOR, PROF H.H NKOTAGU

DURATION: 23rd July 2018 to 14th September 2018

 LIST OF ABREVIATION

PT-----------------------Practical training

VES---------------------Vertical Electrical Sounding

DTH--------------------Down The Hole

NORAD----------------Norwegian Agency For International Development

GPS--------------------Global Position System

M-----------------------Meter

Masl-------------------Meter above Sea Level

Ml ---------------------Millimeter

TDS-------------------Total Dissolved Solids

EC---------------------Electrical Conductivity

TC---------------------Total Coliform

FC---------------------Fecal Coliform

Lab------------------Laboratory

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 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1…………………. Map of Lake Tanganyika basin

Figure 2…………………..Map showing regional geology of Lake Tanganyika basin

Figure 3………………….. Gravel material of 2-5mm

Figure 4………………….. Permanent casing, UPVC of 5’’

Figure 5………………….. Figure showing well logging and well design

Image 1………………….. Deep well drilling at geza ulole near stand mpya kigoma

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Our first acknowledgement to the creator of this world for the mindful, courage, wisdom,
strength and power he had given us. In reality our success during the Practical Training
period came from him. Nothing could be achieved without God. Good health, commitment
and ability to work hard come from him. To our creator God be the glory and honor.

Also we express our gratitude and respect to the management of university of Dar es salaam
particularly the collage of natural and applied science department of geology and our
supervisor Prof H.H NKOTAGU for the great work in bringing us to be competent in our
carrier , it is great pleasure to express our gratitude to the management of lake Tanganyika
basin and Kigoma zonal water quality laboratory under the head of Lake Tanganyika water
basin bord, zonal water chemist Mr. Hasheem, senior lab tech Mr. Semkha, hydrogeologist
Tammimu Mlimbo for their lectures, instructions and technical support to put us into
practical to all the things we did in class and their constant support and encouragement during
practical training also we place appreciation to our fellow student from university of
Dodoma, Ardhi university and Dar es salaam water institute for their great cooperation.

Finally we would like to thank and appreciate the efforts made by our parents for their
love, care, prayers and motivation to improve ourselves throughout our studies.

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 PREFACE

In the institution of the practical training kigoma water basin bord we were dealing with
underground water investigation, drilling, well logging and well design also in kigoma zonal
water quality laboratory we were dealing with the analysis of water quality by examine
different parameter which are divided into three part where the first part is chemical
parameter examination which include total alkalinity total hardness of water, chloride
sulfate, nitrate and calcium ,physical parameter examination which based on the instrument
measurement an personal observation and these parameter include PH, electrical
conductivity, turbidity, temperature, color and total dissolved solid and microbiology
examination as the third part

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 ABSTRACT

This report comprises all the details, activities and programs done during the industrial
practical training from July 23 to September 14 2018.

The main objective of the report is to present the findings obtained during 60 days of PT at
the Lake Tanganyika water basin authority and Kigoma zonal water quality laboratory. It
elaborates the exploration of ground water using geophysical method, resistivity method
(VES) that’s being adopted and performed by the Schlumberger configuration, drilling and
construction of wells, and finally the chemical, physical and biological quality analysis of
drilled wells, bore hole, lake, river and spring.

Drilling was mostly done by using the air rotary method that’s the Down the Hole method
(DTH) and then well logging and well design.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABREVIATION.........................................................................................................i
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT..........................................................................................................iii
PREFACE.................................................................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................vi

1.1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................1
1.2 BACKGROUND OF KIGOMA ZONAL WATER QUALITY
LABORATORY AND LAKE TANGANYIKA WATER BASIN BOARD.............2
1.3 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY........................................................................2
1.4 GEOLOGY..................................................................................................................2

2.1 GROUND WATER SURVEYING............................................................................4

2.1.1 METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................5
2.1.2 GEOPHYSICAL METHOD.......................................................................................5
2.1.3 EQUIPMENTS USED...............................................................................................5
2.1.4 PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES USED............................................................5
2.2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEYING...................................................................................6
2.2.1 REPORT WRITING AND DATA INTERPETATION.............................................6
2.3 MAGNETIC FIELD INTENSITY..............................................................................7
2.3.1 MAGNETIC PROFILING CURVES.........................................................................8
2.3.2 RESISTIVITY “VES” DATA AND CURVES..........................................................9
2.3.3 VES DATA PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION.........................................13
2.3.4 RESISTIVITY CURVES..........................................................................................14

3.1 WELL DRILLING....................................................................................................18

3.2 PROCEDURES FOR WELL DRILLING USING AIR ROTARY METHOD
(DTH)........................................................................................................................18
3.3 WELL LOGGING.....................................................................................................19
3.3.1 UPVC INSTALLATION AND GRAVEL PACKING............................................20
3.3.2 GRAVEL PACKING................................................................................................20

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4.1 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS.............................................................................23
4.2 WATER SAMPLE....................................................................................................23
4.3 SAMPLING PROCESS............................................................................................24
4.3.1 COLLECTING WATER SAMPLES FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL
EXAMINATION......................................................................................................24
4.3.2 SAMPLING FROM TAP OUTLET.........................................................................24
4.3.3 SAMPLING FROM A WATER SOURCE OR RESERVOIR................................25
4.3.4 SAMPLING FROM DUG WELLS AND SIMILAR SOURCES............................25
4.3.5 SAMPLING POINT SELECTION...........................................................................25
4.4 PHYSICAL PARAMETER EXAMINATION.........................................................26
4.5 COLOR OF WATER................................................................................................27
4.6 TURBIDITY.............................................................................................................28
4.7 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)....................................................................29
4.8 PH DETERMINATION............................................................................................30
4.9 TEMPERATURE......................................................................................................30
4.10 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER....................................................................31
4.11 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS IN WATER...................................34
4.12 CHLORIDE IN WATER SAMPLES.......................................................................34
4.13 CALCIUM IN WATER............................................................................................36
4.14 DETERMINATION OF MAGNESIUM IN WATER..............................................38
4.15 APPARATUS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:........................................................38
4.16 BACTERIOLOGY EXAMINATION OF WATER SAMPLE................................40
4.17 RECOMMENDATIONS..........................................................................................44
4.18 CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................44

REFERENCE...........................................................................................................................45

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1.1 INTRODUCTION.

The field study at lake Tanganyika water basin board practical training was divided into two
main sections, The Lake Tanganyika water basin authority that’s responsible for surveying,
monitoring the drilling and construction, pump testing as well as recommendations of the
drilling site and drilling depth depending on the obtained data and the second section was
zonal water quality laboratory that’s responsible for chemical physical and biological
analysis of different water sources.

In each section, we were able to learn both theoretically and pay a site visitation to have
the real practical experience on what had been taught accordingly.

Figure 1 Lake Tanganyika basin and it is coverage.

Coverage of Lake Tanganyika basin to four region is due to the fact that water from rukwa,
geita and Tabora are drained toward the Lake Tanganyika by different river like Ugala River,
mkululu river, Wala River and Malagalasi River also within the catchment there are gauge
station that are used by hydrologist and environmental scientist to monitor water bodies
within the catchment.

1
1.2 BACKGROUND OF KIGOMA ZONAL WATER QUALITY LABORATORY
AND LAKE TANGANYIKA WATER BASIN BOARD

Water quality laboratory in Governmental institution are entrusted by the Government under
the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. The kigoma Water Quality Laboratory was introduced
in 1984 under Water master plan Water of Norad organization from Norway

Water analyzed came from various sources including the followings: Springs, Rivers,
Boreholes and Dams, Domestic water points Waste water effluent from industries Effluent
from wastewater treatment plants, Treated water from water treatment plants

1.3 LOCATION AND ACCESSIBILITY.

The Lake Tanganyika basin is located in the western part of Tanzania between latitudes 20
45’ and 80 45′ and longitudes 290 35′and 340 00′. The total catchment area of the basin is
239,000km2.

The total surface area of the Lake Tanganyika is 32,600 km2 of which 45% is in Democratic
Republic of Congo; 41% in Tanzania; 8% in Burundi and 6% in Zambia . It is 650 km long
and 50 km wide with a maximum water depth of 1,470 m at its deepest point. The lake has a
mean depth of 580 m and has a volume of 19,000 km3. It is the second deepest lake in the
World and holds almost one sixth of the world’s free fresh water resources.

The land surface of the basin on the Tanzania side is about 137,000 km2, which contributes
60% of the total runoff to Lake Tanganyika. The basin covers five regions, and has a total of
21 districts falling wholly or partially within the basin. The main urban areas in the basin are
Kigoma/Ujiji and Tabora with estimated populations of 527,000 and 362,000 respectively.

1.4 GEOLOGY.

The oldest rocks of the area are gneisses and schists, which occur in the northwest and
intermittently along the shores of the Lake Tanganyika to the South. The rocks are exactly
similar in type to rocks of Ubendian system. They represent an ancient series of sediments,
probably shales, sandstones and greywackes, which have been altered by regional
metamorphism and migmatization to their present high grade. Overlying these rocks with

2
unconformity is the Kigoma quartzite. This thick formation consists almost entirely of
coarse-to-medium grained, white, occasionally, cream, pure quartzites and sandstones, with
occasional bands of quartz pebbles. There are few horizons of shaly beds, which often show
signs of shearing, and thin basal conglomerates are also sometimes developed.

Manyovu red beds are seen intermittently along the lakeshore. Their thickness is between 50
m - 100 m. They are commonly micaceous and frequently ripple marked. Structures within
the area show a regional north-south trend and generally they are more intense in the west
and die out completely towards the east. Foliation varies from NW-SE and NE-SW to nearly
vertical, and a swing towards an east-west direction has been observed in some places. The
dip of the foliation is regular, mainly to south-east and south, generally with angles of 100 to
800. The NE-strike and SE-dip of foliation are prominent in the KigomaQuartzites, while the
W-strike and S-dip are clearly observed in the Manyovu red beds close to the shores of the
Lake Tanganyika. Similarly the Manyovu red beds are steeply folded.The Ubendian rocks are
almost folded on the regional trend and are clearly seen with vertical or near-vertical foliation
dips. The folds are steeper on the western limbs and rapidly diminish in intensity towards the
east. Rift faults in the area have greatly affected in general the Manyovu red beds to produce
narrow down faulted block bordering the Lakeshore. The throw is of the order of 1500 m or
more. However it is believed that all the rocks of this area were deposited in or adjacent to, a
long, narrow, tectonically unstable, trough area that extends northward from Kigoma to
Karagwe and South-Eastbeyond mpanda.A map showing geology of the lake tanganyika
basin.

3
Figure 2 showing regional and local geology of Lake Tanganyika basin

4
2.1 GROUND WATER SURVEYING.

We did site visitation and inspection in order to have an overview of the area, on the survey
to be done. The major aim of ground water surveying is to locate the most suitable sites for
drilling and well construction. The key methodology employed in ground water surveying is
geophysical method, where by resistivity (VES) in conjunction with the magnetic method are
used.

2.1.1 METHODOLOGY.

2.1.2 GEOPHYSICAL METHOD.

This is conducted so as to locate the areas with economically potential amounts of

groundwater where wells can be drilled and constructed.

Geophysical methods were done with engineering objectives in mind such as predicting the
behaviors of the earth and also possible mineralization following the nature and magnitude
of anomalies obtained during survey.

2.1.3 EQUIPMENTS USED.

 ABEM 4000 TERRAMMETER SAS resistivity meter -used for taking

resistivity measurements by using the Schlumberger array configuration.
 Global Positioning System (GPS) -these are used to locate borehole position
with respect to the radiometric map coordinates.
 Field Notebook -for taking notes on day to day field work activities
 Surveying Logbook Sheet - this was used for recording information and
data during geophysical surveying.
 Field Boots -for safety and protection
 Plastic Bag -for carrying survey data sheet as well as sample collection
 Field Hat -for protection from sunlight
 Pen/pencil -used for documentation

2.1.4 PROCEDURES AND TECHNIQUES USED.

 The Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) was adopted to investigate the geological
and hydrogeological situation of the subsurface formations. This method in
conjunction with the magnetic method gives the best possible sites for drilling basing
on the nature and magnitudes of anomalies obtained.

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  The technique was performed by using the ABEM 4000 TERRAMMETER SAS
resistivity meterusing the Schlumberger electrode array. For each VES probed in the
studied areas the maximum separation of current electrodes AB/2 was set to be 200m.
 Potential electrodes MN/2 were separated according to the Schlumberger
configuration at the intervals of 0.5m, 2.5m, 5m and 10m up to the maximum of 25m.
 The apparent resistivity values in ohm meters are recorded and plotted against the
current electrode separation distance AB/2.

2.2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEYING.

In this method the areas covered with soft formations particularly sedimentary rocks such as
clayey soils and sandstones are probed as they are porous and thus they are expected to
contain significant amounts of water.

2.2.1 REPORT WRITING AND DATA INTERPETATION.

 Resistivity curves were plotted in the log-log charts, apparent resistivity in ohm
meters were recorded and plotted against current electrodes separation distanceAB/2.
The curves obtained are then interpreted by using the analog master curves or soft
wares like IPI2WIN
 Obtained resistivity curves can be used to determine the type of rock, the nature of
water contained in the subsurface rocks that’s whether fresh or saline, and to
recommend the depth of a well.
 Below are some resistivity values used to guide interpretation of rock formations;
 Resistivity greater than 100Ωm imply the rock formation is dry and sandy.
 Resistivity from 100Ωm to 10Ωm implies the rock formation is wet sand, water is
available.
 Resistivity from 10Ωm to 7Ωm implies the rock formation is clayey sand.
 Resistivity from 7Ωm to 4Ωm implies the rock formation is clay soil.
 Resistivity less than 4Ωm imply saline rock formation.

Three Magnetic profiling with a maximum of 200M were conducted to identify points of
magnetic anomalous and four Vertical Electrical Soundings were probed at areas with points
of magnetic anomalous concentration.

6
From the collection, processing and interpretation of the collected VES survey data; Sites
marked VES 3, VES 4 and VES 2 respectively for Buhabugali at Bangwe village are
promising for borehole drilling.

Table 1 magnetic field intensity

PROFILE 1-1 PROFILE 2-2 PROFILE 3-3

Station(m) nT-Values Station(m) nT-Values Station(m) nT-Values

0 32547.54 0 32537.46 0 32525.1

10 32543.73 10 32547.55 10 32557.24

20 32545.99 20 32543.94 20 32559.64

30 32544.31 30 32546.37 30 32548.23

40 32539.68 40 32525.81 40 32551.07

50 32538.19 50 32526.10 50 32549.43

60 32549.06 60 32546.37 60 32531.73

70 32550.27 70 32538.19 70 32529.35

80 32549.51 80 32539.03 80 32538.29

90 32552.41 90 32537.42 90 32526.87

100 32550.42 100 32538.16 100 32542.68

110 32549.26 110 32510.88 110 32538.53

120 32549.40 120 32538.93 120 32528.84

7
130 32545.72 130 32541.06 130 32524.33

140 32546.17 140 32543.85 140 32525.75

150 32544.78 150 32536.06 150 32519.79

160 32545.83 160 32541.97 160 32531.19

170 32545.13 170 32532.97 170 32585.26

180 32541.27 180 32538.58 180 32546.88

190 32543.56 190 32528.31 190 32516.36

200 32543.70 200 32516.04 200 32534.52

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Graph 1 Magnetic Profile 1-1 with magnetic anomalies at stations 40 and 190 resulting
VES 1 magnetic profiling curves

32555

32550

32545

32540

32535

32530
0 50 100 150 200 250

Graph 2 Magnetic Profile 2-2 with magnetic anomalies at stations 40 and 110 resulting
VES 2 & VES 3

32560

32550

32540

32530

32520

32510

32500

32490
0 50 100 150 200 250

9
 Graph 3. Magnetic Profile 3-3 with magnetic anomalies at stations 90, 150 and 190
resulting VES 4

32600

32580

32560

32540

32520

32500

32480
0 50 100 150 200 250

RESISTIVITY “VES” DATA AND CURVES

Geo-electrical subsurface layer thickness with respective true formation resistivity

interpretation results:

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VES 1: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma

Coordinates: 0788538 9457301

Altitude is 815 masl.

Table 2: Geophysical Surveys VES 1

S/No AB/2 (m) MN/2 (m) MN/2 (m) Resistance Constant Apparent
(Ω) Resistivity (Ω m)

1 1.5 0.5 512.00 6.28 3215.36

2 2.0 0.5 362.00 11.78 4264.36

3 2.5 0.5 265.00 18.84 4992.6

4 3.0 0.5 172.80 27.48 4748.54

5 4.0 0.5 139.60 49.46 6904.62

6 5.0 0.5 90.30 77.77 7022.63

7 6.0 0.5 79.80 112.26 8958.35

8 8.0 0.5 33.40 200.18 6686.01

9 10.0 0.5 17.54 313.22 5493.88

10 10.0 2.5 74.10 58.88 4363.01

11 12.0 2.5 42.20 86.51 3650.72

12 15.0 2.5 21.50 137.38 2953.67

11
13 20.0 2.5 4.05 247.28 1001.48

14 25.0 2.5 2.97 388.58 1154.08

15 30.0 2.5 0.64 561.28 359.22

16 30.0 5.0 2.95 274.75 810.51

17 40.0 5.0 0.64 494.55 316.51

18 50.0 5.0 0.20 777.15 155.43

19 50.0 10.0 0.76 376.8 286.37

20 60.0 10.0 0.21 549.5 115.40

21 75.0 10.0 0.08 867.43 69.39

22 100.0 10.0 0.07 1554.3 108.80

23 100.0 25.0 0.20 588.75 117.75

24 125.0 25.0 0.09 942.00 84.78

25 150.0 25.0 0.07 1373.80 96.17

26 180.0 25.0 0.06 1995.50 119.73

27 200.0 25.0 0.07 2472.8 173.10

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VES 2: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma

Coordinates: 0788478 9456698

Altitude is 807 masl.

Table 3: Field data sheet of Geophysical Surveys VES 2

S/No AB/2 (m) MN/2 (m) MN/2 (m) Resistance Constant Apparent
(Ω) Resistivity (Ω m)

1 1.5 0.5 363 6.28 2279.64

2 2.0 0.5 211 11.78 2485.58

3 2.5 0.5 141.1 18.84 2658.32

4 3.0 0.5 100.5 27.48 2761.74

5 4.0 0.5 61.1 49.46 3022.01

6 5.0 0.5 42.8 77.77 3328.56

7 6.0 0.5 28.7 112.26 3221.86

8 8.0 0.5 14.23 200.18 2848.56

9 10.0 0.5 7.14 313.22 2236.39

10 10.0 2.5 33.2 58.88 1954.82

11 12.0 2.5 15.83 86.51 1369.45

13
12 15.0 2.5 6.08 137.38 835.27

13 20.0 2.5 1.21 247.28 299.21

14 25.0 2.5 0.27 388.58 104.92

15 30.0 2.5 0.08 561.28 44.90

16 30.0 5.0 0.15 274.75 41.21

17 40.0 5.0 0.06 494.55 29.67

18 50.0 5.0 0.03 777.15 23.31

19 50.0 10.0 0.06 376.8 22.61

20 60.0 10.0 0.05 549.5 27.48

21 75.0 10.0 0.04 867.43 34.70

22 100.0 10.0 0.03 1554.3 46.63

23 100.0 25.0 0.1 588.75 58.88

24 125.0 25.0 0.07 942.00 65.94

25 150.0 25.0 0.07 1373.80 96.17

26 180.0 25.0 0.06 1995.50 119.73

27 200.0 25.0 0.07 2472.8 173.10

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VES 3: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma

Coordinates: 0788547 9456683

Altitude is 805 masl

Table 4: Field data sheet of Geophysical Surveys VES 3

S/No AB/2 (m) MN/2 (m) MN/2 (m) Resistance Constant Apparent
(Ω) Resistivity (Ω m)

1 1.5 0.5 781.00 6.28 1,576.28

2 2.0 0.5 520.00 11.78 1693.96

3 2.5 0.5 347.00 18.84 1,652.27

4 3.0 0.5 251.00 27.48 1,445.45

5 4.0 0.5 143.80 49.46 1,132.63

6 5.0 0.5 87.70 77.77 1,324.56

7 6.0 0.5 52.60 112.26 1,138.88

8 8.0 0.5 22.90 200.18 940.12

9 10.0 0.5 7.53 313.22 814.00

10 10.0 2.5 23.80 58.88 680.34

15
11 12.0 2.5 21.40 86.51 512.98

12 15.0 2.5 8.29 137.38 434.54

13 20.0 2.5 1.42 247.28 350.64

14 25.0 2.5 0.33 388.58 128.23

15 30.0 2.5 0.17 561.28 95.42

16 30.0 5.0 0.34 274.75 92.59

17 40.0 5.0 0.13 494.55 66.12

18 50.0 5.0 0.08 777.15 58.60

19 50.0 10.0 0.13 376.8 50.64

20 60.0 10.0 0.12 549.5 52.00

21 75.0 10.0 0.08 867.43 55.00

22 100.0 10.0 0.11 1554.3 57.00

23 100.0 25.0 0.03 588.75 58.00

24 125.0 25.0 0.06 942.00 59.35

25 150.0 25.0 0.06 1373.80 78.31

26 180.0 25.0 0.05 1995.50 98.00

27 200.0 25.0 0.09 2472.8 210.19

16
VES 4: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma

Coordinates: 0788598 9456764

Altitude is 805 masl.

Table 5: Field data sheet of Geophysical Surveys VES 5

S/No AB/2 (m) MN/2 (m) MN/2 (m) Resistance Constant Apparent
(Ω) Resistivity (Ω m)

1 1.5 0.5 686.00 6.28 4308.08

2 2.0 0.5 457.00 11.78 5383.46

3 2.5 0.5 290.00 18.84 5463.60

4 3.0 0.5 200.00 27.48 5496.00

5 4.0 0.5 108.60 49.46 5371.36

6 5.0 0.5 65.80 77.77 5117.27

7 6.0 0.5 41.60 112.26 4670.02

8 8.0 0.5 10.49 200.18 2099.89

9 10.0 0.5 1.17 313.22 366.47

17
10 10.0 2.5 39.50 58.88 2325.76

11 12.0 2.5 16.10 86.51 1392.81

12 15.0 2.5 1.07 137.38 147.00

13 20.0 2.5 1.49 247.28 368.45

14 25.0 2.5 0.33 388.58 128.23

15 30.0 2.5 0.14 561.28 78.58

16 30.0 5.0 0.32 274.75 87.92

17 40.0 5.0 0.12 494.55 59.35

18 50.0 5.0 0.11 777.15 85.49

19 50.0 10.0 0.15 376.8 56.52

20 60.0 10.0 0.13 549.5 71.44

21 75.0 10.0 0.11 867.43 95.42

22 100.0 10.0 0.12 1554.3 186.52

23 100.0 25.0 1.88 588.75 1106.85

24 125.0 25.0 0.13 942.00 122.46

25 150.0 25.0 0.10 1373.80 137.38

26 180.0 25.0 0.10 1995.50 199.55

27 200.0 25.0 0.09 2472.8 222.55

18
2.3.3 VES DATA PROCESSING AND INTERPRETATION

The apparent resistivity data of each VES sounding were plotted against respective spacing
AB/2 (distance in meters from the center of the sounding to current electrodes) on a double
logarithmic paper to get a curve (graph), which was smoothened using Excel. An
interpretation to get (Hydrogeological Model) approximate formation thickness and
resistivity values for each VES sounding was done first selecting interpretable VES sounding
curves; then matching field VES curves with standard graphs for resistivity prospecting from
the Guide Book Prepared by the European Association of Exploration Geophysicists). The
results were further refined by computer interpretation methods using IPI2Win software.

RESISTIVITY CURVES

Graph 4. The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma Resistivity Curves VES 1

The VES 1, This site is NOT recommended for borehole drilling

Layers, Resistivity and depth

19
 Graph 5: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma Resistivity Curves VES 2

The VES 2, The Recommended Drilling Depth is 130 – 145m, 3rd Choice

Layers, Resistivity and depth

20
 Graph 6: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma Resistivity Curves VES 3 CURVE

Curves VES 3, The Recommended Drilling Depth is 115 – 130m, 1st Choice

Layers, Resistivity and depth

21
 Graph 6: The Catholic Diocese of Kigoma Resistivity Curves VES 4

VES 4, The Recommended Drilling Depth is 120 – 135m, 2nd Choice

Layers, Resistivity and depth

22
3.1 WELL DRILLING.

This is the process of drilling a hole into the ground for the extraction of ground water.

Drilling methods or tools vary from one to another place depending on the nature of the rock
formations available due to the geology and nature of rocks in Kigoma the mostly used
drilling method during our practical training was the air rotary method, ALSO CALLED
THE DTH (down the hole).

Image: 1 showing deep well drilling at geza ulole near stand mpya kigoma.

3.2 PROCEDURES FOR WELL DRILLING USING AIR ROTARY METHOD (DTH).

 Inmost of the formations in Kigoma the overburden goes as deep to as around 40m
where the 12inch drill bits are used.
 After the overburden is drilled the 12 inch drill bit is removed, temporary casings are
placed to avoid the collapsing of the well.
 After reaching the compact formation the hammer is placed instead of the 12inch drill
bit. Diameter of the hammer can be 6inch or 8inch depending on the intended
diameter of the well.

23
  The well is then drilled up to the recommended depth by geophysical surveyor. The
drilling rods, hammer, and the temporary surface casings are removed.
 The permanent casings which are mainly 5inch or 6inch diameter are then fitted into
the well. There are two types of PVC casings, plane and perforated. Perforated
casings have screens which allow water to enter the well, and configuration of plane
and perforated casings in a well depends on the nature of the aquifer of a particular
well. Then this is followed by packing filter material into the well, that’s usually
coarse sand or gravel. Too fine material will prevent water from entering the well and
while too coarse material won’t filter the water, eventually the well may become
dirty.
 After several hours the well can be flushed to remove dirty water and other unwanted
materials, and later pump testing if necessary.

3.3 WELL LOGGING

The soil samples were taken during drilling process at an interval of 2 meters and was
described using soil properties such as color, grain size so as to determine location of the
aquifer (porous formation) where screen/perforated PVC can be placed on.

Table 6: well logging data

From To Lithology description

0 4.65 Sand with minor silt

4.65 9.3 Sand with minor silt

9.3 13.95 Sand with minor silt

13.95 18.6 Fine sand with minor clay

18.6 23.25 Fine sand with minor clay

23.25 27.9 Sand with clay

27.9 32.55 Clay with silt

24
32.55 37.2 Clay with silt

37.2 41.85 Clay with silt

41.85 46.5 Silt

46.5 51.15 Clay ( color change from red brown to brown)

51.15 55.8 Clay silt and green shale

55.8 60.45 Dark brown clayey silt(water bearing)

60.45 65.1 Clay with minor silt

65.1 69.75 Green shale and minor silt

69.75 74.4 Green shale and minor silt

74.4 79.05 Green shale and minor silt

79.05 83.7 Green shale and minor silt

83.7 88.35 Green shale and minor silt

88.35 93 Green shale and minor silt

93 97.65 Green shale and minor silt

97.65 102.3 Green shale

3.3.1 UPVC INSTALLATION AND GRAVEL PACKING

After a well had been drilled to the final depth and confirmed that water has satisfactory
quality and quantity, the wells were reamed and completed by placing working casings to the
bottom of the loam, consolidated layer, placement of Casings (Concrete cement and Sanitary
Seals) as well as filter pack/gravel pack materials.

25
Plain and Screen Casings

Following drilling operation for the productive wells, 5 inches-casing(uPVC) were lowered
into the hole with perforated sections (Screens) inserted or created opposite to water strikes
noted during pilot drilling phase or to the depth below the strikes in order to collect water
from the aquifer. At places where no or less potential aquifers plain casings were placed. The
design was in such a way that one plain casing was placed at the bottom of the well and
plugged with plastic plug(bottom cap), followed by one or two screen to collect water from
bottom most aquifer. On top of this screen a plain casing was connected. This plain casing is
considered as a pump house during pump test exercise where a submersible pump is to be
placed at this level. From this section upward the arrangement of screen and plain casings
depended on water strikes and the potential aquifers. The top most plain casing is caped with
wooden plug.

The principle behind of placing casings is to stabilize the sides of the hole, to prevent loose
material movement in the well as well as to allow a maximum amount of water to enter the
well with a maximum hydraulic resistance.

3.3.2 GRAVEL PACKING

Gravel pack is designed in such a way that, small particles from the aquifer can pass freely
through the pores of the gravel. When these particles have been removed during well
development, the effective porosity and permeability are increased and as a result higher
yield and no finer particles movement may occur to the well the size of the gravel used was
2-5mm.

Gravel was poured through annular space, immediately after screen and plain casings are
placed to the terminal depth. Gravel pack was poured into the hole to few metres above the
upper most screen/screens. Above the gravel packing, backfilling of impermeable material
such as clay was placed.

Sanitary Seal and well development

Whenever groundwater pumped from a well is intended for human consumptions, proper
sanitary precautions must be taken to protect water quality especially the on-surface
pollution. It is due to this reason in the project a mixture of cement, sand and gravels at a
ratio of 1:2:4 respectively were used to protect a well as a sanitary seal for every productive
borehole. A column of 2-3m inside the annular space was poured with sanitary seal concrete

26
in order to prevent deep groundwater to be contaminated by any pollution from the
surface.The borehole was developed in order to increase its specific capacity, prevent sanding
and obtain maximum economic well life. This process removes finer particles from the
natural surroundings, perforated sections of the casings. The well development was done by
air compressor flushing the borehole for 3hours using a polypipe of 1.5 inches

Figure 3: gravel pack material Figure 4: permanent casing (UPVC)

27
Figure 5: Showing logged lithology and well design

28
4.1 WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

This refers to the process of analyzing the quality of water for human use and other activities.
One of the most important aspects of analysis is the preparation of sample or waste water to
be used for analysis and for blank water analysis. Blank water is water with no detectable
concentration of the compound or element to be analyzed at the

Detection level of the analytical method. Blank water should be free of substances that
interfere with analytical methods. The quality of water required is related directly to the
analysis being made. Requirements for water quality may differ for organic, inorganic, and
biological constituents depending on the use(s) for which the water is intended. Any method
of preparation of reagent water is acceptable provided that the requisite quality can be met.

Improperly maintained systems may add contaminants. Reverse osmosis, distillation, and
deionization in various combinations all can produce reagent water when used in the proper
arrangement. Ultra filtration and/or ultraviolet treatment also may be used as part of the
process. There are thousands of substances found in natural state of water. For practical
reasons, it would obviously be impossible to monitor all these substances in routine drinking
water quality monitoring programs

4.2 WATER SAMPLE

Water is a compound made up by the combination of two gases hydrogen and oxygen gas.
Hence water is a molecule that contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. There are
different sources of water as water brought about evaporation, condensation, and
precipitation that is called hydrological cycle of water. Rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans are
example of water sources also as water found in ground surface of the earth there are springs
and wells. Uses of Water is very essential commodity for animals and human beings living,
without water there is no life as all lives depends on it.

The followings are the importance and uses of water

 Used for domestic uses like, for cooking, washing, and drinking

 Used for irrigation activities

 Used for industrial activities

29
  Also water is the habitat of other living organisms like, frogs, fishes etc

In our field we studied water for human uses, in industrial and irrigation uses, Domestic uses.
Water quality analysis is essential because of the following reasons.

To avoid disease, control water treatment, to check whether the water quality is
compliance with the provided standard such as World health organization standard, Tanzania
bureau of standard,Educate people about water sources conservation. Where water sources
available are required to be conserved in order to avoid unnecessary cause of water problems
within the society, to identify to what extent the sources have been polluted; this can be
explained after analyzing water sample from water source and taking action on the problem,
to examine how industrial waste affect the quality of water sources and check the water
quality of water supply schemes monitoring.

Procedures to be followed in water quality analysis.

Selection of parameter, to select methods, Sampling, Labeling, Preservation and sample

Analysis. Sample report was prepared to explain all the results obtained in order to take a
control or to know the use of that water and measures to be taken by the authority or industry.

4.3 SAMPLING PROCESS

4.3.1 COLLECTING WATER SAMPLES FOR MICROBIOLOGICAL

EXAMINATION

Although it may be seen a simple matter to collect water samples, errors can occur and
special care must be taken; Problems can also arise independently of the sampling technique
used. Unless valid samples are collected, the work that is carried out in the subsequent
analysis could be as follows.

4.3.2 SAMPLING FROM TAP OUTLET

The steps to be followed for sampling are described below

30
a. Clean the tap and remove from the tap any attachments that may cause splashing and using
a clean cloth wipe the outlet in order to remove any dirt.

b. Open the tap and turn on the tap maximum flow rate and let the water flow for about 1to 2
minutes

c. Sterilize the tap, sterilize the tap for a minute with a flame from an ignited cotton wool
soaked in alcohol alternatively a gas burner or cigarette lighter may be used.

d. Machine capping technique untie the string attached to the protective brown paper cover

e. Open the sterilized bottle, Untie the string fixing the protective Aluminum foil and pull out
unscrew the stopper {standard technique} Machine capping technique:

f. Open the tap prior to sampling and carefully turn on the tap and allow water to flow for 1 to
2 minutes at the medium flow rate untie the string fixing the protective aluminum foil and
pull out unscrew the stopper {standard technique} Machine capping technique: untie the
string attached to the protective brown paper cover. Fill the bottle while holding the cap and
protective cover face down ward so as to prevent the entry of microorganism immediately
hold the bottle under jet and fill. A small air space should be left to facilitate shaking at the
time of analysis.

h. stopper or cap of the bottle: Standard technique; Place the stopper in the bottle; screw on
the cap and fix the brown paper protective cap in the place with the string place the cap in the
position and then affix using the capping machine attach the protective brown cover by
means of string

4.3.3 SAMPLING FROM A WATER SOURCE OR RESERVOIR

Fill the bottle, holding the bottle by the lower part; submerge it to a depth of about 20 with
the Mouth facing slightly upward, if there is a current the bottle mouth should face towards
the current. The bottle is completely filled, discard same water to provide a space for air then
cap.

4.3.4 SAMPLING FROM DUG WELLS AND SIMILAR SOURCES

With a piece of string; Take a 20m length of clean string rolled around a stick and tie a on the
bottle string open the bottle a. lower the bottle weighted down by the store in the well
unwinding the string slowly and do not allow the bottle to touch the sides of the well then fill
the bottle and immerse the bottle completely in the water and lower it down to the bottom of

31
the well, and finally to raise the bottle once the bottle is judged to be filled, rewind the string
round the stick to bring up the bottle. If the bottle is completely filled, discard some water to
provide a space, then stop or cap the bottle.

4.3.5 SAMPLING POINT SELECTION

The objective of sampling is to determine the quality of the water arriving at the users tap or
other outlet which may or may not be the same quality as that in the distribution system at the
point where it is connected to the domestic storage tank is commonly used and the water may
be polluted there, Thus to determine the quality of the tap water it would be necessary to
check the quality of the water from every tank in the community which is not feasible.
Consequently, a water quality control programmer is designed to determine the quality of
water entering the user’s dwelling. The quality of water in the storage tank is the
responsibility of the owner’s occupants of dwelling. This responsibility should be guided and
encouraged by the public health authorities. In selecting points each locality should be
considered individually; however certain general criteria are usually applicable as follows

a) Sampling point should be saturated such that the samples taken are representative of the
different sources from which water enters the system.

b) Those points should include those that yield samples representative of condition of most
unfavorable places in the system, from view point of contamination {loops, reservoirs, and
low pressure zone}

c) Sampling should be uniformly distributed throughout the system.

d) Sampling point should be located in three distribution system. {Open, closed, and mixed in
proportion to the number of links or branches}

e) Sampling point should be generally chosen such that the sample is adequately
representative of the system as whole and it is main components.

f) Sampling point should be located such that a way that water can be sampled from reserve
tank and reservoirs.

g) In the system with more than one water source the sampling point should be located so as
to take account of the number of inhabitants served by each source

32
4.4 PHYSICAL PARAMETER EXAMINATION

Electrical conductivity

Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current. Conductivity in

water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as chloride, nitrate,
sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or sodium, magnesium,
calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive charge). Organic compounds
like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct electrical current very well and therefore
have a low conductivity when in water. Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the
warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is reported as
conductivity at 25 degrees Celsius (25 C).

Importance of measuring electric conductivity

Electrical Conductivity may be used to estimate the total ion concentration of the water, also
is often used as an alternative measure of dissolved solids. It is often possible to establish a
correlation between conductivity and dissolved solids for a specific body of water.

Dissolved solids = conductivity x 0.55 to 0.9 (the most often used is 0.7).Anthropogenic
sources: Mining, roads, industrial, nature of parent rocks & municipal effluents may affect
electric conductivity

INSTRUMENT USED TO MEASURE: Electrical conduct meter.

Procedures:

The EC electrode is rinsed with distilled water. EC electrode is dipped into the sample and
press read. Then the display will be shown on the screen in μs/cm.

4.5 COLOR OF WATER

Method: Calorimetric

Color is the product of the spectrum of light as it reflected or absorbed as received by the
human Eyes. Color can be expressed either as apparent color or true color also color in
natural water is the is the result of the presence of metal ions (iron and magnesium), humus,
peat material planktons, weeds and industrial waste, True color of water sample can be
determined by filtering or centrifuging out the suspended materials in the water sample. The
apparent color includes color from dissolved materials plus that from suspended matter.

33
Principle;

Color is determined by visual comparison of the sample with known concentration of colored
solution. Comparison also may be made with special glass color disc if they have been
properly calibrated.

Procedures

a) Assemble the apparatus in order for measurement of the colour value of water sample.

b) Rinse the filter through pouring 50ml of distilled water on it.

c) The blank sample prepared by using 25ml of distilled water to sample cell

d) 50ml of water sample poured through the filter to sample cell.

e) The program number 19 entered for APHA color in a calorimeter.

f) 50ml of water sample poured through the filter.

g) A second sample cell (prepared sample) filled with 25ml of the filtered sample.

h) The blank sample cell placed into the cell holder.

i) Then zero button pressed as the referencing reading.

j) The prepared water sample placed into the cell holder.

k) Then read button for reading color value pressed.

The calorimeter displayed color value on the screen and recorded. Amount ofcolor value
found was

4.6 TURBIDITY

Turbidity is an expression of an optical property of water that causes light to be scattered

rather than transmitted in a straight line though the sample. Correlation of turbidity with the
weight concentration of the suspended matter is difficult because the size, shape and
refractive index of the particulate materials are important optically but bear little direct
relationship to the concentration and specific gravity of the suspended matter. Optically black
particles such as those of the activated carbon may absorb light and effectively increase
turbidity measurement.

Causes for turbidity

34
Turbidity in water can be caused by the presence of suspended matter such as silt finely
divided organic matter and inorganic matter, soluble colored organic compounds, plankton
and other microscopic organisms.

Method: Spectrophotometric method and Instruments use dare turbid meter and Sample cells.

PROCEDURES

 Sample cell is shaken for about one minute

 then 100ml of sample is pipette into the 10ml sample cell

 also 10ml of distilled water is pipette into the sample cell

 the sample cell with distilled water is placed into turbid meter; then press ZERO

The display will show Zeroing, after the turbid meter beeps the sample is placed in turbid
meter then press READING. Then results will be displayed on the screen in NTU.

Effects of turbidity

In drinking water, the higher the level of turbidity the higher the risk that people can

Develop gastrointestinal diseases.

Also the suspended solids in water can interfere with water disinfection because the particles
actas shields for viruses and bacteria.

Similarly suspended solids can protect bacteria from ultraviolent light sterilization.

4.7 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS)

Method: potentiometric method

Introduction:

This is a measure of the amount of dissolved material in the water column. It is reported in
mg/L with values in fresh water naturally ranging from 0-1000 mg/L. Dissolved salts such as
sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate contribute to elevated filterable residue values.
Measuring the mass of residues left. Potentiometric method by using PH meter is generally
the best method in measuring total dissolved solids,

Importance of measuring TDS

35
High concentrations of TDS limit the suitability of water as a drinking source and irrigation
supply. High TDS waters may interfere with the clarity, color and taste of manufactured
products. Anthropogenic sources, Mining (parent rock), industrial effluent, sewage treatment,
agriculture, road salts may have potential effect on total dissolved solid

4.8 PH DETERMINATION

The pH is the logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter.
The pH scale extends from 0 very acidic to 14 very alkaline while of being neutral at the PH
7.

The pH of most natural water falls within of water the range (4-9). The majority of water is

slightly basic due to the presence of carbonate and bicarbonates in equilibrium with dissolved
carbon dioxide that gives water certain buffering capacity which means that PH of any
natural water remains relatively stable

The PH can be measured either calorimetrically or electrometrically. The calorimetric method

suffers from severe inter colloidal matter and various oxidants and reductions present in
water.

Therefore, calorimetric method offers only rough estimation of the PH value of the sample is
not recommended for use in stationary laboratory. Electrometric method employing glass
electrode is accepted as standard method of determining the PH in the laboratory.

INSTRUMENTS USED

The reference electrode of these the most widely used are calomel and silver chloride.

PROCEDURES

The pH meter is then switched on and then is rinsed with distilled water after then the
electrode is dipped in the water sample and then can press measure button. The meter will
read and then the PH will be displayed on the screen of PH meter and can be recorded.

36
4.9 TEMPERATURE

Instrument: PH meter

This is a measurement of the intensity (not amount) of heat stored in a volume of water.
Surface water temperatures naturally range from 0°C under ice cover to 40°C in hot springs.
Natural sources of heat include: solar radiation, transfer from air and condensation of water
vapor at the water surface, sediments, precipitation, surface runoff and groundwater.
Temperature is the primary influencing factor on water density.

Importance temperature

Temperature affects the solubility of many chemical compounds and can therefore influence
the effect of pollutants on aquatic life. Increased temperatures elevate the metabolic oxygen
demand, which in conjunction with reduced oxygen solubility, impacts many species.
Vertical stratification patterns that naturally occur in lakes affect the distribution of dissolved
and suspended compounds.

Anthropogenic sources:

Industrial effluents, agriculture, forest harvesting, urban developments, mining (parent rock).

4.10 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF WATER

Alkalinity (Phenolphthalein PH>8.3)

This is the measurement of the waters ability to neutralize acids. It is usually indicating the
presence of basic constituent of water such as carbonates, bicarbonates and hydroxides.
Alkalinity results are expressed in terms of an equivalent of calcium carbonate. Note that this
does not mean that calcium carbonate was found in the sample. Natural waters rarely have
levels that exceed 500 mg/L. Alkalinity values in coastal areas of typically range from 0 to 10
mg/L, while interior regions of the province can have alkalinity values that exceed 100 mg/L.

Importance:

Waters that have high alkalinity values are considered undesirable because of excessive
hardness and high concentrations of sodium salts. Water with low alkalinity has little capacity
to buffer acidic inputs and is susceptible to acidification (low pH).

Anthropogenic sources that destroy alkalinity:

37
-Mining,

-Industrial effluents,

-Acidic precipitation.

Total alkalinity is determined with methyl orange indicator to give sufficient information for
the treatment of water (control coagulation and corrosion prevention) when the PH is also
determined. Alkalinity can be determined by titration with a standard solution of strong
minerals acid to the successive bicarbonate and carbonic acid, Equivalent point is indicated
by methyl orange indicator where changes from yellow to orange.

Materials/Reagents;

 Methyl orange indicator

 Standard hydrochloric acid 0.02N.

Apparatus;

 Measuring cylinder, conical flask and burette.

Procedures

Take 50 ml sample in a conical flask. Add 2 to 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator. If it

turns pink (pH > 8.3), titrate with 0.02 N H2SO4 to disappearance of the colour. Record mL
titrant used.

Calculation.

Phenophthalein alkalinity mg CaCO3/l = A x N x50000

Volume of sample used.

Where

A=ml of titrant used

N=Normality of titrant.

Theory behind total alkalinity

Total alkalinity is the total concentration of bases in water expressed as parts per million
(ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L) of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These bases are usually
bicarbonates (HCO3) and carbonates (CO3), and they act as a buffer system that prevents

38
drastic changes in PH. For example, in waters with low alkalinity, pH might fluctuate from 6
or lower to as high as 10 or above; while in high alkalinity waters, pH might fluctuate from
about 7.5 to 8.5.

Alkalinity measures the ability of a solution to neutralize acid to the equivalent point of
carbonate or bicarbonate. The alkalinity is equal to the stoichiometric sum of the bases in
solution. In the natural environment carbonate alkalinity tends to make up most of the total
alkalinity due to the common occurrence and dissolution of carbonate rocks and presence of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Other common natural components that can contribute to
alkalinity include borate, hydroxide, phosphate silicate, nitrate, dissolved ammonia, the
conjugate bases of some organic acids and sulfide. Solutions produced in a laboratory may
contain a virtually limitless number of bases that contribute to alkalinity. Alkalinity is usually
given in the unit mEq/L (mill equivalent per liter). Commercially, as in the swimming pool
industry, alkalinity might also be given in the unit ppm or parts per million.

Alkalinity can be measured by titrating a sample with a strong acid until all the
bufferingcapacity of the fore mentioned ions above the pH of bicarbonate or carbonate is
consumed.

This point is functionally set to PH 4.5. At this point, all the bases of interest have been
protonated to the zero level species; hence they no longer cause alkalinity. For example, the
following reactions take place during the addition of acid to a typical seawater solution

Method: TITRIMETRIC TO PH= 4.5(Methyl orange/Mixed indicator)

Apparatus

 Burettes, volumetric flask, beakers, measuring cylinder and dropper.

Reagents

a. Standard mineral acid 0.02N hydrochloric acid and Methyl orange indicator

Procedure

50ml of sample was measured by measuring cylinder and transferred into 250ml conical
flask, 2 or 3 drops of methyl orange added and shaken to mix the solution. Then the solution
into the flask titrated against standard mineral acid 0.02N Hcl solution until the end point
when color changed from yellow to orange.

39
Calculation.

Total alkalinity as mg/l of CaCO3=BxNx50000/ volume of sample

Where B=Total ml of 0.02NHcl used to titrate to reach the end point.

N= Normality of standard acid.

V=volume of sample used on titration.

4.11 DETERMINATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS IN WATER.

Principle

Hard water is due to metal ions (minerals) that are dissolved in the ground water. These
minerals include Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe3+, SO4 2-, and HCO3. This is why we measure hardness
in terms of CaCO3; the concentration of the Ca2+ ions is greater than the concentration of
any other metal ion in water. The determination of water hardness is a useful test that
provides a measure of quality of water for production of soft drinks beverage. Water hardness
was defined as the measure of the capacity of the water to precipitate soap. Hard water is not
a health hazard. People regularly takecalcium supplements. Drinking hard water contributes a
small amount of calcium and magnesium toward the total human dietary needs of calcium
and magnesium hard water does cause soap scum, clog pipes and clog boilers.

Soap scum is formed when the calcium ion binds with the soap. This causes an insoluble
compound that precipitates to form the scum you see. Soap actually softens hard water by
removing the Ca2+ ions from the water.

When hard water is heated, CaCO3 precipitates out, which then clogs pipes and industrial
boilers? This leads to malfunction or damage and is expensive to remove.

4.12 CHLORIDE IN WATER SAMPLES

Chlorine is often added to drinking water supplies to kill harmful microorganisms. Chlorine
is not only an effective disinfectant, but it also reacts with ammonia, iron and other metals
and some organic compounds to improve overall water quality. There is a limit to the use of
chlorine, however, as negative results are possible with the addition of too much chlorine.
Bad tastes or odors in water are often enhanced. Excess chlorine can be harmful to fish and
other aquatic animals when the water contains nitrogen compounds. Finally, the formation of

40
chloroform and other suspected carcinogens is possible. It is very important for water
suppliers to monitor closely the levels of chlorine present in the water for which they are
responsible. Practically, water systems look for a level of chlorine remaining in the water
after treatment to be 1 mg/L or less for minimizing adverse effects while maintaining
disinfectant properties. Above 1 mg/L, odor and taste often become problematic.

The method of determining chlorine in this experiment relies on a color indicator, DPD
( diethyl--phenylene-diamine). In the presence of chlorine, DPD reacts rapidly to form a red
color, the intensity of which is an indicator of chlorine concentration. The higher the
absorbance, the higher the chlorine concentration;

Apparatus;

Restord stand, conical flask, Burette and Measuring cylinder.

Method: ARGENTOMETRIC TITRATION

In neutral or slightly alkaline solution potassium chromate can be used to indicate the end
point of silver nitrate titration to silver chloride is quantitatively precipitated before red silver
chromate is formed. Chlorides appear in the highest concentration in natural fresh water
system. It is reported as mg/l. Halide concentrations are generally greater in lakes that are
proximity to marine regions as well as ground water.

Importance of Chloride determination

1. Chloride is important in terms of metabolic processes, as it influences osmotic salinity

balance and ion exchange also higher chloride concentrations can reduce the toxicity of
nitrite to aquatic life.

Principle:

In a neutral or slightly alkaline solution, potassium chromate can indicate the end point of the
silver nitrate titration of chloride. Silver chloride is precipitated quantitatively before red
silver chromate is formed

Reagents;

1. Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) indicator solution, Standard silver nitrate 0.01N,Water

sample and distilled water

Apparatus;

41
1. 50ml measuring cylinder.10ml pipette, 250ml beaker; where water was placed in from
titration area ready for analysis,pH meter; which used to record the value of pH of water
sample,. Measuring cylinder; It was used to measure volume of a given water sample

Procedure

i. Sample in pH range 7-10 was titrated directly, but if the sample in this range was

adjusted with Sulphuric acid or Sodium hydroxide and Pipetted 50ml water sample to 250ml
conical flask and was added 1ml K2CrO4 and was mixed well then sample were titrated with
standard silver titrant till a brownish ting was appeared and results were recorded.

Calculation

Cl- mg/l = A* 0.01*35.45*1000

Volume of Sample

Where A=volume of standard silver nitrate 0.01N AgNO3

4.13 CALCIUM IN WATER

Method: EDTA TITRIMETRIC

Principle: When EDTA is added to water containing both calcium and magnesium, it
combines first with the calcium. Calcium can be determined directly, with EDTA, when PH
is made sufficiently high that the magnesium is largely precipitated as the hydroxide and an
indicator is used that combines with calcium only. Several indicators give a color change
when all of the calcium has been complexes by the EDTA at PH of 12 to 13.

Apparatus

50ml measuring cylinder,250ml conical flask, dropper, spatula and titrant bottle

Reagents

a. Sodium hydroxide NaOH 8N or Potassium hydroxide KOH 8N. Dissolve 224 g KOH or
160 g NaOH in 500 ml distilled water.

42
b. Murexide (ammonium purpurate) indicator: Mix 200 mg dye with100g solid NaCl. Grind
to 40 to 50 mesh size, Reeder’s indicator); Mix 1g HHSNN plus 100 g or HHSNN indicator
(Patton and anhydrous sodium sulphate.

c. Standard EDTA titrant, 0.01N: Prepared by Weighting 1.862 g di-sodium salt of EDTA
dehydrate, dissolve in distilled water and dilute to 1000mL. Store in polyethylene
bottle,standardize EDTA against standard calcium solution periodically following the method
described below.

Note: 1 ml = 200.4 μgCa

d. Standard calcium solution: Weigh 0.500 g anhydrous CaCO3 in 500 mL flask (primary
standard). Add (1+1) HCl in small amounts through a small funnel till all CaCO3 is
dissolved. Add 200mL distilled water and boil for a few minutes to expel CO2. Cool and add
a few drops of methyl red indicator and adjust to intermediate orange color by adding 3N
NH4OH or 1 + 1 HCl, as required. Transfer quantitatively and dilute to 1000mL with
distilled water, this solution is 0.01N CaCO3. Note: 1 ml = 200.4μgCa.

e. Buffer: Made by dissolving 1.179g disodium salts of ethylenediamine tetra acetic acid
dehydrate and0.780 g MgSO4.7H2O in 50 ml in distilled water. Add this solution to 16.9 g
NH4Cl dissolved in143 ml NH4OH concentrated and make up to 250 ml with distilled water.

Disodium salt ofEDTA is unavailable use 1.25 g magnesium salt of EDTA.

Procedure

a) Pipette accurately 50mL sample or an aliquot diluted to 50mL such that the calcium
content is not more than 10 mg. Samples which contain alkalinity greater than 300 mg/L
should be neutralized with acid, boiled for 1 min and cooled before titration.

b) Add 5mL of 8N NaOH solution or a volume sufficient to produce a PH of 12 to 13.

Add a dash of indicator (0.1 to 0.2 g HHSNN or murexide), mix well and start titration
immediately with EDTA solution, with continuous mixing, till the colorchanges from pink to
purple when murexide is used or from red to blue if using HHSNN.

Check end point by adding 1 to 2 drops excess titrant to make certain reaction that no further
colorchange occurs.

Calculation:

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For Calcium (mg/L) = A X B X N x 20.4 X 1000

V sample

Where;

A = Volume of EDTA used as titrant

B = Factor calculated as ml standard CaCO 3 during standardization ml EDTA titrant during

standardization

N = Normality of EDTA solution used which is 0.01

V = Volume of sample

Therefore;

Mg/L for Calcium = A X B X 200.4

Types of Hardness

There are two types of water hardness, temporary and permanent.

Temporary Hardness is due to the bicarbonate ion, HCO3-, being present in the water. This
type of hardness can be removed by boiling the water to expel the CO2. Bicarbonate hardness
is classified as temporary hardness. While permanent hardnessis due to the presence of the
ions like Ca2+, Mg+2, Fe3+ and SO4, This type of hardness cannot be eliminated by boiling.
The water with this type of hardness is said to be permanently hard.

4.14 DETERMINATION OF MAGNESIUM IN WATER

Magnesium is present in sea water the amount of about 1300ppm. After sodium it is the must
commonly found cation in oceans. River contains approximately 4ppm of magnesium.
Drinking water may contain 1-5 mg/L Magnesium and other alkali metals are responsible for
the water hardness. Water that contains large amount of alkali earth ions is termed as hard
water and if the concentration is very law is termed as soft water. Magnesium is usually
present as Mg2+, MgOH and Mg (OH)2, in sea water can be inform of MgSO4. Water
solubility of magnesium hydroxide is 12mg/L other magnesium compound example MgCO3
600mg/L

Occurrence in water:

A large number of minerals contains mg2+ for example Dolomite (Ca (CO3)2 and mg CO3

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(magnesite) and Hardness differs per region due to the geological make up of that region.

Effects of magnesium in water

1. High level of magnesium in drinking water lead to increase water hardness

2. Also high concentration in water can cause the heath effect such as vomiting and Diarrhea.

4.15 APPARATUS AND INSTRUMENTS USED:

250ml conical flask, titrant bottle, 50ml measuring cylinder and Dropper

PROCEDURES

a) Measure 50ml of water sample by measuring cylinder and transfer into 250ml conical
flask. Then add 2ml of buffer solution and a dash of erichrome black T indicator into the
conical flask containing50ml of measured water sample. Then titrate the solution with 0.01N
EDTA solution until end point when color change from purple to pure blue. Let volume of
EDTA used be A.

b) To measure 50ml of water sample and transfer into 250ml conical flask. Add 5mL of 8N

NaOH solution or a volume sufficient to produce a PH of 12 to 13. Add a dash of indicator

(0.1 to 0.2 g HHSNN or murexide), mix well and start titration immediately with EDTA
Solution, with continuous mixing, till the color changes from pink to purple when murexide
is used or from red to blue if using HHSNN. The volume of EDTA used let = B.

CALCULATION:

Total hardness in mg/L as Caco3 = (A–B) x N x 12.16x1000

Where A = ml EDTA used to titrate total hardness.

A =ml of ml of EDTA used to titrate total

B =ml of EDTA used to titrate Ca2+

N = Normality of EDTA Solution

V = Volume of sample

PROCEDURES:

45
The Concentration of mg2+ in the water sample can be obtained by the difference between
the total hardness of that sample and Ca2+ Concentration the sample.

Fluoride Determination in Water.

Fluoride may be present as the result of the natural decomposition of rocks, or when present
in treated drinking water supplies, as the result of a local water fluoridation program. It is
reported as mg/L total fluoride. A fluoride concentration of approximatelly1.0mg/l is an
effective preventive of dental caries without harmful effect on health. In Tanzania however
the concentration of fluoride is much higher up to till 20-30mg/l. A high amount of fluoride is
harmful for human health causing fluorosis. Excessive amounts of fluoride can result in
mottled tooth enamel. The maximum acceptable concentration in drinking water is 1.5 mg/L.

Fluorides content is determined pontentiometrically with a specific iron meter by means of

fluoride electrode and a reference electrode. The fluoride electrode sensing element is
Lanthanum fluoride, single crystal membrane in contact with an internal reference solution.

Apparatus.Specific Ion meter with fluoride electrode.

Reagents

Fluoride stock solution 100ppm, Fluoride standard solution 1ppm-2ppm, 5MNaOH solution,
Total ionic strength adjustment buffer (TISAB)

Procedure

a. Check if the battery is charged sufficiently.

b. Prepare standardizing solution 1pppm and 2ppmF- by transferring exactly 10ml of the
Standard solution in a beaker. Add to each solution exactly10ml of TISAB solution.

c. Transfer also exactly 10ml of each sample to be determined into a beaker and add exactly

10ml of TISAB solution.

d. Turn function switched on.

e. Rinse and dry the electrodes and place them in the 1ppm solution. Stir and turn the
calibration control to get a scale reading of 1 on the rod scale.

f. Rinse the electrode blots dry and place in the 1ppm solution. Adjust the scale reading at 2
by means of the temperature compensator knob.

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g. Repeat the procedure (e) and (f) above until the apparatus is calibrated properly.

Rinse the electrode blot dry and place in the unknown solutions prepared as described under

(c), Stir the sample and wait until needle completely stopped. Read on the red scale the
concentration of F- in ppm. If the needle goes off scale right, dilute the sample.

4.16 BACTERIOLOGY EXAMINATION OF WATER SAMPLE

METHOD, Membrane filtration method

Introduction.

The intention of microbiology examination is to indicate the degree of contamination of the

water with waste from human or animal sources. Even though method for direct
determination of the pathogen micro-organism have been developed they are from practical
point of view, not suitable because of the time consuming and expensive procedures.
Therefore, this method has been made for test for the detection and enumeration of indicator
organism rather than of pathogen.

The coliform group of bacteria is normally the principle indicator organism of the suitability
for domestic use. However the membrane filter method described here provide direct plating
for identification and estimation of total viable count of total coliform, fecal coliform and e-
coli.

Principle,

The water filtered through a membrane filter with pore of small size approximately 0.45
micrometer that any bacteria are held back on the filter surface, when the filter are incubated
on the nutrient media then bacteria will grow into colonies which can be classified and
counted.

Description of the indicator organism,

Total coliform (TC),

Total coliform is all organism producing colonies at 35 degree Celsius after 24 hours of
incubation with golden metallic sheen and of dark red color, total coliform bacteria should
also produce a dark sport on the ungridded side of the filter and they are all lactose
fermenting, gram negative rods belonging to the family enterobacteriaceae.

Fecal coliform,
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Fecal coliform is fecal origin in contrast to the coliform from other sources, fecal coliform are
the part of the total coliform and here Escherichia coli is the most common fecal coliform and
is the indicator of the fecal contamination by warm blooded animal including man.

Also thepresence of the fecal coliform indicate the recent pollution because it unable to
multiply under the external condition and hence will die off quickly.

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Apparatus,

a. Incubator with incubation cylinder, Hot air sterilizing oven, Autoclave, Distiller
b. Filtration equipment(filter membrane of 0.45 micrometer)
c. Sterilizing apparatus such as glassware.

Media preparation,

The survival and growth of microorganism depend on available and favorable growth
environment, media are nutrient solution used in the laboratories to grow microorganism and
for the successful cultivation of the given microorganism is necessary to understand its
nutritional requirement and the supply the essential nutrient in the proper form and
proportional in media.

For fecal coliform the following are required, M-FC AGAR media of 5.21g dissolved in 1ml
of rosolic acid and 100ml of distilled water, for total coliform use M-ENDO AGAR of 5.2g
then dissolve in 2.1ml of ethanol and 100ml of distilled water but for the total coliform no
autoclave and for Escherichia coli (E- coli) we use EMB AGAR of 3.75g dissolved in 100ml
distilled water then divided in 20 petridish.

Colonies counting,

For total coliform only all colonies of metallic and dark red appearance forming of dark sport
on the ungridded side of the filter should be counted and result is given in term of number per
100ml.

For fecal coliform all colonies of blue and light blue colour only should be counted and the
result is given in number per 100ml.

After counting the colonies result are represented or reported in reporting accuracy for
colony count as follows

Table 7 Colonies counting table, showing how the counted number of colony being reported

Number of colonies Reported as

0 <1

1-10 Nearest 1

49
 10-100 Nearest 5

100-200 Nearest 10(for TC>100)

>100 >200 (for FC,TVCand FS)

EVALUATION,

After colonies counting the found data are evaluated and in Tanzania temporal water quality
standards the following evaluation are used to classify water sources portability

Table 8; showing portability in term of bacteria count.

Total coliform per 100ml at Fecal coliform per 100ml at

350c 44.50c

Excellent 0 0

Satisfactory 1-3 0

Suspicious 4-10 0

unsatisfactory >10 >1

Table 9;Water quality data

Sample PH TDS EC TURBIDITY COLOR TH Ca Mg Fe T E.col Fc

Mg/ Mg/l Mg/l c i
l

Lake 8.7 330 661 2.38 10 10 5.4 21.0 0.69 4 20 18

Tanganyika 6 0 1

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Open 6.6 293 387 6.72 9 60 7 10.4 0.75 56 64 100
borehole 1 4 7

Shallow 5.3 51.9 103. 7.07 0 27 7 2.31 1.07 2 8 0

well 5 7

EAC LIMIT 5.5- 150 2500 25 50 60 150 100 0.3 - - -

9.5 0 0

From the data represented above the water in kigoma seem to have high concentration of iron
as chemical parameter which exceed the East Africa community limit which is 0.3, apart
from chemical parameter biological parameter seem to be high in open bore hole because
there is entrance of water from different places brought by surface run-off into the bore hole.

4.17 RECOMMENDATIONS

Our practical training in Kigoma was successful as scheluded by the university, we

managed to learn and practice on both ground water surveying, drilling and well designing as
well as water quality analysis.

We would like to recommend the university to increase the practical training duration as the
laboratory is modernly equiped and basic equipments for surveying and drilling are available.
This will give the students enough time to visit more projects, do more surveys, and more
time to study water samples from many sources from different areas.

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4.18 CONCLUSION.

During our practical training we managed to attend 2 ground water projects which were
owned by private owners. Also we spent our time in the zonal water quality laboratory
working on the physical chemical and biological parameters.

The water bearing formations are mainly found at the depth of 50m going up to 120m
deep. The aquifers are unconfined, the overburden being laterites, clay and silt, sediments
which are composing the Bukoban sediments. The aquifers are made up of coarse sand and
conglomerates and shales at the bottom.

Water samples from different sources showed concentrations of anions and cations which
are within the EAC and WHO limit except for iron and manganese which are higher. Water
samples from the lake showed pH of about 9.4 implying high salt content, which hinders the
usage of Lake Tanganyika water in industrial activities.

Also water samples from the open bore holes and the lake are prone to biogenic pollution
from human and animal waste.

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 REFERENCE

 Freeze R. A and Cherry, (1970) Ground water, Prentice – Hall, Inc. New Jersey
 Kevin M. Hiscock (2005) Hydrogeology Principles and Practice, School of
environmental Science University of East Anglia United Kingdom.
 Manual of applied Field hydrogeology, McGraw-Hill Companies.
 Third Year Lecture Notes GY 351 (Introduction to hydrogeology )
 Willis D. Weight (2004) D. J. Poehls and Gregory J. Smith (2009) Encyclopedic
Dictionary of Hydrogeology, First edition Amsterdam

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