Linear Transformations & Canonical Forms: Department of Foundation Year Institute of Technology of Cambodia

CHAPTER II
LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS & CANONICAL

FORMS
Department of Foundation Year
Institute of Technology of Cambodia
2019–2020
CANONICAL FORMS ITC 1 / 56

Contents
1 Linear Transformations
2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
3 Diagonalization and Triangularization
4 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
5 Jordan Canonical Form

Contents

Linear Transformations
Notatoins. In this whole chapter, we will use the following notations.

1 K = R or C.
2 Km×n = Mm×n (K) = {A = (aij )m×n : aij ∈ K}.
3 Mn (K) = Mn×n (K)
4 V K = the set of vector spaces over field K.
5 VnK = the set of n-dimensional vector spaces over K.
6 I = identity matrix or identity mapping.
7 L : V → V is a map. LS = the restriction of L on S ⊆ V .
8 K [X] = the set of polynomials with coefficients in K.
9 Kn [X] = the set of polynomials in K [X] with degree at most n.

Definition 1
Let V, W ∈ V K . A mapping L : V → W is said to be a linear
transfromation or linear if
1 u, v ∈ V : L(u + v) = L(u) + L(v)
2 v ∈ V, α ∈ K : L(αv) = αL(v).
Definition 2
Let V, W ∈ V K . We denote L(V, W ) the set of all linear
transformation from V into W . That is,
L(V, W ) = {L : V → W | L is linear}
If V ≡ W , we write L(V ) instead of L(V, V ), and called the set of all

linear operator on V .

Theorem 1
1 If L ∈ L(V, W ), then L(0) = 0.
2 L ∈ L(V, W ) if and only if for v1 , v2 ∈ V and α ∈ K:
L (v1 + αv2 ) = L (v1 ) + αL (v2 ) .
3 L ∈ L(V, W ) if and only if for v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ V and

a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ K:
n n
!
X X
L ak vk = ak L(vk ).
k=1 k=1

Definition 3
Let L ∈ L(V, W ).
1 The image of V1 ⊂ V is defined by
L (V1 ) = {L (v) : v ∈ V1 }.
2 The range or the image of L is defined by
Im (L) = R(L) = L (V ) = {L (v) ∈ W : v ∈ V } .
3 The pre-image of W1 ⊂ W is defined by
L−1 (W1 ) = {v ∈ V : L (v) = w ∈ W1 } .
4 The kernel or null space of L is defined by
Ker (L) = N(L) = L−1 ({0}) = {v ∈ V : L (v) = 0} .

Definition 4
1 A map f : D → R is said to be one-to-one (or injective) if and
only if
x1 , x2 ∈ D : x1 6= x2 =⇒ f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
2 A map f : D → R is said to be onto (or surjective) if and only if
∀y ∈ R, ∃x ∈ D : y = f (x).
3 A map f : D → R is said to be one-to-one correspondence (or
bijective) if and only if it is one-to-one and onto.
4 Let L ∈ L(V, W ). If L is one-to-one and onto then L is called
isomorphism between V and W .
5 L ∈ L(V ) is called an endomorphism on V .
6 Let L ∈ L(V ). If L is one-to-one and onto then L is called an
automorphism on V .

Theorem 2
Let L ∈ L(V, W ). Then
1 If V1 is a subspace of V , then L (V1 ) is a subspace of W . In
particular, Im(L) is a subspace of W .
2 If W1 is a subspace of W , then L−1 (W1 ) is a subspace of V . In
particular, Ker(L) is a subspace of V .
Definition 5
Let L ∈ L(V, W ). If Ker(L) and Im(L) are finite-dimensional. We
define,
1 The nullity of L, denoted by null(L), to be the dimension of
Ker(L). That is, null(L) = dim(Ker(L)).
2 The rank of L, denoted by rank(L), to be the dimension of Im(L).
That is, rank(L) = dim(Im(L)).

Theorem 3
Let L ∈ L(V, W ). L is one-to-one if and only if Ker(L) = {0}.
Theorem 4
Let L ∈ L(V, W ). If dim V = dim W < ∞, then L is one-to-one if and
only if it is onto.
Theorem 5
Let L ∈ L(V, W ). If dim V < ∞, then
null(L) + rank(L) = dim V.
Theorem 6
If V ∈ VnK . Then V and Kn are isomorphic.
Theorem 7
Let V ∈ VnK , W ∈ VmK and L ∈ L(V, W ). If BV = {v1 , . . . , vn } and
BW = {w1 , . . . , wm } are ordered bases for V and W respectively, then
there is an m × n matrix, denoted by [L]B W
BV , (called the matrix
representing L with respect to the ordered bases BV and BW )
such that
[L (v)]BW = [L]BW
BV [v]BV , v ∈ V.
where
[L]BW
BV = [L(v1 )]BW [L(v2 )]BW . . . [L(vn )]BW
Note that if V = W and B is an ordered basis for V , we write [L]B

instead of [L]B
B.

Similarity
Theorem 8
Let B1 and B2 be two ordered bases for V ∈ VnK , S be the transition
matrix from B2 to B1 , and L ∈ L (V ). If A = [L]B1 and B = [L]B2 ,
then B = S −1 AS.
Definition 6
Let A, B ∈ Mn (K). The matrix A is said to be similar to B if there
is an invertible matrix S such that B = S −1 A S. In this case, we write
A ∼ B.
Theorem 9
Let A, B, C ∈ Mn (K). Then,
1 A ∼ B ⇐⇒ B ∼ A.
2 A ∼ B and B ∼ C =⇒ A ∼ C.

Contents

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
Definition 7
1 A polynomial p (λ) of degree n is said to be splitted over K if
there are scalars c 6= 0, λ1 , . . . , λn (not necessarily distinct) in K
such that
p (λ) = c (λ − λ1 ) · · · (λ − λn ) .
2 The largest positive integer k for which (λ − λj )k is a factor of

p (λ) is called the algebraic multiplicity of λj denoted am (λ).
3 Let A ∈ Mn (K). The minimal polynomial m (λ) for A is the
monic polynomial of least positive degree for which m (A) = 0.
4 Let L ∈ L (V ). The minimal polynomial m (λ) for L is the
monic polynomial of least positive degree for which m (L) = 0.

Theorem 10
Let L1 , L2 ∈ L (V ) such that L1 L2 = L2 L1 and A, B ∈ Mn (K) such
that AB = BA. If p, q ∈ K [X] then
p (L1 ) q (L2 ) = q (L2 ) p (L1 )
and
p (A) q (B) = q (B) p (A) .
Definition 8
Let B be a basis for V ∈ VnK , and L ∈ L (V ). We define the
determinant of L by det (L) = det ([L]B ).

Theorem 11
The determinant of L ∈ L (V ) does not depend on a basis for V ∈ VnK .
Definition 9
Let L ∈ L(V ).
1 A scalar λ ∈ K is said to be an eigenvalue of L if there exists a
nonzero vector x ∈ V such that L (x) = λx. The nonzero vector x
is called an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ. The
pair (λ, x) is called an eigenpair for L.
2 The set of all eigenvalues of L is called the spectrum of L.
3 The eigenspace corresponding to an eigenvalue λ is defined as
Eλ = Ker (L − λI) = {v ∈ V : L(v) = λv } .

Definition 10
Let A ∈ Mn (K).
1 A scalar λ ∈ K is said to be an eigenvalue of A if there exists a
nonzero vector x ∈ Kn such that Ax = λx. The nonzero vector x
is said to be an eigenvector associated to λ.
2 The set of all eigenvalues of A is called spectrum of A, we write
spect(A).
3 The eigenspace corresponding to an eigenvalue λ is defined as
Eλ = Ker (A − λIn ) = {x ∈ Kn : (A − λIn ) x = 0 } .

Definition 11
Let V ∈ V K , L ∈ L (V ), A ∈ Mn (K).
1 A subspace S of V is called an L-invariant subspace of V if
L (S) ⊆ S.
2 A subspace S of Kn is called an A-invariant subspace of Kn if
{Ax : x ∈ S} ⊆ S.

Theorem 12
Let V ∈ V K and λ ∈ K be an eigenvalue of L ∈ L (V ). Then the
eigenspace Eλ is a subspace of V and it is L-invariant. If V ∈ VnK , then
the eigenspace Eλ is a finite dimensional subspace of V . The dimension
of this eigenspace is called geometric multiplicity of λ denoted
gm (λ).
Theorem 13
Let λ ∈ K be an eigenvalue of A ∈ Mn (K). Then the eigenspace Eλ is
a subspace of Kn and it is A-invariant. The dimension of this
eigenspace is called geometric multiplicity of λ denoted gm (λ).
Theorem 14
Let L ∈ L(V ). If dim V < ∞ and B is an ordered basis for V . Then λ
is an eigenvalue of L if and only if λ is an eigenvalue of [L]B .
Theorem 15
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ), B be a basis for V , A = [L]B , and λ ∈ K be a
scalar. The following statements are equivalent.
1 λ is an eigenvalue of L.
2 (A − λI) [x]B = 0 has a nontrivial solution.
3 The eigenspace Eλ 6= {0}.
4 det (L − λI) = 0.
Theorem 16
Let A ∈ Mn (K) and λ ∈ K. The following statements are equivalent.
1 λ is an eigenvalue of A.
2 (A − λI) x = 0 has a nontrivial solution.
3 The eigenspace Eλ 6= {0}.
4 det (A − λI) = 0.
Definition 12
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ), B be a basis for V , A = [L]B , and λ ∈ K. The
polynomial pL (λ) = det (L − λI) = det (A − λI) does not depend on a
basis for V . This polynomial is called characteristic polynomial of
L (also of A) and pL (λ) = det (A − λI) = 0 is called characteristic
equation from L (also from A).
Theorem 17
Let A, B ∈ Mn (K). If B ∼ A, then the two matrices have the same
characteristic polynomial and consequently both have the same
spectrum.

Theorem 18
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ), B be a basis for V , and A = [L]B . Then
pL (λ) = (−1)n λn − S1 λn−1 + S2 λn−2 + · · · + (−1)n Sn .

where Si is the sum of the principal minors of order i of matrix A.
Theorem 19
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ), A ∈ Mn (K) and p be a polynomial.
1 If λ is an eigenvalue of L then p (λ) is an eigenvalue of p (L).
2 If λ is an eigenvalue of A then p (λ) is an eigenvalue of p (A).
Theorem 20
Let V ∈ VnK and L ∈ L (V ). Let λ be an eigenvalue of L. Then
1 ≤ gm (λ) ≤ am (λ).
Theorem 21
Let pA (λ) be the characteristic polynomial and mA (λ) be the minimal
polynomial of A.
1 The polynomial mA (λ) divides every polynomial that has A as a
zero.
2 The polynomials pA (λ) and mA (λ) have the same irreducible
factors over K. Consequently, pA (λ) and mA (λ) have the same
zeros in K.
3 If pA (λ) = (λ1 − λ)n1 · · · (λk − λ)nk where λ1 , . . . , λk are distinct,
then there exist integers m1 , . . . , mk such that 1 ≤ mj ≤ nj ,
j = 1, 2, . . . , k and
mA (λ) = (λ − λ1 )m1 · · · (λ − λk )mk .

Theorem 22
Let A ∈ Mn (K). Suppose that A is a block diagonal matrix with
diagonal blocks A1 , . . . , Ab . Then the minimal polynomial of A equals
the least common multiple of the minimal polynomial of the diagonal
blocks Ai .
Theorem 23
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L(V ), A = [L]B and pL (λ) be the characteristic
polynomial of L. Suppose that V = S1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Sk where Si is an
L-invariant subspace of V for each i = 1, 2, . . . , k with bases
B1 , . . . , Bk , respectively and Ai = [LSi ]Bi , and pLSi (λ) is the
characteristic polynomial for LSi (i = 1, 2, . . . , k). Then
1 A is similar to the block diagonal matrix with diagonal blocks
A1 , . . . , A k .
2 pL (λ) = pLS1 (λ) . . . pLSk (λ) .
Theorem 24
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L(V ). If the minimal polynomial of L is
m(λ) = (p1 (λ))n1 . . . (pk (λ))nk
where pi (λ) are relatively prime, distinct monic irreducible

polynomials, then V is the direct sum of the L-invariant subspaces
S1 , . . . , Sk where Si is the kernel of (Pi )(L)ni . Moreover, (pi (L))ni is
the minimal polynomial of LSi .

Theorem 25
Let λ1 , . . . , λk be k different eigenvalues of L ∈ L(V ) (also of
A ∈ Mn (K)) and x1 , . . . , xk be eigenvectors, respectively. Then the
vectors x1 , . . . , xk are linearly independent.
Theorem 26
Let λ1 , . . . , λk be k different eigenvalues of L ∈ L(V ) (also of
A ∈ Mn (K)). Then
Eλ1 + · · · + Eλk = Eλ1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Eλk .
Theorem 27
Let λ be an eigenvalue of A ∈ M(K) and k be the multiplicity of λ.
Then
1 ≤ dim Eλ ≤ k.
Contents

Diagonalization and Triangularization
Definition 13
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ).
1 L is said to be diagonalizable in K if there is an ordered basis B
such that [L]B is diagonal.
2 L is said to be triangularizable in K if there is an ordered basis
B such that [L]B is a triangular matrix.
Definition 14
Let A ∈ Mn (K).
1 A is said to be diagonalizable in K if A ∼ D, where D is a
diagonal matrix.
2 A is said to be triangularizable in K if A ∼ T , where T is a
triangular matrix T .

Theorem 28
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ), B be an ordered basis for V , and A = [L]B .
Then
1 L is diagonalisable over K if and only if A is diagonalisable over K.
2 L is triangularizable over K if and only if A is triangularizable over
K.
Theorem 29
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L (V ), and Eλ1 , . . . , Eλk be eigenspaces of L. The
following assertions are equivalent.
1 L is diagonalizable over K.
2 There exists a basis of V formed by the eigenvectors of L.
3 V = Eλ1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Eλk .
4 n = dim Eλ1 + · · · + dim Eλk
Theorem 30
Let A ∈ Mn (K) and λ1 , λ2 , . . . , λk be k distinct eigenvalues of A. The
1 A is diagonalizable in K.
2 There exists a basis of Kn formed by the eigenvectors of A.
3 Kn = Eλ1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Eλk .
4 n = dim Eλ1 + · · · + dim Eλk
Theorem 31
Let V ∈ VnK . L ∈ L (V ) is diagonalizable over K if and only if
1 The characteristic polynomial pL (λ) splits over K.
2 Every eigenvalue λ of L, am (λ) = gm (λ).

Theorem 32
A ∈ Mn (K) is diagonalizable over K if and only if
1 The characteristic polynomial pA (λ) splits over K.
2 Every eigenvalue λ of A, am (λ) = gm (λ).
Theorem 33
Let V ∈ VnK . L ∈ L (V ) is diagonalisable over K if and only if its
minimal polynomial is a product of district linear polynomials.
Theorem 34
If A ∈ Mn (R) and A is symmetric, then there exists an orthogonal
matrix P such that P −1 AP is diagonal (i.e. A can be diagonalized by
an orthogonal matrix).

Theorem 35
Let V ∈ VnK and L ∈ L (V ) with the characteristic polynomial pL (λ).
The following assertions are equivalent.
1 L is triagularizable over K.
2 pL (λ) splits over K.
Theorem 36
Let A ∈ Mn (K) with the characteristic polynomial pA (λ). The
1 A is triagularizable over K.
2 pA (λ) splits over K.

Contents

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Definition 15
Let V ∈ V K , L ∈ L(V ), A ∈ Mn (K), and k > 0 be an integer.
1 The subspace C spanned by x, L (x) , L2 (x) , . . .

x is called the
L-cyclic subspace of V generated by x ∈ V .
x, Ax, A2 x, . . . is called the

2 The subspace C spanned by
x
A-cyclic subspace of Kn generated by x ∈ Kn .
Theorem 37
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L(V ) and S be an L-invariant subspace of V . Then
the characteristic polynomial of LS divides the characteristic
polynomial pL (λ) of L.

Theorem 38
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L(V ), and Cx be an L-cyclic subspace of V generated
by a nonzero vector x with dim Cx = k. Then
x, L (x) , L2 (x) , . . . , Lk−1 (x) is a basis for Cx .

1
2 If a0 x + a1 L (x) + · · · + ak−1 Lk−1 (x) + Lk (x) = 0, then the

characteristic polynomial of LCx is

pCx (λ) = (−1)k a0 + a1 λ + · · · + ak−1 λk−1 + λk .

Theorem 39 (Cayley-Hamilton)
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L(V ). If pL (λ) is the polynomial characteristic of L
then pL (L) = 0.
Theorem 40 (Cayley-Hamilton)
Let A ∈ Mn (K). If pA (λ) is the polynomial characteristic of A then
pA (A) = 0.

Contents

Jordan Canonical Form
Definition 16
Let V ∈ V K , L ∈ L(V ), A ∈ Mn (K), and k > 0 be an integer.
1 The linear operator L is said to be nilpotent if Lk = 0 for some
positive integer k.
2 The linear operator L is said to be nilpotent of index k if
Lk = 0 and Lk−1 6= 0.
3 The matrix A is said to be nilpotent if Ak = 0 for some positive
integer k.
4 The matrix A is said to be nilpotent of index k if Ak = 0 and
Ak−1 6= 0.

Definition 17
Let V ∈ VnK and λ be an eigenvalue of L ∈ L(V ).
1 The index of λ, denoted index (λ), is the smallest positive integer
k such that rank(L − λI)k = rank(L − λI)k+1
2 A nonzero vector x ∈ V is called a generalized eigenvector of L
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ if (L − λI)p (x) = 0 for some
positive integer p.
3 The generalized eigenspace of L corresponding to λ is defined
by
Gλ (L) = {x ∈ V : (L − λI)p (x) = 0, for some p ∈ N} .

Definition 18
Let λ be an eigenvalue of A ∈ Mn (K).
1 The index of λ, denoted index (λ), is the smallest positive integer
k such that rank(A − λIn )k = rank(A − λIn )k+1
2 A nonzero vector x ∈ Kn is called a generalized eigenvector of
A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ if (A − λIn )p x = 0 for some
positive integer p.
3 The generalized eigenspace of A corresponding to λ is defined
by
Gλ (A) = {x ∈ Kn : (A − λIn )p x = 0, for some p ∈ N} .

Theorem 41
Suppose the characteristic polynomial of L ∈ L(V ) splits over K and λ
is an eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity k. Then
1 dim (Gλ (L)) ≤ k.

2 Gλ (L) = N (L − λI)k .
Theorem 42
Suppose the characteristic polynomial of A ∈ Mn (K) splits over K and
λ is an eigenvalue with algebraic multiplicity k. Then
1 dim (Gλ (A)) ≤ k.

2 Gλ (A) = N (A − λIn )k .

Theorem 43
Suppose the characteristic polynomial of L ∈ L(V ) splits over K,
λ1 , . . . , λm are distinct eigenvalues with algebraic multiplicities
k1 , . . . , km , respectively. Then for every x ∈ V ∈ VnK there exist
elements xi ∈ Gλi (L) , 1 ≤ i ≤ m such that
x = x1 + · · · + xm .

Theorem 44
Suppose the characteristic polynomial of A ∈ Mn (K) splits over K,
k1 , . . . , km , respectively. Then for every x ∈ Kn there exist elements
xi ∈ Gλi (A) , 1 ≤ i ≤ m such that
x = x1 + · · · + xm .

Theorem 45
Suppose the characteristic polynomial of L ∈ L(V ) splits over K,
k1 , . . . , km , respectively, and Bi is an ordered basis for Gλi (L) for
i = 1, 2, . . . , m. Then
1 Bi ∩ Bj = ∅, i 6= j.
2 B = B1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bm is an ordered basis for V ∈ VnK
3 dim (Gλi (L)) = ki for i = 1, 2, . . . , m.

Theorem 46
Suppose the characteristic polynomial of A ∈ Mn (K) splits over K,
k1 , . . . , km , respectively, and Bi is an ordered basis for Gλi (A) for
i = 1, 2, . . . , m. Then
1 Bi ∩ Bj = ∅, i 6= j.
2 B = B1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bm is an ordered basis for Kn
3 dim (Gλi (A)) = ki for i = 1, 2, . . . , m.

Definition 19
The matrix  
λ 1
 λ ...
 

Jb (λ) =   ∈ Mb (K)
 .. 
 . 1
λ
is called Jordan block of order b corresponding to λ.

Definition 20
The matrix
 
Jb1 (λ) O ··· O
 .. .. .. 
 O . . . 
 ∈ Mb +···+b (K)
Js (λ) =  .

. .. 1 k
 .. .. 
. O 
O ··· O Jbk (λ)
is called Jordan segment corresponding to λ.

Definition 21
A matrix J ∈ Mn (K) is said to be in Jordan canonical form or a
Jordan matrix if it is made of Jordan segment (along the diagonal).
Namely,  
Js1 (λ1 )
J =
 .. 
. 
Jsl (λl )

Definition 22
Let V ∈ VnK and L ∈ L(V ). The linear operator L is said to be
jordanizable over K if there is a basis B for V such that [L]B = J is
a matrix in Jordan canonical form. The basis B is called Jordan
canonical basis for V . [L]B = J is a Jordan is called Jordan
canonical form for the linear operator L.
Definition 23
A matrix A ∈ Mn (K) is said to be jordanizable over K if it is
similar to a matrix in Jordan canonical form, that is, there is a
nonsingular matrix S such that J = S −1 AS is a Jordan matrix.

Definition 24
Let V ∈ V K , L ∈ L(V ), and x ∈ Gλ (L) be a generalized eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ. Suppose that k is the smallest
positive integer for which (L − λI)k (x) = 0. Then the ordered set
n o
(L − λI)k−1 (x) , (L − λI)k−2 (x) , . . . , (L − λI) (x) , x
is called a cycle of generalized eigenvectors of L corresponding

toλ. The elements (L − λI)k−1 (x) and x are called the initial vector
and end vector of the cycle, respectively. We say that the length of
the cycle is k.

Definition 25
Let A ∈ Mn (K) and x ∈ Gλ (A) be a generalized eigenvector
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ. Suppose that k is the smallest
positive integer for which (A − λI)k x = 0. Then the ordered set
n o
(A − λI)k−1 x, (A − λI)k−2 x, . . . , (A − λI) x, x
is called a cycle of generalized eigenvectors of A corresponding

toλ. The elements (A − λI)k−1 x and x are called the initial vector
and end vector of the cycle, respectively. We say that the length of
the cycle is k.

Theorem 47
Let V ∈ VnK and L ∈ L(V ). Suppose that the characteristic polynomial
pL (λ) splits over K and B is a basis for V such that B is a disjoint
union of cycles of generalized eigenvectors of L. Then
1 For each cycle of generalized eigenvectors C contained in B,
S = span (C) is L-invariant, and [LS ]C is a Jordan block.
2 B is a Jordan canonical basis for V .
Theorem 48
Let V ∈ VnK and L ∈ L(V ), and λ be an eigenvalue of L. Suppose that
B1 , . . . , Bk are cycles of generalized eigenvectors of L corresponding to
λ such that the initial vectors of the Bi s are distinct and form a
linearly independent set. Then the Bi s are disjoint and the union
B1 ∪ · · · ∪ Bk is linearly independent.

Theorem 49
Let V ∈ VnK and L ∈ L(V ), and λ be an eigenvalue of L. Then the
generalized eigenspace Gλ (L) has an ordered basis consisting of a
union of disjoint cycles of generalized eigenvectors corresponding to λ.
Consequently, if the characteristic polynomial pL (λ) splits over K then
L is jordanizable over K.

Theorem 50
Let V ∈ VnK , L ∈ L(V ) and A = [L]B . Suppose the characteristics and
minimal polynomials of L are, respectively
pL (λ) = (λ1 − λ)n1 · · · (λk − λ)nk and
mL (λ) = (λ − λ1 )m1 · · · (λ − λk )mk , where λ1 , . . . , λk are distinct.
Then L is jordanizable whose Jordan canonical form J consists of k
Jordan segments Js (λ) which have the following properties:
1 There is at least one mj × mj Jordan block which is the largest in
Jsj (λj ) ; the number of i × i Jordan blocks in Jsj (λj ) is given by
j ) − 2ri (λ
νi (λj ) = ri−1 (λ j ) + ri+1 (λj ), where
ri (λj ) = rank (A − λj I)i .
2 The sum of all orders of the Jordan blocks in the Jordan segment
Jsj (λj ) equals nj .
3 The number of Jordan blocks in Jordan segment Jsj (λj ) equals
the geometric multiplicity of λj .
Theorem 51
Let V ∈ VnC , L ∈ L(V ), A = [L]B with distinct eigenvalues λ1 , . . . , λl .
Then there is a Jordan canonical basis forming a nonsingular matrix P
such that:  
Js1 (λ1 )
1 J = P −1 AP = 
 .. 
. 
Jsl (λl )
2 J has one Jordan segment J
sj (λj ) for each eigenvalue
λj , j = 1, 2, . . . , l.
3 Each Jordan segment Jsj (λj ) is made up of βj = dim N (A − λj I)
Jordan blocks Jb (λj ).
4 The largest Jordan block in Jsj (λj ) is kj × kj , where
kj = index (λj ).

(5) The number of i × i Jordan blocks in Jsj (λj ) is given by

j ) − 2ri (λ
νi (λj ) = ri−1 (λ j ) + ri+1 (λj ) where
ri (λj ) = rank (A − λj I)i .
(6) The structure of J is unique in the sense that the number of
Jordan segments as well as the number and the sizes of the Jordan
blocks is uniquely determined by the entries in A.

Definition 26
A matrix A ∈ Mn (R) is said to be in real Jordan canonical form if
it is made of Jordan blocks (along the diagonal) of the forms Jb (λ),
with λ ∈ R, and Jˆ2s (µ), with µ = a + bi ∈ C (b 6= 0) where
 
D I
 .. .. 
ˆ
 . . 
 ∈ M2s (R)
J2s (µ) = 

.
 . . I

D

a −b 1 0
D= , and I = .
b a 0 1
Theorem 52
If A ∈ Mn (R), then A is similar to a real Jordan canonical form.

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Linear Transformations & Canonical Forms: Department of Foundation Year Institute of Technology of Cambodia

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CHAPTER II

LINEAR TRANSFORMATIONS & CANONICAL

Department of Foundation Year

Institute of Technology of Cambodia

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 1 / 56

2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

3 Diagonalization and Triangularization

5 Jordan Canonical Form

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 1 / 56

2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

3 Diagonalization and Triangularization

5 Jordan Canonical Form

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 2 / 56

Notatoins. In this whole chapter, we will use the following notations.

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 3 / 56

If V ≡ W , we write L(V ) instead of L(V, V ), and called the set of all

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 4 / 56

L (v1 + αv2 ) = L (v1 ) + αL (v2 ) .

3 L ∈ L(V, W ) if and only if for v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ∈ V and

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 5 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 6 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 7 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 8 / 56

null(L) + rank(L) = dim V.

Note that if V = W and B is an ordered basis for V , we write [L]B

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 10 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 11 / 56

2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

3 Diagonalization and Triangularization

5 Jordan Canonical Form

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 12 / 56

2 The largest positive integer k for which (λ − λj )k is a factor of

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 13 / 56

p (L1 ) q (L2 ) = q (L2 ) p (L1 )

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 14 / 56

Eλ = Ker (L − λI) = {v ∈ V : L(v) = λv } .

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 15 / 56

Eλ = Ker (A − λIn ) = {x ∈ Kn : (A − λIn ) x = 0 } .

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 16 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 17 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 20 / 56

pL (λ) = (−1)n λn − S1 λn−1 + S2 λn−2 + · · · + (−1)n Sn .

where Si is the sum of the principal minors of order i of matrix A.

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 22 / 56

m(λ) = (p1 (λ))n1 . . . (pk (λ))nk

where pi (λ) are relatively prime, distinct monic irreducible

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 24 / 56

Eλ1 + · · · + Eλk = Eλ1 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Eλk .

2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

3 Diagonalization and Triangularization

5 Jordan Canonical Form

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 26 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 27 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 29 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 30 / 56

CANONICAL FORMS ITC 31 / 56

2 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

3 Diagonalization and Triangularization