1.1.

VIBRATION OF A TAUT STRING 1

1.138J/2.062J/18.376J, WAVE PROPAGATION

Fall, 2004 MIT
Notes by C. C. Mei

CHAPTER 1. SAMPLE WAVE PROBLEMS

To describe a problem in mathematical terms, one must make use of the basic laws
that govern the elements of the problem. In continuum mechanics, these are the conser-
vation laws for mass and momentum. In addition, empirical constitutive laws are often
needed to relate certain unknown variables; examples are equations of state, Hooke’s
law between stress and strain, etc.
To derive the conservation law one may consider an infinitesimal element (a line
segment, area or volume element), yielding a differential equation directly. Alternately,
one may consider a control volume (or area, or line segment) of arbitrary size in the
medium of interest. The law is first obtained in integral form; a differential equation is
then derived by using the arbitrariness of the control volume. The two approaches are
completely equivalent.
Let us first demonstrate the differential approach.

1 Transverse vibration of a taut string

Referring to Figure 1, consider a taut string stretched between two fixed points at x = 0
and x = L. Let the cross-sectional area be S. If there is an initial stretching of ∆L, the
initial tension T must be
∆L
T = ES
L
by Hooke’s law, where E is Young’s modulus.
Now study the lateral displacement of the string from the initial position. By the law
of conservation of transverse momentum, the total lateral force on the string element
must be balanced by its inertia. Let the lateral displacement be V (x, t) and consider a
differential element between x and x + dx. The net transverse force due to the difference
of tension at both ends of the element is

(T sin α)x+dx − (T sin α)x ,

1.1. VIBRATION OF A TAUT STRING 2

V
( T sin α )x+dx
p(x,t)
dV
α

- ( Tsin α)x x x+dx 0 L x

Figure 1: Deformation of a taut string

where
∂V
dV
sin α = √ 2 = q ∂x .
dx + dV 2 1 + ( ∂V ) 2
∂x
We shall assume the displacement to be small everywhere so that the slope is also small:
∂V
∂x
 1. The local value of sin α can then be approximated by
!3
∂V ∂V
+O ,
∂x ∂x
where the expression O(δ) stands for of the order of δ. For any smooth function f ,
Taylor expansion gives
!
∂f 2
f (x + dx) − f (x) = dx + O (dx) ,
∂x
where the derivative is evaluated at x. Hence the net tension is
!
∂ ∂V
T dx + O(dx)2 .
∂x ∂x
The instantaneous length `(x, t) of the string from 0 to x is
 !21/2  !2 
Z x ∂V ∂V
` (x, t) = dx 1 +  = x 1 + O .
0 ∂x ∂x

It follows that !2
`−x ∂V
=O for all 0 < x < L,
x ∂x
which is of second-order smallness. The string length, hence the tension, is essentially
unchanged with an error of O (∂V /∂x)2 , i.e., T can be taken as constant with a similarly
small error. Thus the net tension in the string element is well represented by
∂ 2V
T 2 dx.
∂x
1.1. VIBRATION OF A TAUT STRING 3

If the mass per unit length of the string is ρ, the inertia of the element is ρ(∂ 2V/∂t2 )dx.
Let the applied load per unit length be p(x, t). Momentum conservation requires that

∂ 2V ∂ 2V 2
ρdx 2
= T 2
dx + pdx + O (dx) .
∂t ∂x

Eliminating dx and taking the limit of dx → 0, we get

ρ ∂ 2V ∂ 2V p
2
− 2
= . (1.1)
T ∂t ∂x T

This equation, called the wave equation, is a partial differential equation of the second
order. It is linear in the unknown V and inhomogeneous because of the forcing term on
the right-hand side.
Is the longitudinal displacement U important in this problem? Conservation of
momentum in the x direction requires that

∂ 2U
ρdx = (T cos α)x+dx − (T cos α)x .
∂t2

Since !2
dx 1 ∼ ∂V
cos α = q =r  2 = 1 + O ∂x ,
(dx)2 + (dV )2 1+ ∂V
∂x

the acceleration is of second-order smallness

 !2  ! !
ρ ∂ 2U ∂ ∂V ∂V ρ ∂ 2V
2
= O  =O .
T ∂t ∂x ∂x ∂x T ∂t2
 
∂V
Hence U = O ∂x
V by twice integration with respect to t, and the longitudinal dis-
placement can be ignored.
The differential equation (1.1) involves second-order derivatives with respect to both
x and t. Two auxilliary conditions are needed for each variable. For example, at the
initial instant, we may prescribe both the displacement and the velocity:

V (x, 0) = f (x) (1.2)

and
∂V
(x, 0) = g(x). (1.3)
∂t
1.2. VIBRATION OF AN ELASTIC ROD 4

These statements are called the initial conditions. In addition we must also specify the
boundary conditions at the ends. For a string stretched between two fixed ends, we
require
V (0, t) = 0 and V (L, t) = 0. (1.4)

Together with the partial differential equation, these auxilliary conditions define the
initial-boundary-value problem. From the mathematical point of view, it is important
to establish whether such a problem is well posed. This question involves the proof for
the existence, uniqueness and stability of the solution.
As seen in this example, Taylor expansion is used at almost every step of the deriva-
tion. Indeed, it is indispensable not only in deriving governing equations, but also in
obtaining approximate solutions of the equations, and in analyzing the physical content
of the solution.
Note that the dimension of the coefficient T /ρ is
" #  2
T ML/t2 L
= = = [velocity]2 .
ρ M/L t
q
Now introduce the notation c = T /ρ , which is a characteristic velocity of the physical
problem. Equation (1.1) can then be written

1 ∂ 2V ∂ 2V p
2 2
− 2
= , (1.5)
c ∂t ∂x T

which is called the wave equation arising in numerous contexts.

2 Longitudinal vibration of an elastic rod

Consider an elastic rod with the cross-sectional area S(x) and Young’s modulus E, as
shown in Figure (2). Let the longitudinal displacement from equilibrium be U (x, t).
The strain at station x is
∆U ∂U
lim = .
∆x→0 ∆x ∂x
By Hooke’s law, the tension at x is
∂U
ES .
∂x