Discrete Time Systems

UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time
Systems[?, ?, ?, ?]
Dr. Manjunatha. P
manjup.jnnce@gmail.com
Professor
Dept. of ECE
J.N.N. College of Engineering, Shimoga
October 18, 2016

Unit 8 Syllabus Introduction
Implementation of discrete-time systems::

[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]
Slides are prepared to use in class room purpose, may be used as a

reference material
All the slides are prepared based on the reference material
Most of the figures/content used in this material are redrawn, some
of the figures/pictures are downloaded from the Internet.
This material is not for commercial purpose.
This material is prepared based on Digital Signal Processing for
ECE/TCE course as per Visvesvaraya Technological University (VTU)
syllabus (Karnataka State, India).
Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?, ?,

October
?] 18, 2016 2 / 151
Unit 8 Syllabus Introduction
Unit 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems:
PART - B
Realization of FIR system

Direct form structure of FIR system
Linear phase FIR structure
Cascade form structure for FIR system
Frequency sampling structure for FIR system
Lattice structure for FIR system
Realization of IIR system
Direct form structure for IIR system
1 Direct form-I structure of IIR system
2 Direct form-II structure of IIR system
Cascade form structure for IIR system
Parallel form structure for IIR system
Lattice structure of IIR system
October
?] 18, 2016 3 / 151
Implementation of Discrete-time Systems Introduction
Implementation of Discrete-time Systems

System: A system is a physical device which consists of interrelated and interdependent elements
which process the input signal and transform into output signal. Example: Filters, Amplifiers.
x1 (n) y1 (n)
System
Linearity: x2 (n)
System
y2 ( n)
If input x1 (n) produces response y1 (n)

and if x2 (n) produces response y2 (n) and
ax1 (n) + bx2 (n) = ay1 (n) + by2 (n) then the ax1 (n) + bx2 (n) ay1 (n) + by2 (n)
system is called Linear system. System
Figure 1: Linearity
Time invariance: A system is said to be time invariant if its behavior and characteristics does
not change with time.
If input x(n) produces response y (n) then if x(n − n0 ) produces response y (n − n0 ), then the
system is called as time invariant
Causality: A system is causal if the output depends only on present and past, but not future
inputs. All memoryless systems are causal.
y [n] = x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2] . . .
Some of the examples for such analog systems are Oscillator, regulated power supply.,,
October
?] 18, 2016 4 / 151
Realization of FIR system Realization of FIR system
Digital filters are discrete Linear Time Invariant (LTI) systems and described by difference
equations and are implemented in hardware or software.
The discrete time sytems can be of finite impulse response (FIR) or infinite impulse
response IIR type.
A FIR filter is a filter whose impulse response is of finite duration, because it settles to
zero in finite time, because there is no feedback in the FIR system.
The basic components of discrete-time system are, delay element, multiplier, and adder. The
details of these components and their symbols with its input output relationship is as shown in
Figure 2.
x ( n) y (n) = x (n − 1)
Z −1
Delay Element
x ( n) y (n) = ax(n)
a
Multiplier
x1 (n)
y (n) = x1 (n) + x2 (n)
x2 (n)
+
Adder
Figure 2: Basic Elements

October
?] 18, 2016 5 / 151
Realization of FIR system

The difference equation is a formula for computing an output sample at time n based on past
and present input samples and past output samples in the time domain. The general, causal,
LTI difference equation is as follows:
y (n) = b0 x(n) + b1 x(n − 1) + . . . bk x(n − k) − a1 y (n − 1) − a2 y (n − 2) . . . − ak y (n − k)

M
X N
X
= bk x(n − k) − ak y (n − k)
k=0 k=1
where x is the input signal, y is the output signal ak and bk are called the coefficients.
The second term in this equation is usually termed as feedback for the system. This is the
equation used to represent Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) system.
If the feedback term is absent then this equation is used to represent Finite Impulse
Response (FIR) system.
XM
y (n) = bk x(n − k)
k=0

October
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LTI systems are represented by the following difference equation.

N
X M
X
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k)
k=1 k=0
By taking z-transform on both sides

N
X M
X
Y (z) = − ak z −k Y (z) + bk z −k X (z)
k=1 k=0
N M
" #
X X
Y (z) 1 + ak z −k = bk z −k X (z)
k=1 k=0
The system function H(z) is defined as

Y (z)
H(z) =
X (z)
M
−k
P
bk z
k=0
H(z) =
N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1

October
?] 18, 2016 7 / 151
An FIR system does not have feedback. Hence y (n − k) term is absent in the system. FIR
output is expressed as
M
X
y (n) = bk x(n − k)
k=0
If there are M coefficients then

M−1
X
y (n) = bk x(n − k)
k=0
By taking z-transform on both sides

M
X
Y (z) = bk z −k X (z)
k=0
System function H(z) is defined as

M−1
Y (z) X
H(z) = = bk z −k
X (z) k=0
By taking inverse z transform

bn for 0≤n ≤M −1
h(n) =
0 otherwise
October
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Realization of FIR system Direct form Structure of FIR System
Direct form Structure of FIR System

Structures in which the multiplier coefficients are precisely the coefficients of the transfer
function are called direct form structure.
Since h(n) = bn then y(n) is
M−1
X
y (n) = h(k)x(n − k)
k=0
Expanding the summation
y (n) = h(0)x(n) + h(1)x(n − 1) + h(2)x(n − 2) + . . . h(M − 1)x(n − M + 1)
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(M-1)
h(0) h(1) h(2) h(M-2)
h( M − 1) x(n − M + 1)
h(1) x( n − 1) h(2) x( n − 2)
x(n)h(0)
+ + x(n)h(0) + + + M −1
x(n)h(0)
+ h(1) x(n − 1) y ( n) = ∑ h( k ) x( n − k )
+ h(1) x(n − 1) k =0
+ h(2) x(n − 2)
Figure 3: Direct form realization of FIR system

October
?] 18, 2016 9 / 151
Realize a direct form FIR filter for the following impulse response.
1 1 1
h(n) = δ(n) + δ(n − 1) − δ(n − 2) + δ(n − 4) + δ(n − 3)
2 4 2
Solution: h(n) = δ(n) + 12 δ(n − 1) − 14 δ(n − 2) + 12 δ(n − 3) + δ(n − 4)
1 −1 1 1
H(z) = 1 + z − z −2 + z −3 + z −4
2 4 2

1 1 1
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + z −1 − z −2 + z −3 + z −4 X (z)
2 4 2
1 −1 1 −2 1 −3
= X (z) + z X (z) − z X (z) + z X (z) + z −4 X (z)
2 4 2
1 1 1
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) − x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) + x(n − 4)
2 4 2
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2) x( n − 3) x(n − 4)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 1 −1 1 h(4) = 1
h(1) = h(2) = h(3) =
2 4 2
y(n)
+ + + +
Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

?, ?] 18, 2016 10 / 151
DEC-2010 EE
Realize the system function H(z) = 1 + 32 z −1 + 54 z −2 + 95 z −3 + 19 z −4 using direct form II
Solution:
3 4 5 1
H(z) = 1 + z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + z −4
2 5 9 9

3 4 5 1
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + z −1 + z −2 + z −3 + z −4 X (z)
2 5 9 9
3 −1 4 −2 5 −3 1
= X (z) + z X (z) + z X (z) + z X (z) + z −4 X (z)
2 5 9 9
3 4 5 1
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) + x(n − 4)
2 5 9 9
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 3 4 5 1
h(1) = h(2) = h(3) = h(4) =
2 5 9 9
y(n)
+ + + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 11 / 151
June 2012 EC
A FIR filter is given by y (n) = x[n] + 25 x[n − 1] + 34 x[n − 2] + 13 x[n − 3] draw the direct form.
Solution:
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 2 3 1
h(1) = h(2) = h(3) =
5 4 3
y(n)
+ + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 12 / 151
Determine a direct form realization for the following linear phase filters
h(n) = [1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1]
Solution:
H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 4z −3 + 3z −4 + 2z −5 + 1z −6 ]
X (z)H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 4z −3 + 3z −4 + 2z −5 + 1z −6 X (z)

Y (z) =
= X (z) + 2z −1 X (z) + 3z −2 X (z) + 4z −3 X (z) + 3z −4 X (z) + 2z −5 X (z) + 1z −6 X (z)
y (n) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1) + 3x(n − 2) + 4x(n − 3) + 3x(n − 4) + 2x(n − 5) + 1x(n − 6)
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 h(1) = 2 h(2) = 3 h(3) = 4 h(4) = 3 h(5) = 2 h(6) = 1
y(n)
+ + + + + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 13 / 151
Determine a direct form realization for the following linear phase filters
h(n) = [1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]
Solution:
H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 3z −3 + 2z −4 + 1z −5 ]
X (z)H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 3z −3 + 2z −4 + 1z −5 X (z)

Y (z) =
= X (z) + 2z −1 X (z) + 3z −2 X (z) + 3z −3 X (z) + 2z −4 X (z) + 1z −5 X (z)
y (n) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1) + 3x(n − 2) + 3x(n − 3) + 2x(n − 4) + 1x(n − 5)+
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 h(1) = 2 h(2) = 3 h(3) = 3 h(4) = 2 h(5) = 1
y(n)
+ + + + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 14 / 151
For the following FIR filter system function sketch a direct form
H(z) = 1 + 2.88z −1 + 3.4048z −2 + 1.74z −3 + 0.4z −4
Solution:
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 h(1) = 2.88 h(2) = 3.4048 h(3) = 1.74 h(4) = 0.4
y(n)
+ + + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 15 / 151
Realize direct form FIR filter with impulse response h(n) is given
h(n) = 4δ(n) + 5δ(n − 1) + 6δ(n − 2) + 7δ(n − 3). With input x(n) = [1, 2, 3] calculate output
y (n)
Solution:
h(n) = 4δ(n) + 5δ(n − 1) + 6δ(n − 2) + 7δ(n − 3)
H(z) = 4 + 5z −1 + 6z −2 + 7z −3
X (z)H(z) = 4 + 5z −1 + 6z −2 + 7z −3 X (z)

Y (z) =
= 4X (z) + 5z −1 X (z) + 6z −2 X (z) + 7z −3 X (z)
y (n) = 4x(n) + 5x(n − 1) + 6x(n − 2) + 7x(n − 3)
x ( n)
3
2 x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2) x(n − 3)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 4 h(1) = 5 h(2) = 6 h(3) = 7

1
y(n)
n + + +
0 1 2 3
Figure 4: Input x(n) to the FIR filter

?, ?] 18, 2016 16 / 151
y (n) = 4x(n) + 5x(n − 1) + 6x(n − 2) + 7x(n − 3)

y (0) = 4x(0) + 5x(0 − 1) + 6x(0 − 2) + 7x(0 − 3) = 4 × 1 = 4
y (1) = 4x(1) + 5x(0) = 4 × 2 + 5 × 1 = 13
y (2) = 4x(2) + 5x(1) + 6x(0) = 4 × 3 + 5 × 2 + 6 × 1 = 28
y (3) = 4x(3) + 5x(2) + 6x(1) + 7x(0) = 4 × 0 + 5 × 3 + 6 × 2 + 7 × 1 = 34
y (4) = 4x(4) + 5x(3) + 6x(2) + 7x(1) = 0 + 0 + 6 × 3 + 7 × 2 = 32
y (5) = 4x(5) + 5x(4) + 6x(3) + 7x(2) = 0 + 0 + 0 + 7 × 3 = 21
y (n) = [4, 13, 28, 34, 32, 21]

y ( n)
34 32
28
21
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2) x(n − 3)
13 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
4 h(0) = 4 h(1) = 5 h(2) = 6 h(3) = 7

n
y(n)
0 1 2 3 4 5 + + +
Figure 5: Output y(n) of the FIR
filter

?, ?] 18, 2016 17 / 151
June 2015 Obtain the direct form realization of linear phase FIR system given by
2 −1 15 −2
H(z) = 1 + z + z
3 8
Solution:
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1
h(0) = 1 2 15
h(1) = h(2) =
3 8
y(n)
+ +

?, ?] 18, 2016 18 / 151
Realization of FIR system Linear Phase FIR structure
Linear Phase FIR structure

Linear phase is a property of a
filter, where the phase response
of the filter is a linear function
of frequency. The result is that Symmetry: h(n)=h(M-1-n) Odd M Symmetry: h(n)=h(M-1-n) Even M
all frequency components of the h[n] h[n]
input signal are shifted in time
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
(usually delayed) by the same
constant amount, which is
referred to as the phase delay. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n
And consequently, there is no

phase distortion due to the time Center of Symmetry Center of Symmetry
delay of frequencies relative to Antisymmetry: h(n)=-h(M-1-n) Odd M Antisymmetry: h(n)=-h(M-1-n) Even M

one another. h[n] h[n]
Linear-phase filters have a

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
symmetric impulse response.
The FIR filter has linear phase if
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n
its unit sample response satisfies
the following condition: Center of Symmetry
Center of Symmetry
h(n) = h(M−1−n) n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , M−1

?, ?] 18, 2016 19 / 151
M−1
h(n)z −n
P
The Z transform of the unit sample response is expressed as H(z) =
n=0
For even M h(n) = h(M − 1 − n)
M/2−1 h i
X
H(z) = h(n) z −n + z −(M−1−n)
n=0
The system expression is

Y (z)
H(z) =
X (z)
M/2−1
Y (z) X h i
= h(n) z −n + z −(M−1−n)
X (z) n=0
M/2−1 h i
X
Y (z) = h(n) z −n + z −(M−1−n) X (z)
n=0
By expanding the summation

h i h i
Y (z) = h(0) 1 + z −(M−1) X (z) + h(1) z −1 + z −(M−2) X (z) + . . .
h i
+ h(M/2 − 1) z −(M/2−1) + z −(M/2) X (z)

?, ?] 18, 2016 20 / 151
y (n) = h(0)[x(n) + x(n − (M − 1))] + h(1)[x(n − 1) + x(n − (M − 2))] + . . .

+ h(M/2 − 1)x [n − (M/2 − 1)] + x [n − (M/2)]
By considering M=8 then y (n) is
y (n) = h(0)[x(n) + x(n − 7)] + h(1)[x(n − 1) + x(n − 6)] + . . .

+ h(2){x(n − 2) + x(n − 5)} + h(3){x(n − 3) + x(n − 4)}
x( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2) x(n − 3)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
Z-1
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

x( n − 7) x(n − 6) x( n − 5) x( n − 4)
h(0) h(1) h(2) h(3)
x(n − 1)
y ( n)
+ + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 21 / 151
For Odd M h(n) = h(M − 1 − n)

(M−3)/2
M −1 − M−1 X h i
H(z) = h z 2 + h(n) z −n + z −(M−1−n)
2 n=0
Y (z)
H(z) =
X (z)
(M−3)/2
Y (z) M −1 − M−1 X h i
=h z 2 + h(n) z −n + z −(M−1−n)
X (z) 2 n=0
(M−3)/2
M −1 − M−1 X h i
Y (z) = h z 2 X (z) + h(n) z −n + z −(M−1−n) X (z)
2 n=0
By expanding the summation

M−1
M −1 −
h i
Y (z) = h z 2 X (z) + h(0) 1 + z −(M−1) X (z)
2
h i
= +h(1) z −1 + z −(M−2) X (z) + . . .

?, ?] 18, 2016 22 / 151

M −1 M −1
y (n) = h x n− + h(0)[x(n) + x(n − (M − 1))] +
2 2
+ h(1)[x(n − 1) + x(n − (M − 2))] + . . .

M −3 M −3 M +1
+ h x n− +x n−
2 2 2
for M=9
y (n) = h(4)x(n − 4) + h(0)[x(n) + x(n − 8)] + h(1)[x(n − 1) + x(n − 7)] + . . .

+ h(2){x(n − 2) + x(n − 6)} + h(3){x(n − 3) + x(n − 5)}
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2) x( n − 3) x(n − 4)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

x(n − 8) x(n − 7) x( n − 6) x(n − 5)
h(0) h(1) h(2) h(3) h(4)
x( n − 1)
y ( n)
+ + +
Figure 7: Linear phase FIR structure

?, ?] 18, 2016 23 / 151
Realize a linear phase FIR filter with the following impulse response. Give necessary equations
h(n) = δ(n) + 12 δ(n − 1) − 41 δ(n − 2) + δ(n − 4) + 12 δ(n − 3)
Solution: h(n) = {1, 21 , −1/4, 12 , 1}. Here M=5 h(0) = h(4), h(1) = h(3)
1 1 1
h(n) = δ(n) + δ(n − 1) − δ(n − 2) + δ(n − 3) + δ(n − 4)
2 4 2
1 1 1
H(z) = 1 + z −1 − z −2 + z −3 + z −4
2 4 2

1 1 1
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + z −1 − z −2 + z −3 + z −4 X (z)
2 4 2
1 −1 1 −2 1 −3
Y (z) = X (z) + z X (z) − z X (z) + z X (z) + z −4 X (z)
2 4 2
1 1 1
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) − x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) + x(n − 4)
2 4 2
1 1
y (n) = [x(n) + x(n − 4)] + [x(n − 1) + x(n − 3)] − x(n − 2)
2 4
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2)
Z-1 Z-1
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
x(n − 4) x(n − 3)
h(0)=1 h(1)=1/2 h(3)=-1/4
y ( n)
+ +

?, ?] 18, 2016 24 / 151
DEC 2010,2011, 2012 Realize a linear phase FIR filter having the following impulse response
h(n) = δ(n) + 14 δ(n − 1) − 81 δ(n − 2) + 14 δ(n − 3) + δ(n − 4)
Solution: h(n) = {1, 14 , −1/8, + 14 , 1}. Here M=5 h(0) = h(4), h(1) = h(3)
1 1 1
h(n) = δ(n) + δ(n − 1) − δ(n − 2) + δ(n − 3) + δ(n − 4)
4 8 4
1 1 1
H(z) = 1 + z −1 − z −2 + z −3 + z −4
4 8 4

1 1 1
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + z −1 − z −2 + z −3 + z −4 X (z)
4 8 4
1 −1 1 −2 1 −3
Y (z) = X (z) + z X (z) − z X (z) + z X (z) + z −4 X (z)
4 8 4
1 1 1
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) − x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) + x(n − 4)
4 8 4
1 1
y (n) = [x(n) + x(n − 4)] + [x(n − 1) + x(n − 3)] − x(n − 2)
4 8
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2)
Z-1 Z-1
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
x(n − 4) x(n − 3)
1 1
1 −
4 8
y ( n)
+ +
?, ?] 18, 2016 25 / 151
May 2010 Realize a linear phase FIR filter having the following impulse response
h(n) = δ(n) − 14 δ(n − 1) + 21 δ(n − 2) + 12 δ(n − 3) − 14 δ(n − 4) + δ(n − 5)
Solution: h(n) = {1, − 41 , 12 , 12 , − 14 , 1}. Here M=6 h(0) = h(5), h(1) = h(4), h(2) = h(3)
1 1 1 1
h(n) = δ(n) − δ(n − 1) + δ(n − 2) + δ(n − 3) − δ(n − 4) + δ(n − 5)
4 2 2 4
1 1 1 1
H(z) = 1 − z −1 + z −2 + z −3 − z −4 + z −5
4 2 2 4

1 1 1 1
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 − z −1 + z −2 + z −3 − z −4 + z −5 X (z)
4 2 2 4
1 −1 1 −2 1 −3 1
Y (z) = X (z) − z X (z) + z X (z) + z X (z) − z −4 X (z) + z −5 X (z)
4 2 2 4
1 1 1 1
y (n) = x(n) − x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) − x(n − 4) + x(n − 5)
4 2 2 4
1 1
y (n) = [x(n) + x(n − 5)] − [x(n − 1) + x(n − 4)] + [x(n − 2) + x(n − 3)]
4 2
x ( n) x(n − 1) x(n − 2)
Z-1 Z-1
+ + + Z-1
-1 -1
Z Z
x( n − 5) x(n − 4) x(n − 3)
1 1 1
− 2
4
y ( n)
+ + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 26 / 151
May 2010
Obtain the direct form Realization of linear phase FIR system given by
H(z) = 1 + 23 z −1 + 15
8
z −2 + 32 z −3 + z −4
Solution: h(n) = {1, 3 , 15/8, 23 , 1}. Here M=5 h(0) = h(4), h(1) = h(3)
2
2 −1 15 −2 2
H(z) = 1+ z + z + z −3 + z −4
3 8 3

2 15 −2 2
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + z −1 + z + z −3 + z −4 X (z)
3 8 3
2 −1 15 −2 2 −3
Y (z) = X (z) + z X (z) + z X (z) + z X (z) + z −4 X (z)
3 8 3
2 15 2
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) + x(n − 3) + x(n − 4)
3 8 3
2 15
y (n) = [x(n) + x(n − 4)] + [x(n − 1) + x(n − 3)] + x(n − 2)
3 8
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2)
Z-1 Z-1
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
x(n − 4) x(n − 3)
2 15
1
3 8
y ( n)
+ +
?, ?] 18, 2016 27 / 151
Realize the following system function by linear phase FIR structure

2 2
H(z) = z + 1 + z −1
3 3
Solution:
2
H(z) = 1 + (z + z −1 )
3

2
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + (z + z −1 ) X (z)
3
2
Y (z) = X (z) + (z + z −1 )X (z)
3
2
y (n) = x(n) + [x(n − 1) + x(n + 1)]
3
x ( n)
+ y ( n)
2
x( n + 1) 3
Z +
Z-1
x( n − 1)
Figure 8: Linear phase FIR structure

?, ?] 18, 2016 28 / 151
Realize the following system function by linear phase FIR structure

z −1 z −2
H(z) = 1 + + + z −3
4 4
Solution:
1 −1
H(z) = 1 + (z + z −2 ) + z −3
4

1
Y (z) = X (z)H(z) = 1 + (z −1 + z −2 ) + z −3 X (z)
4
1 −1
= X (z) + (z X (z) + z −2 X (z)) + z −3 X (z)
4
1
y (n) = [x(n) + x(n − 3)] + [x(n − 1) + x(n − 2)]
4
x( n) x( n − 1)
Z-1
Z-1
+ +
Z-1
x(n − 3) x( n − 2)
h(0)=1 1
h(1) =
4
y ( n)
+

?, ?] 18, 2016 29 / 151
Realize the following system function by linear phase FIR structure: h(n) = [1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1]
Solution:
H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 4z −3 + 3z −4 + 2z −5 + 1z −6
X (z)H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 4z −3 + 3z −4 + 2z −5 + 1z −6 X (z)

Y (z) =
= X (z) + 2z −1 X (z) + 3z −2 X (z) + 4z −3 X (z) + 3z −4 X (z) + 2z −5 X (z) + 1z −6 X (z)
y (n) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1) + 3x(n − 2) + 4x(n − 3) + 3x(n − 4) + 2x(n − 5) + 1x(n − 6)
y (n) = 1[x(n) + x(n − 6)] + 2[x(n − 1) + x(n − 5)] + 3[x(n − 2) + x(n − 4)] + 4x(n − 3)
x ( n) x( n − 1) x(n − 2) x( n − 3)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
+ + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

x(n − 6) x(n − 5) x(n − 4)
1 2 3 4
y ( n)
+ + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 30 / 151
Realize a direct form for the following linear phase filters
h(n) = [1, 2, 3, 3, 2, 1]
Solution:
H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 3z −3 + 2z −4 + 1z −5 ]
X (z)H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + 3z −2 + 3z −3 + 2z −4 + 1z −5 X (z)

Y (z) =
= X (z) + 2z −1 X (z) + 3z −2 X (z) + 3z −3 X (z) + 2z −4 X (z) + 1z −5 X (z)
y (n) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1) + 3x(n − 2) + 3x(n − 3) + 2x(n − 4) + 1x(n − 5)
y (n) = 1[x(n) + x(n − 5)] + 2[x(n − 1) + x(n − 4)] + 3[x(n − 2) + x(n − 3)]
x ( n) x(n − 1) x(n − 2)
Z-1 Z-1
Z-1
+ + +
Z-1 Z-1
x( n − 5) x(n − 4) x(n − 3)
1 2 3
y ( n)
+ + +

?, ?] 18, 2016 31 / 151
Realization of FIR system Frequency Sampling for FIR Systems
Frequency Sampling for FIR Systems

?, ?] 18, 2016 32 / 151
Frequency sampling realization is used when an FIR filter is to operate on some desired
frequency.
The desired frequency may be defined and this reduces the complexity of the system.
Consider a frequency ω
2π
ωk = k k = 0, 1, . . . M − 1
M
where ωk is the frequency at discrete points.

Let the unit sample response of FIR system be h(n). The fourier transform of the h(n) is
defined as
M−1
X
H(ω) = h(n)e −jωn
n=0
2π
H(ω) at ω= ωk = M
k
M−1
2π X
H(ωk ) = H k = h(n)e −j2πkn/M
M n=0
H(ωk ) is also written as H(k) and defined as

M−1
X
H(k) = h(n)e −j2πkn/M k = 0, 1, . . . M − 1
n=0

?, ?] 18, 2016 33 / 151
This equation represents the M point DFT of h(n) and it is defined as

M−1
1 X
h(n) = H(k)e j2πkn/M n = 0, 1, . . . M − 1
M n=0
z transform is defined as
M−1
X
H(z) = h(n)z −n
n=0
substituting the value of h(n)

M−1 M−1
!
X 1 X
H(z) = H(k)e j2πkn/M z −n
n=0
M n=0
Interchanging the order of summations in the above equation

M−1 M−1
!n
X 1 X j2πk/M −1
H(z) = H(k) e z
n=0
M n=0

?, ?] 18, 2016 34 / 151
The geometric series formula is
N
X 1 − aN+1
an =
n=0
1−a
Using the formula where a = e 2πkn/M z −1
M−1 M
X 1 1 − e j2πk/M z −1
H(z) = H(k)
k=0
M 1 − e j2πk/M z −1
M−1
X 1 1 − e j2πk z −M
= H(k)
k=0
M 1 − e j2πk/M z −1
e j2πk = cos(2πk) + jsin(2πk) = 1

?, ?] 18, 2016 35 / 151
M−1
X 1 1 − z −M
H(z) = H(k)
k=0
M 1 − e j2πk/M z −1
M−1
1 − z −M X H(k)
H(z) =
M k=0
1 − e j2πk/M z −1
The equation can be considered as multiplication of two systems and defined as
H(z) = H1 (z).H2 (z)
where
1 − z −M
H1 (z) =
M
M−1
X H(k)
H2 (z) =
k=0
1 − e j2πk/M z −1
H1 (z) and H2 (z) are realized independently. H(z) is obtained by multiplication of H1 (z)
and H2 (z).
?, ?] 18, 2016 36 / 151
M−1
1 − z −M X H(k)
H(z) = j2πk/M z −1
M k=0
1 − e
Realization
of H2(z)
+ +
H(0)
Z-1
Realization
1
of H1(z)
+ +
H(1)
1
x ( n) M Z-1
+ e j 2π / M
-
Z-M + +
H(2)
Z-1
e j 4π / M
+ + y ( n)
H(M-1)
-1
Z
e j 2π ( M −1)/ M
Figure 9: Frequency sampling FIR structure

?, ?] 18, 2016 37 / 151
Determine the transfer function H(z) of an FIR filter to implement

h(n) = δ(n) + 2δ(n − 1) + δ(n − 2). Using frequency sampling technique
Solution:
h(0) = 1, h(1) = 2, h(2) = 1 The DFT of h(n)
M−1
X
H(k) = h(n)e −j2πkn/M
n=0
With M=3
2
X
H(k) = h(n)e −j2πkn/3
n=0
2
X
H(k) = h(n)e −j2πkn/3
n=0
= h(0) + h(1)e −j2πk/3 + h(2)e −j4πk/3

k=0,1,2
H(0) = 1+2+1=4
H(1) = 1 + 2e −j2π/3 + e −j4π/3 = −0.5 − j0.866 = e −j2π/3
H(2) = 1 + 2e −j4π/3 + e −j8π/3 = −0.5 − j0.866 = e −j2π/3

?, ?] 18, 2016 38 / 151
The system function is

M−1
1 − z −M X H(k)
H(z) = 2πk/M z −1
M k=0
1 − e
For M=3
2
1 − z −3 X H(k)
H(z) = 2πk/3 z −1
3 k=0
1 − e
1−z −3
H(0) H(1) H(2)

= −1
+ −j2π/3 −1
+ −j4π/3 −1
3 1−z 1−e z 1−e z
= H1 (z) × H2 (z)
where
1 − z −3
H1 (z) =
3
" #
4 e −j2π/3 e −j4π/3
H2 (z) = + +
1 − z −1 1 − e −j2π/3 z −1 1 − e −j4π/3 z −1

?, ?] 18, 2016 39 / 151
+ +
4
Z-1
1 1
x ( n) 3 y ( n)
+ + +
e − j 2π /3
Z-3 Z-1
j 2π /3
e
+ +
e − j 4π /3
Z-1
j 4π /3
e
Figure 10: Frequency sampling FIR structure

?, ?] 18, 2016 40 / 151
Realization of IIR system Realization of IIR system
Realization of IIR system

Direct form structure for IIR system
1 Direct form-I structure of IIR system
2 Direct form-II structure of IIR system
Cascade form structure for IIR system

Parallel form structure for IIR system
Lattice structure of IIR system
An Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) filters are digital filters with infinite impulse response.
Unlike FIR filters, they have the feedback (a recursive part of a filter) and are known as
recursive digital filters therefore.
IIR filters are computationally more efficient than FIR filters as they require fewer
coefficients due to the fact that they use feedback.
If the coefficients deviate from their true values then the feedback can make the filter
unstable.

?, ?] 18, 2016 41 / 151
Realization of IIR system Realization of IIR system
LTI systems are represented by the following
difference equation.
N M
X X The general expression of an IIR
y (n) = − ak y (n − k) + bk x(n − k) filter can be expressed as follows:
k=1 k=0
M
−k
P
bk z
By taking z-transform on both sides k=0
H(z) =
N
ak z −k
P
N
X M
X 1+
Y (z) = − ak z −k Y (z) + bk z −k X (z) k=1
k=1 k=0
M
X
" N
# M
H1 (z) = bk z −k
X X
−k −k k=0
Y (z) 1 + ak z = bk z X (z)
k=1 k=0 1
H2 (z) =
N
ak z −k
P
The system function H(z) is defined as 1+
k=1
M
P
bk z −k H(z) = H1 (z).H2 (z)
Y (z) k=0
H(z) = =
X (z) N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1

?, ?] 18, 2016 42 / 151
Realization of IIR system Direct form-I Structure of IIR System
Direct form Structure of IIR System

Structures in which the multiplier coefficients are precisely the coefficients of the transfer
function are called direct form structure.
The direct form structures for H1 (z) H2 (z) are
M
X
H1 (z) = bk z −k y1 (n)
x ( n) b0
k=0 +
= b0 + b1 z −1 + . . . bM z −M
Z-1
b1
H1 (z) is defined as +
Y1 (z) Z-1
H1 (z) =
X1 (z) b2
+
−1 −M
Y1 (z) = b0 X1 (z)+b1 z X1 (z)+. . . bM z X1 (z)
Z-1
bM
Its inverse z transform is
y1 (n) = b0 x1 (n)+b1 x1 (n−1)+. . . bM x1 (n−M)

?, ?] 18, 2016 43 / 151
H2 (z) is the all pole system and is given by
1 y2 ( n)
H2 (z) = x2 ( n)
N +
z −k
P
1+ ak
k=1
Z-1
-a1
+
H2 (z) is also expressed in terms of system function
Z-1
Y2 (z) 1 -a2
H2 (z) = =
X2 (z) N +
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
N
X
Y2 (z)[1 + ak z −k ] = X2 (z)
k=1 Z-1
-aN
N
X
Y2 (z) = − ak z −k Y2 (z) + X2 (z)
k=1
Expanding the above function
Y2 (z) = −a1 z −1 Y2 (z) − a2 z −2 Y2 (z) − a3 z −3 Y2 (z) + . . . − aN z −N Y2 (z) + X2 (z)

Its inverse z transform is
y2 (n) = −a1 y2 (n − 1) − a2 y2 (n − 2) − a3 y2 (n − 3) − . . . − aN y2 (n − N) + x2 (n)

?, ?] 18, 2016 44 / 151
x(n) = x1 (n) Y1 ( z ) y1 (n) = x2 (n) Y2 ( z ) y 2 ( n) = y ( n )

H1 ( z ) = H 2 ( z) =
X1 ( z) X 2 ( z)
Figure 11: Direct form I realization of IIR system
x(n) = x1 (n) b0 y1 (n) x (n) y 2 (n ) = y (n )

+ 2
+
Z-1 Z-1
b1 -a1
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
b2 -a2
+ +
-1
Z Z-1
b3 -a3
+ +
bM-1 -aN-1
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
bM -aN
All zero system All pole system
Figure 12: Direct form I realization of IIR system

?, ?] 18, 2016 45 / 151
Realization of IIR system Direct form II structure for IIR system
Direct form-II Structure of IIR System

Direct form II is also called as canonic form because the number delay elements is same as
the order of difference equation.
M
−k
P
bk z
k=0
H(z) =
N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
Y (z) Y (z) W (z) W (z) Y (z)

H(z) = = = = H1 (z).H2 (z)
X (z) X (z) W (z) X (z) W (z)
W (z) 1
H1 (z) = =
X (z) N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
N
X
W (z)[1 + ak z −k ] = X (z)
k=1
N
X
W (z) = X (z) − ak z −k W (z)
k=1
= X (z) − a1 z −1 W (z) − a2 z −2 W (z) − − . . . aN z −N W (z)

w (n) = x(n) − a1 w (n − 1) − a2 w (n − 2) − . . . − aN w (n − N)
?, ?] 18, 2016 46 / 151
M
Y (z) X
H2 (z) = = bk z −k
W (z) k=0
M
X
Y (z) = bk z −k W (z)
k=0
= b0 W (z) + b1 z −1 W (z) + b2 z −2 W (z) + . . . + bM z −M W (z)
By inverse z transform
y (n) = b0 w (n) + b1 w (n − 1) + b2 w (n − 2) + . . . + bM w (n − M)
w( n ) b0 y ( n)
x ( n) w( n ) +
+
Z-1
Z-1 b1
-a1 +
+
Z-1
Z-1 b2
-a2 +
+
Z-1
-aN Z-1
bM

?, ?] 18, 2016 47 / 151
x ( n) W ( z) w(n) Y ( z) y ( n)
H1 ( z ) = H 2 (z) =
X ( z) W ( z)
Figure 13: Cascade connection of H1 (z) H2 (z)
x( n) w( n ) b0 y ( n) x( n) w( n ) b0 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

-a1 b1 -a1 b1
+ + + +
-1 -1
Z Z
Z-1
-a2 b2
+ + -a2 b2
+ +
-1 -1
Z Z
-a3 b3 Z -1
-a3 b3
+ +
+ +
-aN-1 bM-1
+ + -aN-1 bM-1
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
-aN bM
Z-1
-aN bM
All zero system All pole system
Figure 14: Direct form-II Structure Figure 15: Direct form-II Structure

?, ?] 18, 2016 48 / 151
A difference equation describing a filter is given below
3 1 1
y (n) − y (n − 1) + y (n − 2) = x(n) + x(n − 1)
4 8 2
Draw the direct form I and direct form II structures
Solution:
3 1 1
y (n) = y (n − 1) − y (n − 2) + x(n) + x(n − 1)
4 8 2
1 y ( n) x ( n) w( n ) 1 y ( n)
x ( n)
+ + + +
3 Z-1
Z-1 3 Z-1 1
0.5 4
4 2
+ + +
1 Z-1
− 1 Z-1
8 −
8
Figure 16: Direct form-I Figure 17: Direct form-II

?, ?] 18, 2016 49 / 151
[July 2013]:
y (n) = −0.1y (n − 1) + 0.2y (n − 2) + 3x(n) + 3.6x(n − 1) + 0.6x(n − 2)obtain the the direct
form I and direct form II structures
Solution:
y (n) = −0.1y (n − 1) + 0.2y (n − 2) + 3x(n) + 3.6x(n − 1) + 0.6x(n − 2)
x ( n) 3 y (n)x(n) w( n ) 3 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

3.6 −0.1 -0.1 3.6
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

0.6 0.2
0.2 0.6

?, ?] 18, 2016 50 / 151
June 2010 EC
Obtain direct form I and direct form II for the system described by
y (n) = −0.1y (n − 1) + 0.72y (n − 2) + 0.7x(n) − 0.252x(n − 2)
Solution:
y (n) = −0.1y (n − 1) + 0.72y (n − 2) + 0.7x(n) − 0.252x(n − 2)
x ( n) 0.7 y ( n) x ( n) w( n ) 0.7 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

−0.1 -0.1
x( n − 1) y (n − 1)
+ +
-1
Z
-0.252 Z-1 Z-1
x(n − 2) 0.72 y ( n − 2) 0.72 -0.252

?, ?] 18, 2016 51 / 151
A system is represented by transfer function H(z) is given by
4z 2
H(z) = 3 + 1
− 1
z− 2
z− 4
(i) Does this H(z) represent a FIR or IIR filter ? Why ?

(ii) Give a difference equation realization of this system using direct form I
(iii) Draw the block diagram for the direct form II canonic realization, and give the
governing equations for implementation
Solution:
4z 2 4z 2
H(z) = 3+ 1
− 1
=3+ −
z− 2
z− 4
z − 0.5 z − 0.25
7z 2 − 5.25z + 1.375
=
z 2 − 0.75z + 0.125
(i): By observing the system function it has numerator of polynomial of order 2 as well as
denominator of polynomial of order 2. The system function has poles as well zeros, hence it
represents IIR filter.

?, ?] 18, 2016 52 / 151
(ii): Direct form I
7z 2 − 5.25z + 1.375 7 − 5.25z −1 + 1.375z −2 Y (Z )

H(z) = = =
z 2 − 0.75z + 0.125 1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 X (Z )
Y (Z )[1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 ] = 7X (Z ) − 5.25z −1 X (Z ) + 1.375z −2 X (Z )
y (n) − 0.75y (n − 1) + 0.125y (n − 2) = 7x(n) − 5.25x(n − 1) + 1.375x(n − 2)
y (n) = 0.75y (n − 1) − 0.125y (n − 2) + 7x(n) − 5.25x(n − 1) + 1.375x(n − 2)
x ( n) 7 y ( n)
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
-5.25
0.75
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
1.375 -1.25
Figure 22: Direct form-I Structure

?, ?] 18, 2016 53 / 151
(iii): Direct form II canonic realization
7 − 5.25z −1 + 1.375z −2 Y (z)

H(z) = =
1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 X (z)
Y (z) W (z) 7 − 5.25z −1 + 1.375z −2

H(z) = =
W (z) X (z) 1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2
1
H(z) = H1 (z).H2 (z) = [7 − 5.25z −1 + 1.375z −2 ]
1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2
W (z) 1
H1 (z) = =
X (z) 1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2
x( n) w( n )
+
W (z)[1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 ] = X (z)
Z-1
0.75
+
W (z) = X (z)+0.75z −1 W (z)−0.125z −2 W (z)
Taking inverse z transform Z-1
-1.25
w (n) = x(n) + 0.75w (n − 1) − 0.125w (n − 2)

?, ?] 18, 2016 54 / 151
Y (z)
H2 (z) = = 7 − 5.25z −1 + 1.375z −2
W (z) w( n ) 7 y ( n)
+
Y (z) Z-1
= 7 − 5.25z −1 + 1.375z −2 -5.25
W (z)
+
Y (z) = 7W (z) − 5.25z −1 W (z) + 1.375z −2 W (z)
Z-1
Taking inverse z transform 1.375
y (n) = 7w (n) − 5.25w (n − 1) + 1.375w (n − 2) Figure 23: Direct form of H2 (z)
x( n) w( n ) 7 y ( n) x( n) w( n ) 7 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

-5.25 0.75 -5.25
0.75
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1

-1.25 1.375
-0.125 1.325
Figure 24: Realization of H(z) = H1 (z).H2 (z) Figure 25: Direct form-II, canonic form

?, ?] 18, 2016 55 / 151
2012 DEC, 2012 June

Obtain the direct form II (canonic) realization for the following system.
(z − 1)(z 2 + 5z + 6)(z − 3)
H(z) =
(z 2 + 6z + 5)(z 2 − 6z + 8)
x ( n) w( n ) y ( n)
+ +
Solution:
Z-1
(z − 1)(z 2 + 5z + 6)(z − 3) 1
H(z) = +
(z 2 + 6z + 5)(z 2 − 6z + 8)
(z 2 − 4z + 3)(z 2
+ 5z + 6) Z-1
= 23
(z 2 + 6z + 5) + (z 2 − 6z + 8) -11
+ +
z 4 + z 3 − 11z 2 − 9z + 18
=
z 4 − 23z 2 + 18z + 40 Z-1
1 + z −1 − 11z −2 − 9z −3 + 18z −4 −18 -9
= + +
1 − 23z −2 + 18z −3 + 40z −4 -1
Z
−40 18
Figure 26: Direct form-II

?, ?] 18, 2016 56 / 151
2011 July
Obtain the direct form II realizations of the following system.
(1 + z −1 )
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 − 4
z )(1 − z −1 + 12 z −2 )
Solution:
(1 + z −1 )
H(z) = 5 −1
(1 − 4
z + 34 z −2 − 18 z −3 )
1 (1 + z −1 )
= 5 −1 3 −2 1 −3
× = H1 (z) × H2 (z)
(1 − 4
z + 4
z − 8
z ) 1
W (z) 1
H1 (z) = =
X (z) (1 − 45 z −1 + 34 z −2 − 81 z −3 )
5 −1 3 1
W (z)[1 − z + z −2 − z −3 ] = X (z)
4 4 8
5 −1 3 1
W (z) = X (z) + z W (z) − z −2 W (z) + z −3 W (z)
4 4 8
5 3 1
w (n) = x(n) + w (n − 1) − w (n − 2) + w (n − 3)
4 4 8
?, ?] 18, 2016 57 / 151
H2 (z) = (1 + z −1 )
Y (z)
H2 (z) = = (1 + z −1 )
W (z)
Y (z) = W (z) + z −1 W (z)
y (n) = w (n) + w (n − 1)
x( n) w( n ) 1 y ( n)
y ( n)
x( n)
+
w(n) 1
+ + +
5 5
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 -1
4 4
+ -1 +
3 Z-1 Z-1
− 3
4 −
4
1 Z-1
8 1 Z-1
8


?, ?] 18, 2016 58 / 151
June 2010 EE
Realize the following system function in direct form I
1 + 15 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 − 2
z + 13 z −2 )(1 + 14 z −1 ) x ( n) 1
+ +
y ( n)
Solution: Z-1 1 Z-1

5 −
4 y (n − 1)
x(n − 1)
+
1 + 51 z −1
H(z) = 5 Z-1
(1 − 12 z −1 + 13 z −2 )(1 + 41 z −1 ) 24 y ( n − 2)
+
Y (z) 1 + 15 z −1
H(z) = =
X (z) (1 − 14 z −1 + 5 −2
24
z + 1 −3
12
z ) −
1 Z-1
12 y (n − 3)
Figure 29: Direct form-I
1 −1 5 −2 1 −3
Y (z) − z Y (z) + z Y (z) − z Y (z) = X (z) + 5z −1 X (z)
4 24 12
By taking inverse Z transform on both sides
1 5 1
y (n) − y (n − 1) + y (n − 2) − y (n − 3) = x(n) + 5x(n − 1)
4 24 12
?, ?] 18, 2016 59 / 151
8Z 3 −4Z 2 +11Z −2
Obtain direct form II for the system described by H(z) = [December 2010 EC]
(Z − 14 )(Z 2 −Z + 21 )
Solution:
x ( n) w( n ) 8 y ( n)
+ +
Z-1
1.25
-4
8Z 3 − 4Z 2 + 11Z − 2 Y (z) + +
H(z) = =
(Z − 14 )(Z 2 − Z + 12 ) X (z)
Z-1
8Z 3 − 4Z 2 + 11Z − 2 -0.75 11
= + +
Z − 1.25Z 2 + 0.75Z − 0.125
3
8 − 4Z −1 + 11Z −2 − 2Z −3 Z-1
=
1 − 1.25Z −1 + 0.75Z −2 − 0.125Z −1 0.125 -2

y (n) − 1.25y (n − 1) + 0.75y (n − 2) − 0.125y (n − 3) = 8x(n) − 4x(n − 1) + 11x(n − 2) − 2x(n − 3)
y (n) = 8x(n) − 4x(n − 1) + 11x(n − 2) − 2x(n − 3) + 1.25y (n − 1) − 0.75y (n − 2) + 0.125y (n − 3)

?, ?] 18, 2016 60 / 151
Obtain direct form II for the system described by
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z + 1)z

H(z) =
[z − ( 12 + j 12 )][z − ( 12 − j 12 )](z − 4j )(z + 4j )
[December 2010 EC]

Solution:
Y (z) (Z 2 − 1)(Z 2 − 2Z )
H(z) = =
X (z) (Z 2 − Z + 12 )(Z 2 + 1
16
)
Z4 − 2Z 3 − Z2 + 2Z
= 9 2 1 1
Z4 − Z3 + 16
Z − 16 Z + 32
1− 2Z −1 − Z −2 + 2Z −3
=
9 −2 1 −3 1 −4
1 − Z −1 + 16
− 16
Z + 32
Z
9 1 1
y (n) − y (n − 1) + y (n − 2) − y (n − 3) + y (n − 4) = x(n) − 2x(n − 1) − x(n − 2) + 2x(n − 3)
16 16 32
9 1 1
y (n) = x(n) − 2x(n − 1) − x(n − 2) + 2x(n − 3) + y (n − 1) − y (n − 2) + y (n − 3) − y (n − 4)
16 16 32
?, ?] 18, 2016 61 / 151
x ( n) w( n ) 1 y ( n)
x ( n) 1 y ( n) + +
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
1 Z-1 1
-2 y (n − 1) -2
+ + + +
x(n − 1)
9 Z-1
Z-1 −
16 y ( n − 2) 9 Z-1
-1 −
x( n − 2) + + 16 -1
+ +
Z-1 1 Z-1
2
16 y ( n − 3) 1 Z-1
x(n − 3) + 16 2
+
1 Z-1
− 1 Z -1
32 −
y (n − 4) 32

?, ?] 18, 2016 62 / 151
Realize direct form-I and form -II for linear time invariant system which is described by the
following input output relation
2y (n) − y (n − 2) − 4y (n − 3) = 3x(n − 2)
Solution:
y (n) = 0.5y (n − 2) + 2y (n − 3) + 1.5x(n − 2)
x ( n) w( n ) y ( n)
+
x ( n) y ( n)
+
Z-1
Z-1 Z-1
Z-1 Z-1
Z-1 0.5
1.5 0.5 1.5
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
2 2
(a) Direct form-I (b) Direct form-II
Figure 33: Realization of IIR systems

?, ?] 18, 2016 63 / 151
Realize direct form-I and form -II for system given by

z −1 − 3z −2
H(z) =
(10 − z −1 )(1 + 0.5z −1 + 0.5z −2 )
Solution:
z −1 − 3z −2 z −1 − 3z −1
H(z) = =
(10 − z −1 )(1+ 0.5z −1 −2
+ 0.5z ) (10 + 4z −1 + 4.5z −2 − 0.5z −3 )
Y (z) 0.1z −1 − 0.3z −1
=
X (z) (1 + 0.4z −1 + 0.45z −2 − 0.05z −3 )
By taking inverse z transform on both sides
y (n) + 0.4y (n − 1) + 0.45y (n − 2) − 0.05y (n − 3) = 0.1x(n − 1) − 0.3x(n − 2)
y (n) = −0.4y (n − 1) − 0.45y (n − 2) + 0.05y (n − 3) + 0.1x(n − 1) − 0.3x(n − 2)
x ( n) w( n )
+
x ( n) y ( n)
+
Z-1
−0.4 y ( n)
0.1
Z-1
0.1 −0.4
Z-1 + +
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
Z-1 −0.45
−0.45 -0.3
-0.3
+ +
Z-1 Z-1
0.05
0.05
(a) Direct form-I (b) Direct form-II

?, ?] 18, 2016 64 / 151
Realization of IIR system Cascade Form Structure
Cascade Form Structure
M
−k
P
bk z
k=0 b0 + b1 z −1 + b2 z −2 + bM z −M
H(z) = =
N 1 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + aN z −N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
The system can be factored into a cascade of second order subsystems such that H(z) can be
expressed as
K
Y
H(z) = H1 (z) × H2 (z) × H3 (z) . . . × Hk (z) = Hk (z)
k=1
where K is the integer part of (N+1)/2 and Hk (z) has the general form
bk0 + bk1 z −1 + bk2 z −2
Hk (z) =
1 + ak1 z −1 + ak2 z −2
x(n) = x1 (n) y1 (n) = x2 (n) y2 (n) = x3 (n) yk −1 (n) = y k ( n) = y ( n )

H1(z) H2(z) Hk(z)
xk (n)
Figure 35: Cascade realization

?, ?] 18, 2016 65 / 151
In cascade each Hk (z) are represented as
Yk (z)
Hk (z) =
Xk (z)
yk −1 (n) = x(n) w( n ) bk 0 yk (n) = xk +1 (n)
Wk (z) Yk (z) + +
=
Xk (z) Wk (z)
Z-1
− ak 1 bk1
= Hk1 (z).Hk2 (z) + +
where Hk1 (z) and Hk2 (z) defined as − ak 2

Z -1
bk 2
Wk (z) 1 Figure 36: Cascade realization

Hk1 (z) = =
Xk (z) 1 + ak1 z −1 + ak2 z −2
Hk2 (z) = bk0 + bk1 z −1 + bk2 z −2
wk (n) = −ak1 wk (n − 1) − ak2 wk (n − 2) + −yk−1 (n)

yk (n) = bk0 wk (n) + bk1 wk (n − 1) + bk2 wk (n − 2)
yk−1 (n = xk (n)
yk (n) = xk+1 (n)
y0 (n) = x(n)
y (n) = xk (n)

?, ?] 18, 2016 66 / 151
June 2010 EE
Realize the following system function in cascade form
1 + 15 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 − 2
z + 31 z −2 )(1 + 14 z −1 )
Solution:
1 1 + 51 z −1
H(z) = H1 (z) × H2 (z) = 1 −1
.
(1 + 4
z ) (1 − 12 z −1 + 31 z −2 )
x( n) 1 y ( n)
+ + +
b20
Z-1 1 1
1 Z-1
− 2 5
4
+ −a
−a11 1 21 b21
−
3
Z-1
−a22

?, ?] 18, 2016 67 / 151
1 − 12 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1 1 −2
(1 − 4
z + 2
z )(1 − 51 z −1 + 16 z −2 )
Solution:
1 1 − 21 z −1
H(z) = H1 (z) × H2 (z) = 1 −1 1 −2
.
(1 − 5
z + 6
z ) (1 − 14 z −1 + 12 z −2 )
x ( n) 1 y ( n)
+ + +
Z-1 1 1
1 Z-1 −
5 4 2
+ +
1
−
2
Z-1 Z-1
1
−
6

?, ?] 18, 2016 68 / 151
1 + 13 z −1
H(z) =
(1 − 15 z −1 )(1 − 43 z −1 + 18 z −2 )
Solution:
1 1 + 31 z −1
H(z) = H1 (z) × H2 (z) = 1 −1
×
(1 − 5
z ) (1 − 34 z −1 + 81 z −2 )
x ( n) 1 y ( n)
+ + +
1 Z-1 3 1
Z-1
5 4 3
+
1
−
8
Z-1

?, ?] 18, 2016 69 / 151
The transfer function of a discrete system is given as follows
1 − z −1
H(z) =
(1 − 0.2z −1 − 0.15z −2 )
Draw the cascade realization

Solution:
1
H(z) = H1 (z) × H2 (z) = (1 − z −1 )
(1 − 0.2z −1 − 0.15z −2 )
H2 (z)
x ( n) H1 ( z ) 1 y ( n)
+ +
Z-1 0.2 Z-1

-1
+
0.15
Z-1

?, ?] 18, 2016 70 / 151
December 2010 EE
Draw the cascade realization for the following system
y (n) = 0.75y (n − 1) − 0.125y (n − 2) + 6x(n) + 7x(n − 1) + x(n − 2)
Solution:
Y (z) = 0.75z −1 Y (z) − 0.125z −2 Y (z) + 6X (z) + 7z −1 X (z) + z −2 X (z)
Y (z) 6 + 7z −1 + z −2
H(z) = =
X (z) 1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2
a = 1, b = −0.75, c = 0.125
Roots of the quadratic equation for
Y (z) 6+ 7z −1
+ z −2 ax 2 +qbx + c = 0 are
H(z) = = −b± b 2 −4ac
X (z) 1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 2a
6z 2 + 7z + 1
=
p
0.75 ± 0.752 − 4(0.125)
z2 − 0.75z + 0.125 =
2
(6z + 1)(z + 1) √
= 0.75 ± 0.0625 0.75 ± 0..25
(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25) = =
2 2
(6 + z −1 )(1 + z −1 ) = ⇒ 0.5, 0.25
= = H1 (z) × H2 (z)
(1 − 0.5z −1 )(1 − 0.25z −1 )

?, ?] 18, 2016 71 / 151
6 + z −1
H1 (z) =
1 − 0.5z −1
(1 + z −1 )
H2 (z) =
(1 − 0.25z −1 )
H2 (z)
x ( n) H1 ( z ) 6 1 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1
0.5 1 0.25 1

?, ?] 18, 2016 72 / 151
A system function is specified by its transfer function H(z) given by

(z − 1)(z − 2)(z + 2)z
H(z) =
[z − ( 12 + j 12 )][z − ( 12 − j 12 )](z − 4j )(z + 4j )
Realize the cascade of two biquadratic sections.
Solution:
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z + 2)z
H(z) =
[z − ( 12 + j 12 )][z − ( 21 − j 12 )](z − 4j )(z + 4j )
z 2 − 3z + 2 z 2 + 2z
= × 2
z 2 − z + 0.5 z + 0.0625
1 − 3z −1 + 2z −2 1 + 2z −1
= −1 −2
×
1−z + 0.5z 1 + 0.0625z −2
= H1 (z) × H2 (z)
x ( n) 1 1 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1
1 -3 2
+ +
−0.0625
Z-1
Z-1
-0.5 2

?, ?] 18, 2016 73 / 151
Obtain the cascade realization of the following system. The system should have two biquadratic
sections. [EC December 2012]
(z − 1)(z 2 + 5z + 6)(z − 3)
H(z) =
(z 2 + 6z + 5)(z 2 − 6z + 8)
Solution:
(z − 1)(z 2 + 5z + 6)(z − 3)
H(z) =
(z 2 + 6z + 5)(z 2 − 6z + 8)
z 2 − 4z + 3 z 2 + 5z + 6
= 2
× 2
z + 6z + 5 z − 6z + 8
1 − 4z −1 + 3z −2 1 + 5z −1 + 6z −2
= ×
1 + 6z −1 + 5z −2 1 − 6z −1 + 8z −2
x ( n) 1 1 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1
-6 6
-4 5
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1
-5 3 -8 6

?, ?] 18, 2016 74 / 151
Obtain the cascade realization using second order sections.

10(1 − 12 z −1 )(1 − 23 z −1 )(1 + 2z −1 )
H(z) = 3 −1
(1 − 4
z )(1 − 18 z −1 )[1 − ( 21 + j 12 )z −1 ][1 − ( 21 − j 12 )z −1 ]
Solution:
10z(z − 0.5)(z − 0.6667)(z + 2)
H(z) =
(z − 0.75)(z − 0.125)[z − (0.5 + j0.5)][z − (0.5 − j0.5)]
10z(z − 0.5) (z − 0.6667)(z + 2)
= ×
(z − 0.75)(z − 0.125) [z − (0.5 + j0.5)][z − (0.5 − j0.5)]
10z 2 − 5z z 2 + 1.333z − 1.333
= ×
z 2 − 0.875z + 0.0938 z 2 − z + 0.5
10 − 5z −1 1 + 1.333z −1 − 1.333z −2
= ×
1 − 0.875z −1 + 0.0938z −2 1 − z −1 + 0.5z −2
x ( n) 10 1 y ( n)
+ + + +
Z-1 Z-1
0.875 1
-5 1.333
+ + +
Z-1 Z-1
-0.0938 -0.5 -1.333

?, ?] 18, 2016 75 / 151
EC December 2011
Obtain the cascade realization for the following system.
1 + 14 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 + 2
z )(1 + 21 z −1 + 12 z −2 )
Solution:
1 + 41 z −1
H(z) =
(1 + 21 z −1 )(1 + 21 z −1 + 12 z −2 )
1 + 41 z −1 1
= ×
1 + 12 z −1 1 + 12 z −1 + 12 z −2
x ( n) y ( n)
+ + +
1 Z-1 1 1 Z-1
− −
2 4 2
+
1 Z-1
−
4

?, ?] 18, 2016 76 / 151
Obtain the cascade realization for the following system.

(1 + z −1 )3
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 − 4
z )(1 − 21 z −1 + 12 z −2 )
Solution:
(1 + z −1 )3
H(z) =
(1 − 14 z −1 )(1 − 21 z −1 + 12 z −2 )
1 + z −1 1 + 2z −1 + z −2
= 1 −1
×
(1 − 4
z ) 1 − z −1 + 12 z −2
= H1 (z) × H2 (z)
x ( n) 1 1 y ( n)
+ + + +
1 Z-1 Z-1
1 1
4 2
+ +
1 Z-1
−
2 1

?, ?] 18, 2016 77 / 151
EC 2011 July
Obtain the direct form II realizations of the following system.
(1 + z −1 )
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 − 4
z )(1 − z −1 + 12 z −2 )
(1 + z −1 )
H(z) =
(1 − 14 z −1 )(1 − z −1 + 21 z −2 )
1 + z −1 1
= ×
(1 − 14 z −1 ) 1 − z −1 + z −2
= H1 (z) × H2 (z)
x ( n) y ( n)
+ + +
1 Z-1 Z-1
1 1
4
+
Z-1
−1

?, ?] 18, 2016 78 / 151
June 2010 EC
Obtain cascade form for the system described by
y (n) = −0.1y (n − 1) + 0.72y (n − 2) + 0.7x(n) − 0.252x(n − 2)
Solution:
Y (z) = −0.1z −1 Y (z) + 0.72z −2 Y (z) + 0.7X (z) − 0.252z −2 X (z) =
Y (z) 0.7 − 0.252z −2 1

H(z) = = = (0.7 − 0.252z −2 ) ×
X (z) 1 + 0.1z −1 − 0.72z −2 1 + 0.1z −1 − 0.72z −2
H1 ( z )
H2 (z)
x ( n) 0.7 1 y ( n)
+ +
Z-1 −0.1 Z-1

+
0.72
Z-1
Z-1
-0.252

?, ?] 18, 2016 79 / 151
June 2015 EC
Find the transfer function and difference equation realization shown in Figure
x ( n) w( n ) 4 y ( n)
+ +
Z-1
3
+
Z-1
−2
Solution:
Y (z) 4 + 3z −1
H(z) = =
X (z) 1 + 2z −2
Y (z) = −2z −2 Y (z) + 4X (z) + 3z −1 X (z)

The difference equation is
y (n) = −2y (n − 2) + 4x(n) + 3x(n − 1)

?, ?] 18, 2016 80 / 151
Realization of IIR Structures Parallel Form Structure for IIR System
Parallel Form Structure for IIR System

The system function for IIR sytem is
M
−k
P
bk z C
k=0
H(z) =
N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
H1 ( z ) +
b0 + b1 z −1 + b2 z −2 + bM z −M
=
1 + a1 z −1 + a2 z −2 + aN z −N H 2 (z) +
The function can be expanded in partial

fractions as follows: y ( n)
x( n) H k (z) +
H(z) = C + H1 (z) + H2 (z) . . . + Hk (z)
Figure 49: Parallel form realization for
IIR systems
C is constant and each
H1 (z) + H2 (z) . . . + Hk (z) are the second
order system which is as shown in Figure
50

?, ?] 18, 2016 81 / 151
xk (n) wk ( n) bk 0 yk ( n )
bk0 + bk1 z −1 + +
Hk (z) =
1 + ak1 z −1 + ak2 z −2
Z-1
− ak1 bk1
+ +
wk (n) = ak1 wk (n − 1) − ak2 wk (n − 2) + x(n)
yk (n) = bk0 wk (n) − bk1 wk (n − 1) Z-1
− ak 2
K
X
y (n) = C x(n) + yk (n)
k=1 Figure 50: Direct form II of second order
subsystem

?, ?] 18, 2016 82 / 151
Realize the following System in parallel form:

4z 2
H(z) = 3 + 1
+ 1
z− 2
z− 4
Solution:
4 2z −1
H(z) = 3 + +
1 − 0.5z −1 1 − 14 z −1
4 y ( n)
+ +
x ( n)
Z-1
0.5
Z-1
0.25 2
Figure 51: Parallel realization

?, ?] 18, 2016 83 / 151
(1 + z −1 )(1 + 2z −1 )
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 + 2
z )(1 − 14 z −1 )(1 + 18 z −1 )
Solution:
z −2 (z + 1)(z + 2)
H(z) =
z −3 (z
+ 0.5)(z − 0.25)(z + 0.125)
z(z + 1)(z + 2)
H(z) =
(z + 0.5)(z − 0.25)(z + 0.125)
H(z) (z + 1)(z + 2)
=
z (z + 0.5)(z − 0.25)(z + 0.125)
H(z) A B C
= + +
z (z + 0.5) (z − 0.25) (z + 0.125)
(z + 1)(z + 2) A B C
= + +
(z + 0.5)(z − 0.25)(z + 0.125) (z + 0.5) (z − 0.25) (z + 0.125)

?, ?] 18, 2016 84 / 151
Coefficients A B and C are determined
H(z) (z + 1)(z + 2)
A = [z + 0.5]|z=−0.5 =
z (z − 0.25)(z + 0.125)
(−0.5 + 1)(−0.5 + 2)
= = 2.66
(−0.5 − 0.25)(−0.5 + 0.125)
H(z) (z + 1)(z + 2)
B = [z − 0.25]|z=0.25 =
z (z + 0.5)(z + 0.125)
(0.25 + 1)(0.25 + 2)
= = 10
(0.25 + 0.5)(0.25 + 0.125)
H(z) (z + 1)(z + 2)
C = [z + 0.125]|z=−0.125 =
z (z + 0.5)(z − 0.25)
(−0.125 + 1)(−0.125 + 2)
= = −11.66
(−0.125 + 0.5)(−0.125 − 0.25)

?, ?] 18, 2016 85 / 151
H(z) 2.66 10 −11.66

= + +
z (z + 0.5) (z − 0.25) (z + 0.125)
2.66 10 −11.66
H(z) = + +
(1 + 0.5z −1 ) (1 − 0.25z −1 ) (1 + 0.125z −1 )
2.66
+
Z-1
x ( n) y ( n)
−0.5
10
+ +
Z-1
0.25
−11.66
+
Z-1
−0.125

?, ?] 18, 2016 86 / 151
1 − z −1
H(z) =
(1 − 0.2z −1 − 0.15z −2 )
Solution
1 − z −1
H(z) =
(1 − 0.2z −1 − 0.15z −2 )
z2 − z
H(z) =
(z 2 − 0.2z − 0.15)
a = 1, b = −0.2, c = −0.15 √
−b± b 2 −4ac
Roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are = 2a
p √
0.2 ± 0.22 − 4(−0.15) 0.2 ± 0.64 0.2 ± 0.8
= = = ⇒ 0.5, − 0.3
2 2 2
H(z) z −1
=
z (z − 0.5)(z + 0.3)
H(z) A B
= +
z (z − 0.5) (z + 0.3)

?, ?] 18, 2016 87 / 151
The values of A and B are determined by the following procedure.

H(z) z −1 0.5 − 1
A = (z − 0.5)|z=0.5 = = = −0.625
z (z + 0.3) (0.5 + 0.3)
H(z) z −1 −0.3 − 1
B = (z + 0.3)|z=−0.3 = = = 1.625
z (z − 0.5) (−0.3 − 0.5)
H(z) −0.625 1.625
= +
z z − 0.5 z + 0.3
−0.625 1.625
H(z) = + = H1 (z) + H2 (z)
1 − 0.5z −1 1 + 0.3z −1
−0.625
+
Z-1
x ( n) y ( n)
0.5 +
1.625
+
Z-1
−0.3

?, ?] 18, 2016 88 / 151
1 + 0.33z −1
H(z) =
(1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 )
Solution
1 + 0.33z −1 z −1 (z + 0.33)
H(z) = = −2 2
(1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 ) z (z − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2 )
H(z) z + .33
=
z (z 2 − 0.75z + 0.125)
a = 1, b = −0.75, c = 0.125
Roots of the equation are
p √
0.75 ± 0.752 − 4(0.125) 0.75 ± 0.0625 0.75 ± 0.25
= = = ⇒ 0.5, 0.25
2 2 2
H(z) z + 0.33
=
z (z − 0.5)(z − 0.25)
A B
= +
(z − 0.5) (z − 0.25)

?, ?] 18, 2016 89 / 151
The values of A and B are determined by the following procedure.

H(z) z + 0.33 0.25 + 0.33
A = (z − 0.5)|z=0.5 = = = 3.33
z (z − 0.25) (0.5 − 0.25)
H(z) z + 0.33 0.25 + 0.33
B = (z − 0.25)|z=0.25 = = = −2.33
z (z − 0.5) (0.25 − 0.5)
H(z) 3.33 −2.33
= +
z (z − 0.5) (z − 0.25)
3.33 −2.33
H(z) = + = H1 (z) + H2 (z)
1 − 0.5z −1 1 − 0.25z −1
3.33
+
Z-1
x ( n) y ( n)
0.5 +
−2.33
+
Z-1
0.25

?, ?] 18, 2016 90 / 151
y (n) = 0.75y (n − 1) − 0.125y (n − 2) + 6x(n) + 7x(n − 1) + x(n − 2)
Solution
Y (z) = 0.75z −1 Y (z) − 0.125z −2 Y (z) + 6X (z) + 7z −1 X (z) + z −2 X (z)
Y (z) 6 + 7z −1 + z −2
H(z) = =
X (z) 1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2
z −2 [6z 2 + 7z + 1]
H(z) =
z −2 [z 2 − 0.75z + 0.125]
z −2 [6z 2 + 7z + 1]
H(z) =
z −2 [z 2 − 0.75z + 0.125]
[6z 2 + 7z + 1]
=
[z 2 − 0.75z + 0.125]

?, ?] 18, 2016 91 / 151
a = 1, b = −0.75, c = 0.125
Roots of the equation are
√
q
0.75 ± (−0.75)2 − 4(0.125) 0.75 ± 0.0625 0.75 ± 0.25
= = =
2 2 2
0.5, 0.25
6z 2 + 7z + 1
H(z) =
(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25)
H(z) 6z 2 + 7z + 1
=
z z(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25)
H(z) A B C
= + +
z z (z − 0.5) (z − 0.25)
6z 2 + 7z + 1 1
A = H(z)z|z=0 = z= =8
z(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25) (−0.5)(−0.25)
6z 2 + 7z + 1 6(0.5)2 + 7(0.5) + 1
B = H(z)(z − 0.5)|z=0.5 = (z − 0.5z) = = 48
z(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25) 0.5[0.5 − 0.25]
6z 2 + 7z + 1
C = H(z)(z − 0.25z)|z=0.25 = (z − 0.25)
z(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25)
6(0.25)2 + 7(0.25) + 1
= = −50
0.25[0.25 − 0.5]

?, ?] 18, 2016 92 / 151
48 −50
H(z) = 8 + + = H1 (z) + H2 (z) + H3 (z)
(1 − 0.5z 1 ) (1 − 0.25z 1 )
48 y ( n)
+ +
x ( n)
Z-1
0.5
−50
+
Z-1
0.25

?, ?] 18, 2016 93 / 151
8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2
H(z) =
[z − 14 ][z 2 − z + 12 ]
H(z) 8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2
=
z z[z − 14 ][z 2 − z + 12 ]
H(z) 8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2
=
z z[z − 14 ][z 2 − z + 12 ]
H(z) A B Cz + D
= + + 2
z z z − 0.25 z − z + .5
H(z) 8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2
A = z|z = 0 =
z [z − 0.25][z 2 − z + 0.5]
−2
= = 16
[−0.25][0.5]

?, ?] 18, 2016 94 / 151
H(z) 8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2
B = [z − 0.5]|z=0.5 =
z z[z 2 − z + 0.5]
8(0.5)3 − 4(0.5)2 + 11(0.5) − 2
= =8
(0.5)[(0.5)2 − (0.5) + 0.5]
H(z) 8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2
=
z z[z − 0.25][z 2 − z + 0.5]
8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2 A B Cz + D
= + + 2
z[z − 0.25][z 2 − z + 0.5] z z − 0.25 z − z + .25
8z 3 − 4z 2 + 11z − 2 = A[z − 0.25][z 2 − z + 0.5] +
+Bz[z 2 − z + .25] + (Cz + D)z[z − 0.25]
3 2
8z − 4z + 11z − 2z = z 3 [A + B + C ] + z 2 [−1.25A − B − 0.25C + D] +
+z[0.5A + .25B − .25D] − 0.0625A
8 = A + B + C = 16 + 8 + C
C = −16
−4 = [−1.25A − B − 0.25C + D] = [−20 − 8 + 4 + D]

D = 20

?, ?] 18, 2016 95 / 151
16
H(z) A B Cz + D
= + + 2
z z z − 0.25 z − z + .5
8 y ( n)
H(z) 16 8 −16z + 20 + +
= + + 2 x ( n)
z z z − 0.25 z − z + .5
Z-1
8 −16 + 20z −1 0.25
H(z) = 16 + +
1 − 0.25z −1 1 − z −1 + .5z −2
-16
+ +
Z-1
1 20
+
Z-1
−0.5

?, ?] 18, 2016 96 / 151
EE 2010 May
1 − 15 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1
[1 − 2
z + 31 z −2 ][1 + 14 z −1 ]
Solution:
z −1 (z − 0.2)
H(z) =
z −2 [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.33]z −1 [z + 0.25]
z 2 (z − 0.2)
H(z) =
[z 2 − 0.5z + 0.33z][z + 0.25]
H(z) z(z − 0.2)
=
z [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.33][z + 0.25]
H(z) Az + B C
= +
z [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.333] [z + 0.25]
z(z − 0.2) Az + B C
= +
[z 2 − 0.5z + 0.33][z + 0.25] [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.333] [z + 0.25]

?, ?] 18, 2016 97 / 151
H(z) (z − 0.2)
C = [z + 0.25]|z=−0.25 = 2
z [z − 0.5z + 0.333]
−0.25(−0.25 − 0.2)
= = 0.217
[(−0.25)2 − (0.5)(−0.25) + 0.333]
z(z − 0.2) Az + B C
= +
[z 2 − 0.5z + 0.33][z + 0.25] [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.333] [z + 0.25]
z(z − 0.2) = (Az + B)[z + 0.25] + C [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.33]
2
z − 0.2z = Az 2 + 0.25Az + Bz + 0.25B + Cz 2 − 0.5Cz + 0.33C ]
2
z − 0.2z = z 2 (A + C ) + z(0.25A + B − C ) + 0.25B + 0.33C
Equating coefficients
A+C = 1
A = 1 − C = 1 − 0.217 = 0.783
0.25B + 0.33C = 0
−0.33C
B = = −0.2864
0.25

?, ?] 18, 2016 98 / 151
H(z) 0.78z + −0.2864 0.216

= +
z [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.333] [z + 0.25]
H(z) z(0.78 − 0.2864z −1 ) 0.216
= +
z z 2 (1 − 0.5z −1 + 0.333z −2 ) z[1 + 0.25z −1 ]
(0.78 − 0.2864z −1 ) 0.216
H(z) = +
(1 − 0.5z −1 + 0.333z −2 ) (1 + 0.25z −1 )
0.78
+ +
Z-1
0.5
-0.2864
x ( n)
+ y ( n)
+
Z-1
-0.333
0.216
+
Z-1
0.25

?, ?] 18, 2016 99 / 151
EC 2012 December
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z + 2)z

H(z) =
[z − ( 12 + j 12 )][z − ( 12 − j 12 )](z − 4j )(z + 4j )
Solution:
(z − 1)(z − 2)(z + 2)z

H(z) =
[z − ( 12 + j 12 )][z − ( 21 − j 12 )](z − 4j )(z + 4j )
H(z) (z − 1)(z − 2)(z + 2)z
=
z [z − ( 12 + j 12 )][z − ( 21 − j 12 )](z − 4j )(z + 4j )
H(z) A B C D
= + + +
z z − (0.5 + j0.5) z − (0.5 − j0.5) z − j0.25 z + j0.25)
Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 100 / 151
H(z) A B C D
= + + +
z z − (0.5 + j0.5) z − (0.5 − j0.5) z − j0.25 z + j0.25)
H(z) (z 2 − 1)(z − 2)
A = [z − (0.5 + j0.5)]|z=0.5+j0.5 =
z [z − (0.5 − j0.25)][z − j0.25][z + j0.25]
[(0.5 + j0.5)2 − 1][(0.5 + j0.5 − 2]
=
[0.5 + j0.5 − (0.5 − j0.5)][z 2 + 0.0625]
[0.25 + j0.5 − 0.25 − 1][(0.5 + j0.5 − 2]
=
[j1][z 2 + 0.0625]
[−1 + j0.5][(−1.5 + j0.5]
=
[j1][j0.5 + 0.0625]
[1.5 − j0.5 − j0.75 + 0.25] 1.25 − j1.25 1.767∠ − 45
= = =
−0.5 + j0.0625 −0.5 + j0.0625 0.503∠172
1.767∠ − 45
= = 3.513∠ − 217 = −2.8 + j2.1
0.503∠172

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 101 / 151
Similarly B, C and D are estimated.
H(z) A B C D
= + + +
z z − (0.5 + j0.5) z − (0.5 − j0.5) z − j0.25 z + j0.25)
−2.8 + j2.1 −2.7683 − j2.1517 3.268 − j7.837 3.268 + j7.837
= + + +
z − (0.5 + j0.5) z − (0.5 − j0.5) z − j0.25 z + j0.25)
We have to design second order system, hence combine first two terms and last two terms.
H(z) −5.536z + 0.612 6.5366z − 3.918

= +
z z 2 − z + 0.5 z 2 + 0.0625)
H(z) z(−5.536 + 0.612z −1 ) z(6.5366 − 3.918z −1 )
= +
z z 2 (1 − z −1 + 0.5z −2 ) z 2 (1 + 0.0625z −2 )
(−5.536 + 0.612z −1 ) (6.5366 − 3.918z −1 )
H(z) = + = H1 (z) + H2 (z)
(1 − z −1 + 0.5z −2 ) (1 + 0.0625z −2 )

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 102 / 151
(−5.536 + 0.612z −1 ) (6.5366 − 3.918z −1 )

H(z) = −1 −2
+ = H1 (z) + H2 (z)
(1 − z + 0.5z ) (1 + 0.0625z −2 )
-5.536
+ +
Z-1
1
0.6112
x ( n)
+ y ( n)
+
-1
Z
-0.5
6.5366
+ +
Z-1
3.9184
Z-1
-0.0625

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 103 / 151
EE 2010 May
1 + 14 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1
[1 + 2
z + 41 z −2 ][1 + 12 z −1 ]
Solution:
z −1 (z − 0.25)
H(z) =
z −2 [z 2 − 0.5z + 0.25]z −1 [z + 0.5]
z 2 (z + 0.25)
H(z) =
[z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25][z + 0.5]
H(z) z(z − 0.25)
=
z [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25][z + 0.25]
H(z) Az + B C
= +
z [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25] [z + 0.5]
z(z − 0.25) Az + B C
= +
[z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25][z + 0.5] [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25] [z + 0.5]

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 104 / 151
H(z) z(z − 0.2)

C = [z + 0.5]|z=−0.5 = 2
z [z − 0.5z + 0.333]
−0.5(−0.5 − 0.25)
= = 0.5
[(−0.5)2 − (0.5)(−0.5) + 0.25]
z(z + 0.25) Az + B C
= +
[z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25][z + 0.5] [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25] [z + 0.5]
z(z + 0.25) = (Az + B)[z + 0.5] + C [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25]
2
z + 0.25z = Az 2 + 0.5Az + Bz + 0.5B + Cz 2 + 0.5Cz + 0.25C ]
2
z + 0.25z = z 2 (A + C ) + z(0.5A + B + 0.5C ) + 0.5B + 0.25C
A+C = 1
A = 1 − C = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5
0.25 = 0.5A + B + 0.5C = 0.5 × 0.5 + B + 0.5 × 0.5

B = −0.25

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 105 / 151
H(z) 0.5z − 0.25 0.5

= +
z [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25] [z + 0.5]
H(z) z(0.5 − 0.25z −1 ) 0.5
= +
z z 2 (1 + 0.5z −1 + 0.25z −2 ) z[1 + 0.5z −1 ]
(0.5 − 0.25z −1 ) 0.5
H(z) = +
(1 + 0.5z −1 + 0.25z −2 ) (1 + 0.5z −1 )
0.5
+ +
Z-1
-0.5
-0.25
x ( n)
+ y ( n)
+
Z-1
-0.25
0.5
+
Z-1
-0.5

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 106 / 151
1 − 12 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1
(1 − 3
z )(1 − 41 z −1 )
Solution:
z −1 (z − 0.5)
H(z) =
z −1 (z − 0.33)z −1 (z − 0.25)
z(z − 0.5)
H(z) =
(z − 0.33)(z − 0.25)
H(z) (z − 0.33)
=
z (z − 0.33)(z − 0.25)
H(z) A B
= +
z z − 0.33 z − 0.25
(z − 0.5) A B
= +
(z − 0.33)z −1 (z − 0.25) z − 0.33 z − 0.25

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 107 / 151
Coefficients A and B are determined
H(z) z − 0.5
A = [z − 0.33]|z=0.33 =
z z − 0.25
0.33 − 0.5
= = −2
0.33 − 0.25
H(z) z − 0.5
B = [z − 0.25]|z=0.25 =
z z − 0.33
0.25 − 0.5
= =3
0.25 − 0.33
−2
+
Z-1
x ( n) 1 y ( n)
3 +
3
+
Z-1
0.25

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 108 / 151
1 + 13 z −1
H(z) =
1 − 34 z −1 + 81 z −2
Solution:
1 + 13 z −1
H(z) =
1 − 34 z −1 + 18 z −2
1 + 0.33z −1
H(z) =
(1 − 0.5z −1 )(1 − 0.25z −1 )
z −1 (z + 0.33)
H(z) =
z −1 (z− 0.5)z −1 (z − 0.25)
z(z + 0.33)
H(z) =
(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25)
H(z) (z + 0.33)
=
z (z − 0.5)(z − 0.25)
H(z) A B
= +
z z − 0.5 z − 0.25
(z + 0.33) A B
= +
(z − 0.5)(z − 0.25) z − 0.33 z − 0.25

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 109 / 151
Coefficients A and B are determined
H(z) z + 0.33 0.5 + 0.33

A = [z − 0.5]|z=0.5 = = = 3.33
z z − 0.25 0.5 − 0.25
H(z) z + 0.33 0.25 + 0.33

B = [z − 0.25]|z=0.25 = = = −2.33
z z − 0.5 0.25 − 0.5
H(z) 3.33 −2.33
= +
z z − 0.5 z − 0.25
3.33 −2.33
H(z) = +
z − 0.5 z − 0.25
3.333
+
Z-1
x ( n) 0.5 y ( n)
+
−2.33
+
Z-1
0.25
Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) Figure 61: Parallel

UNIT - 8: Implementation realization Systems[?, ?,October
of Discrete-time ?, ?] 18, 2016 110 / 151
EE 2010 May
10(1 − 12 z −1 )(1 + 2z −1 )(1 − 32 z −1 )

H(z) = 3 −1
(1 − 4
z )(1 − 18 z −1 )[1 − ( 21 + j 12 )z −1 )][1 − ( 21 − j 12 )z −1 )]
Solution:
10(1 − 0.5z −1 )(1 + 2z −1 )(1 − 0.66z −1 )

H(z) =
(1 − 0.75z −1 )(1 − 0.125z −1 )[1 − (0.5 + j0.5)z −1 )][1 − (0.5 − j0.5)z −1 )]
10(1 − 0.5z −1 )(1 + 2z −1 )(1 − 0.66z −1 )
H(z) =
(1 − 0.75z −1 )(1 − 0.125z −1 )[1 − z −1 + 0.5z −2 )]
10z −3 (z − 0.5)(z + 2)(z − 0.66)
H(z) =
z −4 (z − 0.75)(z − 0.125)[z 2 − z + 0.5]
H(z) 10(z − 0.5)(z + 2)(z − 0.66)
=
z (z − 0.75)(z − 0.125)[z 2 − z + 0.5]
H(z) A B Cz + D
= + + 2
z [z − 0.75] [z − 0.125] [z − z + 0.5]
10(z − 0.5)(z + 2)(z − 0.66) A B Cz + D

= + + 2
(z − 0.75)(z − 0.125)[z 2 − z + 0.5] [z − 0.75] [z − 0.125] [z − z + 0.5]

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 111 / 151
H(z) 10(z − 0.5)(z + 2)(z − 0.66)

A = [z − 0.75]|z=0.75 =
z (z − 0.125)[z 2 − z + 0.5]
10(0.75 − 0.5)(0.75 + 2)(0.75 − 0.66)
= = 3.16
(0.75 − 0.125)[0.752 − 0.75 + 0.5]
H(z) 10(z − 0.5)(z + 2)(z − 0.66)

B = [z − 0.125]|z=0.125 =
z (z − 0.75)[z 2 − z + 0.5]
10(0.125 − 0.5)(0.125 + 2)(0.125 − 0.66)
= = −17.46
(0.125 − 0.75)[0.1252 − 0.125 + 0.5]
z(z + 0.25) Az + B C
= +
[z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25][z + 0.5] [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25] [z + 0.5]
z(z + 0.25) = (Az + B)[z + 0.5] + C [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25]
2
z + 0.25z = Az 2 + 0.5Az + Bz + 0.5B + Cz 2 + 0.5Cz + 0.25C ]
2
z + 0.25z = z 2 (A + C ) + z(0.5A + B + 0.5C ) + 0.5B + 0.25C
A+C = 1
A = 1 − C = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5
Dr. Manjunatha. P 0.25

(JNNCE) = 0.5A
UNIT -+
8: B + 0.5C = 0.5
Implementation × 0.5 + BSystems[?,
of Discrete-time + 0.5 ×?,October
0.5
?, ?] 18, 2016 112 / 151
H(z) 0.5z − 0.25 0.5

= +
z [z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25] [z + 0.5]
H(z) z(0.5 − 0.25z −1 ) 0.5
= +
z z 2 (1 + 0.5z −1 + 0.25z −2 ) z[1 + 0.5z −1 ]
(0.5 − 0.25z −1 ) 0.5
H(z) = +
(1 + 0.5z −1 + 0.25z −2 ) (1 + 0.5z −1 )
0.5
+ +
Z-1
-0.5
-0.25
x ( n)
+ y ( n)
+
Z-1
-0.25
0.5
+
Z-1
-0.5

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 113 / 151
Realization of FIR system Lattice structure for FIR Systems
Lattice structure for FIR Systems

The system function of mth order FIR filter is represented by the polynomial Am (z)
Hm (z) = Am (z)
where Am (z) is the polynomial and is defined as

m
X
Am (z) = 1 + am (i)z −i
i=1
A0 (z) = 1 The system function becomes

m
X
Hm (z) = 1 + am (i)z −i
i=1
H0 (z) = 1 the z transform the input and output are related as

Y (z)
Hm (z) =
X (z)
m
Y (z) X
=1+ am (i)z −i
X (z) i=1

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 114 / 151
m
X
Y (z) = X (z) + am (i)z −i X (z)
i=1 f0 (n) = x(n) and g0 (n − 1) = x(n − 1)
Taking inverse z transform y (n) = x(n) + k1 x(n − 1)
m
X
y (n) = x(n) + am (i)x(n − i)
i=1
f 0 (n )
+ f1 (n) = y (n)
Consider the order of the filter m=1 K1
x( n)
y (n) = x(n) + a1 (1)x(n − 1) K1 g1 (n)

Z-1 +
g0 (n) g0 (n − 1)
From the figure y(n) is Figure 63: Single stage Lattice filter
y (n) = f0 (n) + k1 g0 (n − 1)

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 115 / 151
Consider the filter of order of two.
The second stage output is
2
X
y (n) = x(n) + am (i)x(n − i) f2 (n) = f1 (n) + K2 g1 (n − 1)
i=1
g2 (n) = K2 f1 (n) + g1 (n − 1)
= x(n) + a2 (1)x(n − 1) + a2 (2)x(n − 2)
The first stage output is The output y (n) is
f1 (n) = x(n) + K1 x(n − 1) y (n) = f1 (n) + K2 g1 (n − 1)

g1 (n) = K1 x(n) + x(n − 1)
y (n) = x(n) + K1 x(n − 1) + K2 [K1 x(n − 1) + x(n − 2)]

= x(n) + K1 (1 + K2 )x(n − 1) + K2 x(n − 2)
f 0 (n ) f1 (n) f 2 ( n ) = y ( n)
+ +
K1 K2
x ( n)
K1 K2
g0 (n)
Z-1 + g1 ( n)
Z-1 + g 2 ( n)
Figure 64: Two stage Lattice filter

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 116 / 151
y (n) = x(n) + K1 (1 + K2 )x(n − 1) + K2 x(n − 2)
This equation represents the second order FIR system if:
a2 (1) = K1 (1 + K2 ) and a2 (2) = K2
a2 (1)
K1 = and K2 = a2 (2)
(1 + K2 )
The lattice structure for mth order is obtained from direct form coefficients by the following
recursive equations.
Km = am (m)
am (i) − am (m)am (m − i)
am−1 (i) = 2
i = 1, 2, . . . m − 1
1 − Km

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 117 / 151
Draw the lattice structure for the following FIR filter function
1 −2
H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + z
3
Solution:
1 −2 y ( n)
H(z) = 1 + 2z −1 + z + +
3 K1 = 1.5 K 2 = 0.333
x ( n)
K1 = 1.5 K 2 = 0.333
1
a2 (1) = 2, a2 (2) = 3
g 2 ( n)
Km = am (m)
Z-1 + Z-1 +
for m=2
K2 = a2 (2) = 13 Figure 65: Lattice filter
am−1 (i) = 2
1 − Km
a2 (i) − a2 (2)a2 (2 − i)
a1 (i) =
1 − K22
a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
a1 (1) =
1 − K22
2 − (0.333)(2)
=
1 − (0.333)2
= 1.5

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 118 / 151
A FIR filter is given by
2 3 1
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) + x(n − 3)
5 4 3
Draw the lattice structure
Solution:
2 3 1
y (n) = x(n) + x(n − 1) + x(n − 2) + x(n − 3)
5 4 3
By taking z transform
2 −1 3 −2 1
Y (z) = X (z) + z X (z) + z X (z) + z −3 X (z)
5 4 3
Y (z) 2 3 −2 1
H(z) = = 1 + z −1 + z + z −3
X (z) 5 4 3
= 1 + 0.4z −1 + 0.75z −2 + 0.333z −3
a3 (1) = 0.4, a3 (2) = 0.75, a3 (3) = 0.333

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 119 / 151
for m=3, K3 = a3 (3) = 0.333
am (i) − am (m)am (m − i) for m=2, K2 = a2 (2) = 0.693

am−1 (i) = 2
1 − Km
a3 (i) − a3 (3)a3 (3 − i)
a2 (i) = a2 (i) − a2 (2)a2 (2 − i)
1 − K32 a1 (i) =
1 − K22
a3 (1) − a3 (3)a3 (2)
a2 (1) = a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
1 − K32 a1 (1) =
1 − K22
0.4 − (0.333)(0.75)
= = 0.169 0.169 − (0.693)(0.169)
1 − (0.333)2 =
1 − (0.693)2
a3 (2) − a3 (3)a3 (1)
a2 (2) = = 0.0998
1 − K32
0.75 − (0.333)(0.4) for m=1, K1 = a1 (1) = 0.0998
= = 0.693
1 − (0.333)2
y ( n)
+ + +
K1 = 0.0998 K 2 = 0.693 K 3 = 0.333
x ( n)
K1 = 0.0998 K 2 = 0.693 K 3 = 0.333
Z-1 + Z-1 + Z-1 + g 3 ( n)
Figure 66: Lattice filter

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 120 / 151
A FIR filter is given by
y (n) = x(n) + 3.1x(n − 1) + 5.5x(n − 2) + 4.2x(n − 3) + 2.3x(n − 4)
Draw the lattice structure

Solution:
y (n) = x(n) + 3.1x(n − 1) + 5.5x(n − 2) + 4.2x(n − 3) + 2.3x(n − 4)
Y (z) = X (z) + 3.1z −1 X (z) + 5.5z −2 X (z) + 4.2z −3 X (z) + 2.3z −4 X (z)
Y (z)
H(z) = = 1 + 3.1z −1 + 5.5z −2 + 4.2z −3 + 2.3z −4
X (z)
a4 (1) = 3.1, a4 (2) = 5.5, a4 (3) = 4.2 a4 (4) = 2.3

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 121 / 151
For m=4 K4 = a4 (4) = 2.3
am (i) − am (m)am (m − i) For m=3 K3 = a3 (3) = 0.683

am−1 (i) = 2
1 − Km
a4 (i) − a4 (4)a4 (4 − i) am (i) − am (m)am (m − i)
a3 (i) = am−1 (i) = 2
1 − K42 1 − Km
a4 (1) − a4 (4)a4 (3) a3 (i) − a3 (3)a3 (3 − i)
a3 (1) = a2 (i) =
1 − K42 1 − K32
3.1 − (2.3)(4.2) a3 (1) − a3 (3)a3 (3)
= a2 (1) =
1 − (2.3)2 1 − K32
= 1.529 1.529 − (0.683)(1.667)
=
a4 (2) − a4 (4)a4 (2) 1 − (0.683)2
a3 (2) =
1 − K42 = 0.732
5.5 − (2.3)(5.5) a3 (2) − a3 (3)a3 (1)
= a2 (2) =
1 − (2.3)2 1 − K32
= 1.6667 1.667 − (0.683)(1.529)
=
a4 (3) − a4 (4)a4 (1) 1 − (0.683)2
a3 (3) =
1 − K42 = 1.167
4.5 − (2.3)(3.1)
=
1 − (2.3)2
= 0.683 For m=2, K2 = a2 (2) = 1.167

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 122 / 151
For m=2, K2 = a2 (2) = 1.167

For m=1
k1 = a1 (1) = 2
1 − Km
a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)

k1 = a1 (1) =
1 − K22
0.732 − (1.167)(0.732)
= = 0.338
1 − (1.167)2
f1 ( n) f 2 ( n) f 3 (n ) y(n)
+ + + +
K1 = 0.338 K 2 = 1.167 K 3 = 0.683 K 4 = 2.3
x(n)
K1 = 0.338 K 2 = 1.167 K 3 = 0.683 K 4 = 2.3
Z-1 + Z-1 + Z-1 + Z-1 +
g1 (n) g 2 ( n) g 3 ( n) g 4 ( n)

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 123 / 151
Determine all the FIR filters which are specified by the lattice parameters K1 = 0.1, K2 = 0.2,
and K3 = 0.3 and draw the structure
Solution:
am (0) = 1
am (m) = Km
am (i) = am−1 (i) + am (m)am−1 (m − i) For m=3
For m=1 a3 (0) = 1

a3 (3) = K3 = 0.3
a1 (0) = 1 a3 (i) = a2 (i) + a3 (3)a2 (3 − i)
a1 (1) = K1 = 0.1 a3 (1) = a2 (1) + a3 (3)a2 (2)
= 0.12 + (0.3)(0.2) = 0.18
For m=2
a3 (2) = a2 (2) + a3 (3)a2 (1)
a2 (0) = 1 = 0.2 + (0.3)(0.12) = 0.236
a2 (2) = K2 = 0.2
a2 (i) = a1 (i) + a2 (2)a1 (2 − i)
a2 (1) = 0.1 + (0.2)0.1 = 0.12

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 124 / 151
m
X
H(z) = 1+ am (i)z −i
i=1
3
X
= 1+ a3 (i)z −i
i=1
= 1 + a3 (1)z −1 + a3 (2)z −2 + a3 (3)z −3

= 1 + 0.18z −1 + 0.236z −2 + 0.3z −3
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
1 0.18 0.236 0.3
y(n)
+ + +

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 125 / 151
Determine all the FIR filters which are specified by the lattice parameters K1 = 0.5, K2 = 0.333,
and K3 = 0.25 and draw the structure
Solution:
am (0) = 1
am (m) = Km For m=3
am (i) = am−1 (i) + am (m)am−1 (m − i)
a3 (0) = 1
For m=1 a3 (3) = K3 = 0.25
a3 (i) = a2 (i) + a3 (3)a2 (3 − i)
a1 (0) = 1 a3 (1) = a2 (1) + a3 (3)a2 (2)
a1 (1) = K1 = 0.5 = 0.665 + (0.25)(0.333) = 0.75
a3 (2) = a2 (2) + a3 (3)a2 (1)
For m=2
= 0.333 + (0.667)(0.12) = 0.5
a2 (0) = 1
a2 (2) = K2 = 0.333 a3 (3) = k3 = 0.25
a2 (i) = a1 (i) + a2 (2)a1 (2 − i)
a2 (1) = 0.5 + (0.333)0.5 = 0.665
a3 (0) = 1, a3 (1) = 0.75, a3 (2) = 0.5, and a3 (3) = 0.25

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 126 / 151
a3 (0) = 1, a3 (1) = 0.75, a3 (2) = 0.5, and a3 (3) = 0.25
3
X
H(z) = 1+ a3 (i)z −i
i=1
= K3 = 1 + a3 (1)z −1 + a3 (2)z −2 + a3 (3)z −3

= 1 + 0.75z −1 + 0.5z −2 + 0.25z −3
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
1 0.75 0.5 0.25
y(n)
+ + +

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 127 / 151
Determine the impulse response of a FIR filter with reflection coefficients K1 = 0.6, K2 = 0.3,
K3 = 0.5 and K4 = 0.9 Also draw the direct form structure
Solution:
am (0) = 1
am (m) = Km
For m=3
am (i) = am−1 (i) + am (m)am−1 (m − i)
a3 (0) = 1
For m=1
a3 (3) = K3 = 0.5
a1 (0) = 1 a3 (i) = a2 (i) + a3 (3)a2 (3 − i)
a1 (1) = K1 = 0.5 a3 (1) = a2 (1) + a3 (3)a2 (2)
= 0.78 + (0.5)(0.3) = 0.93
For m=2 a3 (2) = a2 (2) + a3 (3)a2 (1)
= 0.3 + (0.5)(0.78) = 0.69
a2 (0) = 1
a2 (2) = K2 = 0.3
a2 (i) = a1 (i) + a2 (2)a1 (2 − i) a3 (3) = k3 = 0.25
a2 (1) = 0.6 + (0.3)0.6 = 0.78

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 128 / 151
For m=4
a4 (0) = 1
a4 (i) = a3 (i) + a4 (4)a3 (4 − i)
a4 (1) = a3 (1) + a4 (4)a3 (3) = 0.93 + (0.9)(0.5) = 1.38
a4 (2) = a3 (2) + a4 (3)a3 (2) = 0.69 + (0.9)(0.69) = 1.311
a4 (3) = a3 (3) + a4 (3)a3 (1) = 0.5 + (0.9)(0.93) = 1.337
a4 (4) = K4 = 0.9
a4 (0) = 1, a4 (1) = 1.38, a4 (2) = 1.311, and a4 (3) = 1.337 and a4 (4) = 0.9
3
X
H(z) = 1+ a3 (i)z −i = 1 + a4 (1)z −1 + a4 (2)z −2 + a4 (3)z −3 + a4 (4)z −3
i=1
= 1 + 1.38z −1 + 1.311z −2 + 1.337z −3 + 0.9z −4
x ( n)
Z-1 Z-1 Z-1 Z-1
1 1.38 1.311 1.337 0.9
y(n) y(n)
+ + + +

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 129 / 151
Realization of IIR system Lattice structure for IIR Systems
Lattice structure for IIR Systems

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 130 / 151
The system function of mth order IIR filter is represented by
M
−k
P
bk z
k=0
H(z) =
N
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
Let us consider an all pole system with system function
1 1
H1 (z) = =
N AN (z)
aN (k)z −k
P
1+
k=1
Y (z)
But the system function H1 (z) = X (z)
Y (z) 1
=
X (z) N
aN (k)z −k
P
1+
k=1
N
X
Y (z) + aN (k)z −k Y (z) = X (z)
k=1

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 131 / 151
Consider the order of the filter m=1
N
X y (n) = a1 (1)y (n − 1) + x(n)
Y (z) + aN (k)z −k Y (z) = X (z)
k=1
From the above equation

Taking inverse z transform
K1 = a1 (1)
N
X
y (n) = − aN (k)y (n − k) + x(n)
k=1
f 0 (n ) = y (n )
+
K1 f1 (n) = x (n)
Interchange the input and output

K1
g1 (n)
Z-1 +
N
X
x(n) = − aN (k)x(n − k) + y (n) Figure 71: Single stage Lattice
k=1 filter
Rearranging the above equation

f1(n)=x(n) f0(n)=y(n)
+
N
- K1
X
y (n) = x(n) + aN (k)x(n − k) g1(n) K1
k=1 + Z-1
The equation is similar to the FIR Figure 72: Single stage Lattice
October
?, ?] 18, 2016 132 / 151
Consider the filter of order of two.
f2 (n) = x(n)
f1 (n) = f2 (n) − K2 g1 (n − 1)
g2 (n) = K2 f1 (n) + g1 (n − 1)
f0 (n) = f1 (n) − K1 g0 (n − 1)
g1 (n) = K1 f0 (n) + g0 (n − 1)
y (n) = f0 (n) = g0 (n)
y (n) = −K1 (1 + K2 )y (n − 1) − K2 y (n − 2) + x(n)

g2 (n) = K2 y (n) + K1 (1 + K2 )y (n − 1) − y (n − 2)
f2(n)=x(n) f1(n) f0(n)=y(n)

+ +
- K2 - K1
g2(n) K2 K1
+ Z-1 + Z-1
g1(n) g0(n)
Figure 73: Single stage Lattice filter

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 133 / 151
N
X
y (n) = − aN (k)y (n − k) + x(n)
k=1
2
X
y (n) = − a2 (k)y (n − k) + x(n)
k=1
2
X
y (n) = − a2 (k)y (n − k) + x(n)
k=1
= −a2 (1)y (n − 1) − a2 (2)y (n − 2) + x(n)
y (n) = x(n) + K1 (1 + K2 )x(n − 1) + K2 x(n − 2)
This equation represents the second order FIR system if:
a2 (1) = K1 (1 + K2 ) and a2 (2) = K2
a2 (1)
K1 = and K2 = a2 (2)
(1 + a2 (2))

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 134 / 151
The lattice structure for mth order is obtained by the following recursive equations.
Km = am (m)
am (i) − am (m)am (m − i) am (i) − Km am (m − i)

am−1 (i) = 2
= 2
i = 1, 2, . . . m − 1
1 − Km 1 − Km
The IIR system function is
M
−k
P
bk z
k=0 BM (z)
Hsystem (z) = =
N AN (z)
ak z −k
P
1+
k=1
M
X
βi = bi − βm am (m − i) i = M, M − 1, M − 2, . . . 1, 0
m=i+1
fN(n)=x(n) fN-1(n) f2(n) f1(n) f0(n)

+ + +
- KN - K2 - K1
KN
gN(n) gN-1(n) g2(n) g1(n) g0(n)
+ Z-1 + Z-1 + Z-1
β0
β N −1 β1
βN β2
y ( n)
+ + β0
+ +
Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE)

Figure 74: Lattice ladder structure
UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,
October
?, ?] 18, 2016 135 / 151
1
Realize the lattice structure for all pole filter given by H(z) =
1+ 25 z −1 + 43 z −2 + 13 z −3
Solution:
am (i)−am (m)am (m−i)
m=3 a3 (0) = 1, a3 (1) = 25 , a3 (2) = 34 , a3 (3) = 1
3
am−1 (i) = 1−Km2
for m=3
a3 (i) − a3 (3)a3 (3 − i) for m=2

a2 (i) =
1 − K32
a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
a3 (1) − a3 (3)a3 (2) a1 (1) =
a2 (1) = 1 − K22
1 − K32
0.1687 − (0.6973)(0.1687)
0.4 − (0.333)(0.75) =
a2 (1) = = 0.16875 1 − (0.697)2
1 − (0.33)2 = 0.0996
a3 (2) − a3 (3)a3 (1)
a2 (2) =
1 − K32 K3 = a3 (3) = 13 ,
0.75 − (0.333)(0.4) K2 = a2 (2) = 0.6937
a2 (2) = = 0.6937 K1 = a1 (1) = 0.0996
1 − (0.33)2
f3(n)=x(n) f2(n) f1(n) f0(n)=y(n)

+ + +
- 0.333 - 0.6973 0.0996
0.333 0.6973 0.0996
g3(n)
+ Z-1 g2(n) + Z-1 + Z-1
g1(n) g0(n)
Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) Figure 75:Lattice

UNIT - 8: Implementation filter Systems[?, ?,October
of Discrete-time ?, ?] 18, 2016 136 / 151
1
Realize the lattice structure for all pole filter given by H(z) = 1−0.9z −1 +0.64z −2 −0.576z −3
Solution:
m=3 a3 (0) = 1, a3 (1) = −0.9 a3 (2) = 0.64 a3 (3) = −0.576
for m=3, i=1,2
a3 (i) − a3 (3)a3 (3 − i) for m=2

a2 (i) =
1 − K32
a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
a3 (1) − a3 (3)a3 (2) a1 (1) =
a2 (1) = 1 − K22
1 − K32
−0.795 − (0.1819)(−0.795)
−0.9 − (−0.576)(0.64) =
a2 (1) = = −0.795 1 − (0.1819)2
1 − (−0.5763)2 = −0.6726
a3 (2) − a3 (3)a3 (1)
a2 (2) =
1 − K32 K3 = a3 (3) = −0.576,
0.64 − (−0.576)(−0.9) K2 = a2 (2) = 0.1819
a2 (2) = = 0.1819 K1 = a1 (1) = −0.6726
1 − (−0.5763)2
f3(n)=x(n) f2(n) f1(n) f0(n)=y(n)

+ + +
- -0.576 - 0.1819 -0.6726
-0.576 0.1819 -0.6726
g3(n)
+ Z-1 g2(n) + Z-1 + Z-1
g1(n) g0(n)

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 137 / 151
Develop the lattice ladder structure for the filter with difference equation
3 1
y (n) + y (n − 1) + y (n − 2) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1)
4 4
Solution:
3 1
y (n) + y (n − 1) + y (n − 2) = x(n) + 2x(n − 1)
4 4
3 −1 1
Y (z) + z Y (z) + z −2 Y (z) = X (z) + 2z −1 X (z)
4 4
Y (z) 1 + 2z −1
H(z) = =
X (z) 1 + 34 z −1 + 14 z −2
B(z) = 1 + 2z −1
A(z) = 1 + 43 z −1 + 41 z −2
a2 (1) = 0.75, a2 (2) = 0.25

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 138 / 151
M
X
βi = bi − βm am (m − i)
m=i+1
for m=2
K2 = a2 (2) = 0.25 1
X
β0 = b0 − βm am (m)
am (i) − am (m)am (m − i) m=1
am−1 (i) = 2
1 − Km = b0 − β1 a1 (1) = 1 − 2(0.6) = −0.2
a2 (i) − a2 (2)a2 (2 − i)
a1 (i) =
1 − K22
a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
a1 (1) =
1 − K22
0.75 − (0.25)(0.75)
= = 0.6 x(n) f1(n) f0(n)
1 − (0.25)2 + +
- K2=0.25 - K1=0.6
for m=1
g1(n) g0(n)
K1 = a1 (1) = 0.6
+ Z-1 + Z-1
Ladder coefficients are
B(z) = 1 + 2z −1 M=1 β 0 = −0.2
β1 = 2
b0 = 1, b1 = β1 = 2 y ( n)
+ +

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 139 / 151
A linear time invariant system is defined by
0.129 + 0.38687z −1 + 0.3869z −2 + 0.129z −3

H(z) =
1 − 0.2971z −1 + 0.3564z −2 − 0.0276z −3
Realize the IIR transfer function using lattice ladder structure

Solution:
1
H(z) = B(z)
A(z)
where
A(z) = 1 − 0.2971z −1 + 0.3564z −2 − 0.0276z −3

B(z) = 0.129 + 0.38687z −1 + 0.3869z −2 + 0.129z −3
a3 (3) = −0.0276, a3 (2) = 0.3564, a3 (1) = −0.2971

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 140 / 151
for m=3
K3 = a3 (3) = −0.0276
am−1 (i) = 2
for m=2
1 − Km K2 = a2 (2) = 0.3485
a3 (i) − a3 (3)a3 (3 − i)
a2 (i) =
1 − K32 a2 (i) − a2 (2)a2 (2 − i)
a1 (i) =
a3 (1) − a3 (3)a3 (2) 1 − K22
a2 (1) =
1 − K32 a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
a1 (1) =
−0.2971 − (−0.0276)(0.3564) 1 − K22
=
1 − (−0.2971)2 0.2875 − (0.3485)(−0.2875)
=
= −0.2875 1 − (0.3485)2
a3 (2) − a3 (3)a3 (1) = −0.2132
a2 (2) =
1 − K32
0.3564 − (−0.0276)(−0.2971) for m=1
= K1 = a1 (1) = −0.2132
1 − (−0.0.0276)2
= 0.3485

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 141 / 151
Ladder coefficients are: B(z) = 0.129 + 0.38687z −1 + 0.3869z −2 + 0.129z −3

M
X
βi = bi − βm am (m − i)
m=i+1
b0 = 0.129, b1 = 0.38687, b2 = 0.3869, b3 = 0.129 = β3

i =2
3
X
β2 = b2 − βm am (m − 2) = b2 − β3 a3 (1) = 0.3869 − (0.129)(−0.2971) = 0.4252
m=3
i =1
3
X
β1 = b1 − βm am (m − 1)
m=2
= b1 − β2 a2 (1) − β3 a3 (2) = 0.3867 − (0.4252)(−0.2875) − (0.129)(0.3564) = 0.4630
i =0
3
X
β0 = b0 − βm am (m)
m=1
= b0 − β1 a1 (1) − β2 a2 (2) − β3 a3 (3)
= 0.129 − (0.4630)(−0.2132) − (0.4252)(0.3485) − (0.129)(−0.0276) = 0.0831

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 142 / 151
fN(n)=x(n) fN-1(n) f2(n) f1(n) f0(n)

+ + +
- K3=-0.0276 - K2=-0.3485 - K1=-0.2132
K1=-0.2132
K3 K2=-0.3485
gN(n) gN-1(n) g2(n) g1(n) g0(n)
+ Z-1 + Z-1 + Z-1
β 2 = 0.4252 β1 = 0.4630 β 0 = 0.0831

β 3 = 0.129
y ( n)
+ + +

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 143 / 151
1 + z −1 + z −2
H(z) =
(1 + 0.5z −1 )(1 + 0.3z −1 )(1 + 0.4z −1 )
Realize the IIR transfer function using lattice ladder structure

Solution:
1 + z −1 + z −2
H(z) =
(1 + 0.5z −1 )(1 + 0.3z −1 )(1 + 0.4z −1 )
1 + z −1 + z −2
=
1 + 1.2z −1 + 0.47z −2 + 0.06z −3
1
H(z) = B(z)
A(z)
where
A(z) = 1 + 1.2z −1 + 0.47z −2 + 0.06z −3

B(z) = 1 + z −1 + z −2
a3 (3) = 0.06, a3 (2) = 0.47, a3 (1) = 1.2

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 144 / 151
for m=3
K3 = a3 (3) = 0.06
am−1 (i) = for m=2
1 − Km 2
K2 = a2 (2) = 0.4
a3 (i) − a3 (3)a3 (3 − i)
a2 (i) =
1 − K32 a2 (i) − a2 (2)a2 (2 − i)
a1 (i) =
a3 (1) − a3 (3)a3 (2) 1 − K22
a2 (1) =
1 − K32 a2 (1) − a2 (2)a2 (1)
a1 (1) =
1.2 − (−0.06)(0.47) 1 − K22
=
1 − (−0.06)2 1.176 − (0.4)(1.176)
=
= 1.176 1 − (0.4)2
a3 (2) − a3 (3)a3 (1) = 0.84
a2 (2) =
1 − K32
0.47 − (−0.06)(1.2) for m=1
= K1 = a1 (1) = 0.84
1 − (0.06)2
= 0.4

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 145 / 151
i =1
3
X
β1 = b1 − βm am (m − 1)
Ladder coefficients are
m=2
B(z) = 1 + z −1 + z −2 M=1
b0 = 1, b1 = 1, b2 = 1 = β2 = b1 − β2 a2 (1)
= 1 − 1.176 = −0.176
M
X
βi = bi − βm am (m − i) i =0
m=i+1
1
X
β2 = b2 = 1 β0 = b0 − βm am (m)
m=1
= b0 − β1 a1 (1) − β2 a2 (2)
= 1 + .84(0.176) − 0.4 = 0.748
fN(n)=x(n) fN-1(n) f2(n) f1(n) f0(n)
+ + +
- K3=-0.06 - K2=-0.4 - K1=-0.84
K1=-0.84
K3 =0.06 K2=-0.4
gN(n) gN-1(n) g2(n) g1(n) g0(n)
+ Z-1 + Z-1 + Z-1
β2 = 1 β1 = −0.176 β 0 = 0.748
y ( n)
+ +

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 146 / 151
Realization of IIR system Signal Flow Graph
Signal Flow Graph
Signal flow graph (SFG) is graphical representation of block diagram structure.

The basic elements of SFG are branches and nodes. The signal out of branch is equal to
the branch gain.
Adders and pick-off points are replaced by nodes. Multipliers and delay elements are
indicated by the the branch transmittance.
The input to the system originates at source node and output signal is extracted from a
sink node.
The importance of SFG in FIR or IIR structure is transposition or flow graph reversal
theorem.
Theorem states that “if we reverse the directions of all branch transmittances and
interchange the input and output in the flow graph, the system function remains
unchanged”. The resulting structure is called a transposed structure or a transposed
form.
October
?, ?] 18, 2016 147 / 151
x ( n) b0 y ( n) 2 Sink Node
+ + x ( n) 1 b0 3 y ( n)
Source
Z-1 Node − a1 Z −1 b1
−a1 b1
+ + 4
b2
− a2
Z-1 Z −1
− a2 b2
5
Figure 80: Direct Form II Figure 81: Signal Flow graph

y ( n) b0
2 + x ( n)
y ( n) 1 b0 3 x ( n)
Z-1
− a1 Z −1 b1
− a1 b1
4 +
b2
− a2
Z-1
Z −1
− a2 b2
5 +
Figure 82: Transposed Structure SFG Figure 83: Direct form-II realization
Figure 80 shows the direct form II structure while Figure 81 shows its signal flow graph
Figure 82 shows the Transposed Structure while Figure 83 shows its realization.

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 148 / 151

1 − 12 z −1 + 41 z −2
H(z) =
1 + 18 z −1 − 51 z −2 + 16 z −3
Draw the signal flow graph, transposed signal flow graph and transposed direct form-II structure
2 Sink Node
x ( n) 1 3 y ( n)
Source 1
−
1 −1 −
Node
8
Z 2 y ( n)
x ( n)
1
4
+
1
5 Z −1
4
1
− 5
6
Z-1
1 1
− −
Figure 84: Signal flow graph 8 2
+
Z-1
2
y ( n) 1 3 x ( n)
1 1
Source 1
1 − 5 4
Node −
8
Z −1
4
2 +
1
1 1
5 Z −1
4
−
1
6
− 5 Z-1
6
Figure 86: Direct form-II Structure

Figure 85: Transposed Structure signal flow
graph
October
?, ?] 18, 2016 149 / 151
For the flow graph write difference equations and system function
x ( n) y ( n)
1 Z −1 1
Z −1
5 4
5
Z −1 −
24
Z −1 1
−
12
Figure 87: Direct Form I
Solution:
1 5 1 1
y (n) = y (n − 1) − y (n − 2) − y (n − 3) + x(n) + x(n − 1)
4 24 12 5
1 + 15 z −1
H(z) = 1 −1 5 −2 1 −3
1− 4
z + 24
z + 12
z

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 150 / 151
For the flow graph write difference equations and system function
x ( n) w( n ) y ( n)
Z −1 3 Z −1
1
Y (z) Y (z) W (z)
Z −1
H(z) = =
Z −1 X (z) W (z) X (z)
1 2
1
=
Figure 88: Direct Form II Cascade (1 − z −1 − 2z −2 )(1 − 3z −1 − z −2 )
1
=
1 − 4z −1 + 7z −3 + 2z −4
Solution:
w (n) = x(n) + 3w (n − 1) + w (n − 2)
Y (z)[1 − 4z −1 + 7z −3 + 2z −4 ] = X (z)
W (z) 1
= Y (z) = X (z)+4z −1 Y (z)−7z −3 Y (z)−2z −4 Y (z)
X (z) 1 − 3z −1 − z −2
y (n) = w (n) + y (n − 1) + 2y (n − 2) y (n) = x(n)+4y (n−1)−7y (n−3)−2y (n−4)
Y (z) 1
=
W (z) 1 − z −1 − 2z −2

October
?, ?] 18, 2016 151 / 151

Discrete Time Systems

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UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time

J.N.N. College of Engineering, Shimoga

October 18, 2016

Implementation of discrete-time systems::

Slides are prepared to use in class room purpose, may be used as a

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?, ?,

Unit 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems:

Realization of FIR system

Implementation of Discrete-time Systems

If input x1 (n) produces response y1 (n)

y [n] = x[n] + x[n − 1] + x[n − 2] . . .

Figure 2: Basic Elements

Realization of FIR system

y (n) = b0 x(n) + b1 x(n − 1) + . . . bk x(n − k) − a1 y (n − 1) − a2 y (n − 2) . . . − ak y (n − k)

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?, ?,

LTI systems are represented by the following difference equation.

By taking z-transform on both sides

The system function H(z) is defined as

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?, ?,

If there are M coefficients then

By taking z-transform on both sides

System function H(z) is defined as

By taking inverse z transform

Direct form Structure of FIR System

Expanding the summation

y (n) = h(0)x(n) + h(1)x(n − 1) + h(2)x(n − 2) + . . . h(M − 1)x(n − M + 1)

Figure 3: Direct form realization of FIR system

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?, ?,

Solution: h(n) = δ(n) + 12 δ(n − 1) − 14 δ(n − 2) + 12 δ(n − 3) + δ(n − 4)

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

h(0) = 1 h(1) = 2 h(2) = 3 h(3) = 4 h(4) = 3 h(5) = 2 h(6) = 1

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

h(0) = 1 h(1) = 2 h(2) = 3 h(3) = 3 h(4) = 2 h(5) = 1

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

H(z) = 1 + 2.88z −1 + 3.4048z −2 + 1.74z −3 + 0.4z −4

h(0) = 1 h(1) = 2.88 h(2) = 3.4048 h(3) = 1.74 h(4) = 0.4

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

h(0) = 4 h(1) = 5 h(2) = 6 h(3) = 7

Figure 4: Input x(n) to the FIR filter

y (n) = 4x(n) + 5x(n − 1) + 6x(n − 2) + 7x(n − 3)

y (n) = [4, 13, 28, 34, 32, 21]

4 h(0) = 4 h(1) = 5 h(2) = 6 h(3) = 7

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

Linear Phase FIR structure

all frequency components of the h[n] h[n]

input signal are shifted in time

And consequently, there is no

delay of frequencies relative to Antisymmetry: h(n)=-h(M-1-n) Odd M Antisymmetry: h(n)=-h(M-1-n) Even M

Linear-phase filters have a

h(n) = h(M−1−n) n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , M−1

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

The system expression is

By expanding the summation

Dr. Manjunatha. P (JNNCE) UNIT - 8: Implementation of Discrete-time Systems[?, ?,October

By taking inverse z transform

y (n) = h(0)[x(n) + x(n − (M − 1))] + h(1)[x(n − 1) + x(n − (M − 2))] + . . .