Polytropic Process

► A polytropic process is a quasiequilibrium process

described by
pV n = constant (Eq. 3.52)

► The exponent, n, may take on any value from

–∞ to +∞ depending on the particular process.
► For any gas (or liquid), when n = 0, the process is a
constant-pressure (isobaric) process.
► For any gas (or liquid), when n = ±∞, the process is
a constant-volume (isometric) process.
► For a gas modeled as an ideal gas, when n = 1, the
process is a constant-temperature (isothermal)
process.
 Chapter 4

Control Volume Analysis Using

Energy
 Mass Rate Balance

time rate of change of time rate of flow of time rate of flow

mass contained within the mass in across of mass out across
control volume at time t inlet i at time t exit e at time t

dmcv
= m i − m e (Eq. 4.1)
dt
 Energy Rate Balance

time rate of change net rate at which net rate at which net rate of energy
of the energy energy is being energy is being transfer into the
contained within transferred in transferred out control volume
the control volume by heat transfer by work at accompanying
at time t at time t time t mass flow

dEcv   Vi2 Ve2

= Q − W + m i (ui + + gzi ) − m e (ue + + gze ) (Eq. 4.9)
dt 2 2
Evaluating Work for a Control Volume

The expression for work is

W = Wcv + m e ( peve ) − m i ( pi vi ) (Eq. 4.12)

where
► Wcv accounts for work associated with rotating
shafts, displacement of the boundary, and electrical
effects.
► m e ( pe ve ) is the flow work at exit e.
► m i ( pi vi ) is the flow work at inlet i.
 Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(One-Dimensional Flow Form)
Using Eq. 4.12 in Eq. 4.9
2 2
dEcv  V V
= Qcv − Wcv + m i (ui + pi vi + i + gzi ) − m e (ue + peve + e + gze )
dt 2 2
(Eq. 4.13)
For convenience substitute enthalpy, h = u + pv
2 2
dEcv  V V
= Qcv − Wcv + m i (hi + i + gzi ) − m e (he + e + gze )
dt 2 2
(Eq. 4.14)
Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(One-Dimensional Flow Form)
In practice there may be several locations
on the boundary through which mass enters
or exits. Multiple inlets and exits are
accounted for by introducing summations:
2 2
dEcv  V V
= Qcv − Wcv + ∑ m i (hi + i + gzi ) − ∑ m e (he + e + gze )
dt i 2 e 2
(Eq. 4.15)

Eq. 4.15 is the accounting balance for the

energy of the control volume.
 Control Volume Energy Rate Balance
(Steady-State Form, One-Inlet, One-Exit)
► Many important applications involve one-inlet,
one-exit control volumes at steady state.
► The mass rate balance reduces to m1 = m 2 = m .

⎡ 2 2 ⎤ Eq.
(V − V )
0 = Q cv − Wcv + m ⎢(h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g ( z1 − z2 )⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 4.20a
or dividing by mass flow rate
Q cv Wcv (V12 − V22 ) Eq.
0= − + (h1 − h2 ) + + g ( z1 − z2 ) 4.20b
m m 2
 Nozzles and Diffusers

► Nozzle: a flow passage of varying cross-

sectional area in which the velocity of a gas
or liquid increases in the direction of flow.
► Diffuser: a flow passage of varying cross-
sectional area in which the velocity of a gas
or liquid decreases in the direction of flow.
 Nozzle and Diffuser Modeling
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ Eq.
(V − V )
0 = Q cv − Wcv + m ⎢(h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g ( z1 − z2 )⎥
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦ 4.20a
► Wcv = 0.
► If the change in potential energy from inlet to exit is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
► If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.
⎛ V 2 − V 2 ⎞
0 = (h1 − h2 ) + ⎜ 1 2 ⎟ (Eq. 4.21)
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 Turbines

► Turbine: a device in which power is

developed as a result of a gas or liquid
passing through a set of blades attached to
a shaft free to rotate.
 Turbine Modeling
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ Eq.
(V − V )
0 = Q cv − Wcv + m ⎢(h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g(z − z )
1 2 ⎥ 4.20a
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
► If the change in kinetic energy of flowing matter is
negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.
► If the change in potential energy of flowing matter is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
► If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.
Wcv = m (h1 − h2 )
Compressors and Pumps
► Compressors and Pumps:
devices in which work is done
on the substance flowing
through them to change the
state of the substance, typically
to increase the pressure and/or
elevation.
► Compressor : substance is gas
► Pump: substance is liquid
Compressor and Pump Modeling
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ Eq.
(V − V )
0 = Q cv − Wcv + m ⎢(h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g(z − z )
1 2 ⎥ 4.20a
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦

► If the change in kinetic energy of flowing matter is

negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.
► If the change in potential energy of flowing matter is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
► If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.

Wcv = m (h1 − h2 )
 Heat Exchangers

► Direct contact: A mixing chamber in which hot and

cold streams are mixed directly.
► Tube-within-a-tube counterflow: A gas or liquid
stream is separated from another gas or liquid by a
wall through which energy is conducted. Heat
transfer occurs from the hot stream to the cold
stream as the streams flow in opposite directions.
 Heat Exchanger Modeling
2 2
V V
0 = Q cv − Wcv + ∑ m i (hi + i + gzi ) − ∑ m e (he + e + gze )
i 2 e 2
(Eq. 4.18)
► Wcv = 0.
► If the kinetic energies of the flowing streams are
negligible, m i(Vi2/2) and m e(Ve2/2) drop out.
► If the potential energies of the flowing streams are
negligible, m igzi and m e gze drop out.
► If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.
0 = ∑ m i hi − ∑ m ehe
i e
 Throttling Devices

► Throttling Device: a device that achieves

a significant reduction in pressure by
introducing a restriction into a line through
which a gas or liquid flows. Means to
introduce the restriction include a partially
opened valve or a porous plug.
 Throttling Device Modeling
⎡ 2 2 ⎤ Eq.
(V − V )
0 = Q cv − Wcv + m ⎢(h1 − h2 ) + 1 2 + g(z − z )
1 2 ⎥ 4.20a
⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
► Wcv = 0.
► If the change in kinetic energy of flowing matter
upstream and downstream of the restriction is
negligible, ½(V12 – V22) drops out.
► If the change in potential energy of flowing matter is
negligible, g(z1 – z2) drops out.
► If the heat transfer with surroundings is negligible,
Q cv drops out.
h2 = h1 (Eq. 4.22)
 System Integration
► Engineers creatively combine components to
achieve some overall objective, subject to
constraints such as minimum total cost. This
engineering activity is called system integration.
► The simple vapor
power plant of Fig 4.16
provides an illustration.
 The Mass Balance
(Transient Analysis)
► Transient: state changes with time.
► Integrate mass rate balance (Eq. 4.2) from time
0 to a final time t.
t ⎛ dm
⎞ t ⎛ ⎞ t ⎛ ⎞
cv ⎜ m i ⎟dt − ⎜ m e ⎟dt
∫ ⎜ ⎟dt =
0 ⎝ dt ⎠ ∫ ∑
0 ⎜
⎝ i
⎟
⎠
∫ ∑
0 ⎜
⎝ e
⎟
⎠

This becomes mcv (t ) − mcv (0) = ∑ mi − ∑ me (Eq. 4.23)

i e
where
• mi is amount of mass entering the control volume through
inlet i, from time 0 to t.
• me is amount of mass exiting the control volume through
exit e, from time 0 to t.
 The Energy Balance
(Transient Analysis)
► Integrate energy rate balance (Eq. 4.15), ignoring
the effects of kinetic and potential energy, from
time 0 to a final time t.
! dEcv $ ! $ ! $
t
∫ 0 #" dt &% dt =
t
Q
∫ 0 cv dt − ∫ 0 Wcv dt + ∫ 0 #"∑ m i hi &% dt −
t t t
∫ 0 #"∑ m ehe &% dt
i e

When the specific enthalpies at inlets and exits are

constant with time, this becomes

Ecv (t) − Ecv (0) = Qcv −Wcv + ∑ mi hi − ∑ mehe (Eq. 4.25)

i e
Consider a typical garden hose

Assume the pressure in the hose (state 1) is 30 psig at a temperature

of 70 oF with a velocity of 5 ft/sec. The child receives the water at 65 oF
What is the exit velocity?
Consider the figure below of a perfect gas situation. One kilogram of nitrogen fills the cylinder
of a piston- cylinder assembly. There is no friction between the piston and the cylinder walls, and
the surroundings are at 1 atm. The initial volume and pressure in the cylinder are 1 m3 and 1 atm,
respectively. Heat transfer to the nitrogen occurs until the volume is doubled. (1 atm = 1.01325
bar; 1 bar = 105 N/m2)

a) Determine the work for the process, in kJ.

b) Determine the heat transfer for the process, in kJ, assuming the specific heat (0.742
kJ/(kgK) is constant. Recall: R = 8.314kJ/(kmol K); MN2 = 28.01kg/kmol
Molecular weight of N2 gas is MN2 = 28.01kg/kmol
R = R(universal constant)/M (Molecular weight) = 8.314/28.01 = .2968 kJ/(kg K)
PV = mRT (Know P1, V1, m1, R) Solve for T1 = 341.4K
PV = mRT (Know P2, V2, m2, R) Solve for T2 (But P2=P1, V2 = 2V1), therefore T2
= 2*T1=682.8K

Q = m(u2-u1) + W

du/dT = cv Or (u2-u1) = cv (T2-T1) = .742(341.4K)= 253.32 kJ/kg

Q = 1kg(253.32kJ/kg) + 1.01325x105 N/m2(2m3-1m3)(1kJ/(103 N/m2)) = 354.6 kJ

Two kilograms of water at 25°C are placed in a piston cylinder device under 100 kPa absolute pressure as shown in the diagram
3
(State(1)). Heat is added to the water at constant pressure until the piston reaches the stops at a total volume of 0.4 m (State (2)).
More heat is then added at constant volume until the temperature of the water reaches 300°C (State (3)).

i) Draw a P-v and a T-v diagram of the states and processes of the problem and include all the relevant information on the diagram. In
this case there are three states and two processes (state 1 to state 2 and state 2 to state 3). The diagrams do not have to be drawn to
scale.

ii) Determine the quality (x) of the fluid and the mass of the vapor at state (2). (Schematic is not necessarily to scale.) Calculate the
specific volume, specific internal energy, and specific enthalpy of the state.

!
!

!
 3

Constant  Temp.

1
2