Sultan Moulay Slimane University

Faculty of Letters, Beni Mellal

Department of English

Introduction to Media Studies

Semester 4
Pr. Mustapha Zanzoun (G1 & G2)
Pr. Saida Hdii (G3 & G4)

 Introduction to Media Studies

1. Communication and mass communication

Mass communication refers to the process of communication to a large audience through mass
media that refer to the technological tools and channels to transmit messages of mass
communication. Mass media and mass communication can be used interchangeably. To
understand the development of mass communication and mass media, we need to explore the
fundamental process of human communication.
Communication is the process of exchanging information and ideas with others. It is a human
activity that occurs through speech (language) and non-verbally (non-verbal communication). The
goal of communication is the transmission of messages to one or more persons for sharing
experiences by means of symbols. Communication is vital for the individual’s social existence; as
human beings, we communicate in order to share our thoughts, ideas and information about
ourselves and about current events. This may occur through verbal communication or non-verbal
communication.
Verbal Communication is the use of speech for the purpose of interacting and sharing
information between individual. It refers to spoken or written words that we transmit by producing
sounds.
Non-Verbal Communication is the transmission of messages through non-linguistic elements
such as symbols, facial expression, posture, body movements known as Kinesics, distance
between individuals known as proxemics, clothes, etc.
To understand the fundamental process of human communication, it is important to shed light on
the most prominent and basic models of communication, namely Shannon and Weaver and
Lasswell’s models.
Shannon and Weaver (1949)
Shannon and Weaver (1949) developed a model that gives a representation of the human
communication process in very simple and linear terms. This simple and linear view of human
communication became a standard way of describing the process. Shannon and Weaver’s
mathematical theory of communication is one of the main seeds of communication studies. This
theory views communication as the transmission of messages. They consider that the meaning is
contained in the message. Therefore, the source is seen as the decision maker; that is, the source
decides which message to send, or rather selects one out of a set of possible messages. This
selected message is then changed by the transmitter into a signal which is sent through the channel
to the receiver.
The model also includes noise. Noise is any signal received that was not transmitted by the sound,
or anything that makes the intended signal harder to decode accurately.
Strengths and limitations
This model remains simple and basic for the development of communication theory. It is more
effective in person-to-person communication than group or mass audience. However, there is
unequal power relation in this model as it is based on “Sender and Receiver”; the sender plays the
primary role and receiver plays the secondary role (only receives the information or passive)
Criticisms focus on these:
- Communication is not a one-way process.
- Absence of feedback in this model which helps to solve various problems in
communication
Basics of communication
Overall, basic communication theory involves four main components for the successful
completion of transmitting information; the sender (source), the message, the medium by which
the message/information is sent (Channel) (e.g., written, oral, audio, visual), and the receiver or
target of the communication information. Any disruption at any point of that communication
sequence could result in the failure of a successful communication.
To these components, three more elements are added as they affect the communication act:
feedback, interference, and situation.
Feedback, not used by Shannon and Weaver, is the transmission of the receiver’s reaction back to
the sender. Its main function is to help the communicator adjust his or her message to the needs
and responses of the receiver.

Lasswell’s communication model (1948)

Harold Lasswell constructed a basic formula of the process of mediated communication. This
formula is quoted in many textbooks: “Who says what to whom through which channel and to
what effect?”
This model is a verbal version of Shannon and Weaver’s original model. It raises basic issues, but
the communication media are examined in isolation.
Who says What in which Channel to Whom with what Effect
Mass communication research is categorized according to the element being researched.
Who What Channel Whom Effect
→ → → →
Communicator Message Medium Receiver Effect

Control Content Media Audience Effect

Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis Analysis

Lasswell's model of communication has been widely adopted. It focuses on several key elements
in the mass communication process. However, it does no more than describe general areas of
study. It does not link elements together with any specificity, and there is no notion of an active
process (Greenberg and Salwen, 2008).

What is mass communication?

Mass communication is characterized by the transmission of messages to large audiences through
a medium or a channel. The media are devices that bring messages quickly from communicators
to multitudes rather than to an audience of a single person like in a personal communication.
Mass media refers to institutions that provide messages. Examples of these institutions include
Television, radio, newspapers, films, magazines, advertising, and The Internet among others.
When studying the media, it is necessary to explore the main components of mass communication
process as they help identify what takes place in the process of mass communication:
The source: generally professional, organizational senders who work within an organizational
setting and decide on the nature and goals of a message. Examples are news reporters, television
producers, magazine editors, advertisers, and graphic designers etc.
The message: the media messages are quite complex and elaborate compared to the message in
interpersonal communication. Examples of media messages are TV programs, newspaper articles,
movies, news reports, music videos, TV commercials, and billboard advertising. The message is
transmitted as information through the use of a specialized medium.
The channel: channels of mass media are also called mass vehicles which involve aspects of
technology. Examples are TV, radio, the newspaper, and The Internet.
Audiences: the receivers who tune in to a particular television or radio program, or read a
particular newspaper or magazine. Mass audiences are heterogeneous; they are large and diverse
with different backgrounds, demographics, and socio-political characteristics.
These audiences are brought together by a single shared interest in the particular message
available through the mass medium.
Effect: The receivers are, to different degrees, influenced in their feelings, thoughts, or actions.
Based on theses components, Defleur and Dennis, 2002, p.18) have formulated the following
definition:
Mass communication is a process in which professional communicators
design and use media to disseminate messages widely, rapidly, and
continuously in order to arouse intended meanings in large, diverse, and
selectively attending audiences in attempts to influence them in a variety of
ways.

2- Mass media: an overview

Defining the media
The word media is the plural of a medium. A medium is something through which information is
brought to the senses. It is a channel of communication. Media is also referred to as Mass media.
Mass means the potential to reach large numbers of people.
Media play a very important role in today’s world. They provide us with information about the
latest news as well as the latest commodities on the market.
Types of media
In our everyday life, we are surrounded by all kinds of media: computers and the Internet,
Television and TV satellites, radio stations, newspapers and magazines, advertising, videos, and
cell phones. These different types of media can be classified as:
a. Print media: a news organization such as newspapers, magazines, booklets and brochures,
billboards that offer news and stories meant to be read.
b. Electronic media: a news organization that provide news in a format that can be heard or
viewed. Radio and television are examples of broadcast media.
c. New media: Often contrasted to old media (television, radio, newspapers etc.), new media
digital technologies that rely on computers and the Internet to provide information and
entertainment. Examples include mobile phones, computers, the Internet, and electronic books.
Characteristics of Mass media
Mass media are characterized by these features:
- They are ubiquitous: present everywhere; we cannot avoid them.
- They are massive: Intended to reach a mass that is large and diverse. Newspapers can sell
thousand issues everyday. Millions of people watch TV or are connected to the Internet at the
same time.
- They mediate: Audiences get messages through them. Impersonal communication marked by
distant relationship between senders and audiences.
Another characteristic of both mass media and mass communication is gatekeeping. Gatekeeping
is the act of filtering the information received by the audience. It refers to the control over the
selection of the messages that are constantly transmitted to mass audience.

The role of the media

Media provide rapid dissemination over distance. They play an important role in entertaining
people, informing them and helping them understand the world. The main roles of media are:
- Informing: The media present overwhelming amounts of information and “serve to define what
is of political concern, of economic importance, of cultural interest to us.” Downing, Mohammadi,
& Sreberny-Mohammadi (1995, p. xvi)
Educating: People can take courses, learn about different school subjects, and conduct research
through different kinds of media.
- Entertaining: Entertainment and media generally go hand in hand. The position of entertainment
is apparent in this quote by Defleur & Dennis (2002):
…even the news media in many modern societies have a substantial focus on
entertainment. That is, stories are often selected not so much for what they
may offer to enlighten their audiences, but because those who gather and
prepare them believe that they will be interesting or entertaining in some way.
(p. 4)
3. Media theories
Scholars have developed different approaches and theories that can guide our understanding of the
effects and roles of mass media. The following are audience theories that can help understand the
relationship between audiences and media texts. They have gone through different stages.
3.1. Media Effects theory: It is the focus on what media do to audiences. This involves the use of
mass media in propaganda and persuasion. It is based on the idea that mass media are influencing
people negatively. It assumes that media are dangerous and powerful and that a group of powerful
elites manipulates the masses that are assumed to be passive. Two main effects models can be
distinguished here.
a- The hypodermic needle theory / the Magic Bullet Theory

This theory suggests that the media could directly persuade and influence a passive audience by
injecting ideas into the general public causing them to accept these ideas without much thought.
According to this theory, the mass media had a powerful and negative influence on the mass
audience and could deliberately alter or control peoples' behavior.
However, the hypodermic needle theory was refuted for many years for ignoring audiences’ free
will and their cultural background and considering them as passive.

b- The Two Step Flow model (Katz and Lazarsfeld, 1940s)

This model concluded that the media alone was not alone in influencing the audience’s attitudes
but the audience often received messages through opinion leaders who filter information. The
model suggests that the audience rely on others to understand messages. ‘Opinion leaders’ are the
people who have access to media, and have a more literate understanding of media content.
Therefore, they explain and diffuse the content to others. This model provided a basis for the
multi-step flow theory of mass communication
Mass media → opinion leaders → wider population

3.2. Uses and Gratifications Theory (a focus on what audiences do with the media): This theory
claims that the audience is active and free to use or reject the media texts. Audiences use media to
gratify or satisfy specific needs for information, education, entertainment, connecting with others,
escapism, diversion, amusement, relaxation, emotional satisfaction, pleasure, etc. According to
Maslow (1970), people actively look to satisfy their needs based on a hierarchy.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs pyramid

This theory is criticized for neglecting the power of the media and their effects on audiences. In
addition, audiences may not always have choice about what they watch or consume. Moreover,
the uses and gratifications theory neglects the socio-cultural context of audiences. However, this
theory may be relevant to modern society since with the Internet and the satellite, audiences can
have some control over what they consume.
Because of the limitations of both the effects model and the uses and gratifications model, a
different approach to audiences was developed, the reception theory.

3.3. Reception Theory (the focus on what audiences do to the media):

This theory opposes the effects theory in considering the consumption of media texts as active not
passive. It was based on the view that meaning is the result of a communication process. The
media texts are encoded with meaning by producers and then decoded by audiences. Media texts
are considered polysemic; they can have different meanings to audiences. The theory focuses on
the social and cultural background of producers and audiences in encoding and decoding the
meanings.
As a reaction to the hypodermic need model, Stuart Hall (1993) developed the
‘encoding/decoding’ model and identifies three kinds of reactions of the audience:
a-Dominant or preferred: The audience accepts the message in the media text as it reflects their
ideas and beliefs.
b-Negotiated: The audience accepts or rejects elements of the media text.
c- Oppositional: The audience makes a conscious rejection of the media text for cultural, political
or ideological reasons.

3.4. The Cultivation Theory: It was developed by George Gerbner (1960) as a result of the
increasing growth of television. This theory suggests that the massive exposure to television and
the violence portrayed in the movies are responsible for shaping the audience’s perception of
social reality. According to this theory, people are classified into two categories: Heavy watchers
(4 hours or more per day) and light watchers (less than 4 hours per day).
Critics of the cultivation theory state that the attitudes of viewers and their perceptions of social
reality are influenced not only by TV but also by other media and other factors such as age,
gender, socio-economic status and cultural background.

3.5. The medium is the message: One of the most famous media scholars of the twentieth
century is Marshall McLuhan. McLuhan (1964) asserted that it was not the medium, but the way
that people used a new medium that gave it its meaning. He is famous for saying “the medium is
the message”; each new medium shapes society in a different way. People give meaning to media
through their use. According to this model, study should focus o the media not on the content they
carry. A medium affects the society not by the content delivered over the medium, but by the
characteristics of the medium itself.
4. The major forms of media
4.1. TV and Satellite TV
Television
We are exposed to different kinds of media everyday. One medium that has become part of our
lives and a member of our family is the TV. Tele means distance (transmission over distance);
vision means sight.
Television is a dominant telecommunication system and a mass communication tool that involves
the transmission of video content continuously. The video content includes entertainment, news
and information of what is happening locally and around the world, and advertising.
The influence of television on people’s minds and attitudes continues to be a critical subject of
discussion and debate usually focused on broadcasting violence and manipulating consumers.
Television is an advertising hub where advertisers spend huge amounts of money

Satellites
Satellites enable people to access information across the world. The satellite service can provide
affordable and high-speed quality connectivity.
Examples of uses of satellites:
- Radio and TV Broadcast satellites are responsible for making hundreds of channels across
the globe available for everyone. They are also responsible for broadcasting live matches,
news, and worldwide radio services.
- Designed to monitor the climatic conditions of earth to predict the weather conditions.
- Global Mobile Communication: The basic purpose of satellites for mobile communication
is to extend the area of coverage. With the integration of satellite communication, the
mobile phone can switch to satellites offering worldwide connectivity to a customer.
- Military Satellites: These communications satellites are often used for gathering
intelligence for military purposes, or as a military weapon.
- Navigation Satellites: This system allows for precise localization worldwide. Ships and
aircraft rely on GPS as an addition to traditional navigation systems.
4.2. Advertising
The revolution of the information technology and the development of the media have contributed
a lot in the flourishing and ubiquity of advertising; that is ads are encountered on T.V, on the
radio, in a magazine or a newspaper, and on the street as Cook (1992) confirms,
In contemporary capitalist society, advertising is everywhere. We cannot walk
down the street, shop, watch television, go through our mail, read a newspaper
or take a train without encountering it. Whether we are alone, with our friends or
family, or in a crowd, advertising is always with us, if only on the label of
something we are using. (p. 13)
This pervasiveness of advertising has made of this mass medium a valuable field in
communication studies. Advertising is not only a means of promoting goods and services but also
a way of communicating a variety of social themes and reflecting everyday life.

The advertising industry: Definition and structure

Most definitions attributed to advertising focus on its economic role in promoting companies and
businesses. From a marketing point of view, advertising is a major tool used to market products,
services, and ideas; it is a form of controlled communication about a product or service which
attempts to persuade an appropriate audience to adopt a belief or to make a decision to perform an
action, such as to buy or use a product or service (DeFleur and Dennis, 2002). This means that the
advertiser’s main purpose is to convince the audience to buy or use a product which, therefore,
helps businesses to make profits and the media to earn revenue.
Advertising is the promotion of goods or services for sale through media such as radio, TV,
magazines, newspapers, movies, the Internet, and outdoor advertising such as billboards.

The advertising industry includes different kinds of organizations, but the main ones are
three:
- The advertising agencies that plan and create and handle ads for the clients among which
J. Walter Thompson, Saatchi and Saatchi, and Dentsu are the most prominent (Maleflyt
and Moeran, 2003).
- The advertising media in which ads are placed such as television, radio stations,
magazines, newspapers, billboards, etc.
- The advertisers that pay for the advertising to be produced, such as food and beverage
corporations, restaurants, department stores, etc. These clients can be small local
businesses or large multinational companies (e.g. Procter & Gamble, Coca Cola)
These three components of the advertising industry _advertising agencies, advertisers, and the
medium_ are part of a whole communication process.

Advertising: Pros and Cons

In spite of the economic growth generated by advertising, reactions to this medium involve pros
and cons. Those who are for advertising argue that the advertising industry contributes in creating
job opportunities and raising personal incomes. In addition to helping the businesses flourish,
which is beneficial to the economy, it is the most efficient way to communicate information about
new products, their designs and competitive prices (ANA, 2007).
On the other hand, the opponents of this medium see it as a deceiving tool and a waste of money.
From this perspective, “[a]dvertising is the main weapon that manufacturers use in their attempts
to ‘produce’ an adequate consuming market for their products. To this end, advertising works to
create false needs in people (false because they are the needs of manufacturers rather than
consumers)” (Jhally, 1990, p. 3). This implies that advertising is a tool by which producers of
goods control and manipulate consumers to desire things for which they have no real need. The
claim that advertising creates desire makes it negative.
Actually, advertising is one of the most controversial of all contemporary discourses; it is
according to Cook (1992) closely associated with the values of the competitive high-growth
market economy in which it thrives. He adds,

In a world beset by social and ecological problems, advertising can be seen

as urging people to consume more by making them feel dissatisfied or
inadequate, by appealing to greed, worry and ambition. On the other hand,
it may be argued that many ads are skillful, clever and amusing, and that it
is unjust to make them a scapegoat for all the sorrows of the modern world.
(Cook, 1992, p. 16)

This makes of advertising a weapon that might be at the same time harmful and useful. As a mass
medium, advertising can be considered an efficient way to communicate information about new
products, their designs and competitive prices
Advertising and persuasive strategies
Advertisers seek all the time to gain the attention of public. They need to grab people’s attention,
trigger specific emotions, and stimulate a desire for their products. Therefore, they resort to the
use of persuasive techniques to achieve their goals.
The word “persuasion” means to convince someone to believe a particular persuasive statement
and adopt a new attitude. It is used by companies in order to make sales.
These persuasive techniques are presented through various media such as television, radio, direct
mail, newspapers, magazines, websites, and social media pages. Effectiveness of these
advertisements depends on which creative advertising techniques are being used and
understanding which can work the best. The techniques used need to influence the behavior of the
chosen demographic the advertisers are trying to target. These are examples of persuasive
techniques used in advertising.
a- The Bandwagon Appeal
The Bandwagon Appeal refers to the general mass adopting certain things since other people are
doing them as well. Without putting their own beliefs, opinions, and preferences, they follow or
agree to purchase products because of its so-called popularity among others. In other words, since
everyone uses a particular product, you should do the same thing. Many viewers purchase the
product so that they also fit in with the general concept or they just assume that “since everyone
else is using it, it has to be good”.
b- Celebrity Association or Testimonial
One of the oldest tricks in the books is to use a celebrity or a public figure to promote a product.
Hollywood celebrities, sports personalities, music artists, politicians, and television stars have
thousands and millions of fans across the world. This makes their fans to want to purchase the
products or services.
c- Emotional Appeal
It is a technique used to appeal to people emotionally. Such techniques are used to play with the
emotions of the viewers. These emotions can be anything from fear to sadness to excitement to
happiness; they are implicitly or explicitly drawn to get people to buy a product or follow a certain
path.
d- Humor
This technique concentrates on presenting advertisements that make the viewers laugh by using
cartoons, sketches, or having a comic undertone. The objective behind this technique is to get the
commercial stick in viewers’ minds in a positive way and influence them into buying it.
e- The Anti-bandwagon Appeal
As the name suggests, the technique is exactly opposite to what The Bandwagon Appeal hopes to
achieve. The Anti-bandwagon Appeal tries to get the viewers to think differently, celebrate their
own style and individuality, and rebel against what everyone says, does, or buys. The word
“individuality” is what they’re hinting at and that’s the subliminal (hidden) advertising message
we sometimes see and believe in.
f- Slogan
Every company or organization uses this advertising technique. Slogans are catchy words or
phrases used in commercials and campaign. They are easy to remember, and viewers associate
with them and with the product to some personal level. The next time they’re out shopping,
they’re tempted to buy the product. These catchy slogans become a part of our everyday life and
language. This is a powerful tool that tries to inspire the viewers into believing what the company
is selling whether it is a product, a service or an idea.
g- Glittering Generality
Glittering generalities is a technique which is filled with words that have positive connotations
attached to them. At times, it can also be vague in conveying the true meaning behind the
message. It can be used for spreading a positive message or making people or viewers believe in
an organization, political party, or even products. The words like “good”, “healthy”, “low fat”,
“home”, “freedom”, “sensational”, “peace”, or “tasty” are all examples of it.
h- Product Comparison
Comparison advertising focuses on presenting two or more products with various specifications.
The products are pitted against one another and the negative characteristics are shown. Whether or
not the facts or truth is presented, the benefits of a particular product are promoted. Oftentimes, a
claim of research is also included to give the results a more concrete claim.
i- Repetition
This technique consists in repeating words, phrases, ideas, opinions, sounds, and even images in
order to make the viewers remember them. This means, whether or not you approve or like a
particular advertisement or slogan, if it is repeated enough times or can be heard or read by people
on a daily basis, the message will stick with you.
J- Weasel Words
This is a misleading advertising tool where the viewers are tricked into believing in something.
Words and phrases are used in order to create the idea that some important opinions or ideas have
been shared. However, ambiguous claims without proof or facts can be sometimes presented.
4.3. Journalism and Agenda Setting
A newspaper, an old mass medium, is a printed product containing news, information and
advertising. It is prepared and distributed daily or weekly. Newspapers generally publish stories
on local and national events, business, crime, entertainment, sports, etc.
Two main types of newspapers are broadsheets and tabloids. Broadsheets are larger than tabloids
or printed in large format. They are considered more serious than tabloids.
The language of newspapers consists in words, pictures, the size of the font, the headings and the
layout of the page. The caption that goes with a photograph is important in anchoring the
meaning.
Headlines attract the attention of the readers or push them to buy the newspaper.

Agenda Setting

The Agenda Setting Theory of the press was first developed by Max McCombs and Donald Shaw
in a study on the 1968 American presidential election. The study confirmed the degree to which
the media determines public opinion.
It is a theory concerning the influence of the press on people’s beliefs and evaluations of the
topics reported in the news. The theory explains how individuals regard stories presented in print
and broadcast media as more important than others. Agenda setting is the final stage in
constructing the daily news. It involves the decision on which stories to present to the public and
the degree of prominence they deserve, which news values to emphasize, what story or
broadcasting formats will be used.
Communication and media researchers have discovered a relationship between the prominence of
the placement of a story in the media and the beliefs about its importance on the part of the
audience. In other words, people believe a story is important if it is given a prominent position by
the media.
4.4. New Media
In the late 20th century, the term new media has emerged. According to Oxford English
Dictionary, the term new media refers to “new means of mass communication” and “specifically,
electronic means such as the Internet, CD-ROMs, etc.” (New media, 2003). Lev Manovich’s
(2003) widely cited definition of new media is as follows: New media are distinct from cyber
culture that refers to Internet-related social phenomena.
(1). New media use computer technology for distribution and exhibition
(2), and consist of digital data manipulated by software
(3). New media exist where older conventions of data representation and conventions of software
merge
(4), and they are the aesthetics that appears when every new modern media and communication
technology first emerges
(5). New media execute algorithms faster than manual techniques or other technologies
(6). They are meta-media (“modernist Avant-Garde”) in that they change ways of how to access
and manipulate information
(7). Finally, new media articulate the similarity between post-WWII art and modern computer
technology in that both can be executed by human (Manovich, 2003, p. 16-23).
The Internet is blurring lines and forcing a re-conception of media (Giles, 2003). Future studies of
the Internet and how it is changing media and the way that people use media will be important.
Although the media is no longer thought to inject ideas directly to an audience, there is still much
research attempting to determine how powerful the media actually is. Due to the ongoing creation
of new forms of media, there is no doubt that the scholarly study of media will be ever-changing
and evolving.

5. The major themes in media

5.1. Youth culture
Graffiti as an example
According to The American Heritage Dictionary, graffiti is defined as “a drawing or inscription
made on a wall or other surface, usually so as to be seen by the public,” (American Heritage
2005). For as long as people have been able to write, they have been writing on walls.
Graffiti is both art and crime. It is a spatial phenomena sustaining an explicit identity and
defending a place for itself in the urban landscapes of the world (Bandaranaike, 2003). The
"graffiti culture”, like any other culture, presents itself in different forms, dependent on the social
and cultural component of the local community, the distribution of cultural knowledge, the age of
the culture and particularly, the presence or lack of an established graffiti hierarchy possessing
experienced writers [graffitists]" (Collins, 1998 cited in Bandaranaike, 2003) The origins of
graffiti go back to the beginnings of human, societal living. Graffiti has been found on uncovered,
ancient, Egyptian monuments, and graffiti even was preserved on walls in Pompeii. (Stowers,
1997) The word graffiti means little scratching and it comes from the Italian graffiare, which
means to scratch.
There are different types of graffiti. The major types include:
• Gang graffiti, often used by gangs to mark turf or convey threats of violence, and sometimes
copycat graffiti, which mimics gang graffiti.
• Tagger graffiti (tagging), ranging from high-volume simple hits to complex street art.
• Conventional graffiti, often isolated or spontaneous acts of "youthful exuberance," but
sometimes malicious or vindictive.
• Existential graffiti is individual personal commentaries, and it’s referred to as expressive graffiti.
It can be subdivided into several subcategories depending on the thematic context such as sexual,
radical, love, religious, self, nonsexual, philosophical, humorous (Alonso, 1998).
• Political graffiti is the most open system of graffiti, meaning that all who are confronted with
these texts can understand the messages being conveyed. The writers of political graffiti
geographically place their writings on busy thoroughfares, which guarantee an extensive viewing.
This type of graffiti uses the public as an audience to communicate ideas against the
establishment.
• Ideological graffiti, such as political or hate graffiti, which conveys political messages or racial,
religious or ethnic slurs (Weisel, 2006).
• Piecing (or bombing as it commonly referred to) is a decorative expression of the name that
demands an artistic skill and understanding of aerosol paint control (Alonso, 1998).

5.2. Gender
Defining gender
Gender and sex are important variables for consumer researchers who are aware of how they
impact consuming activities. Gender is the condition of being male or female, and influences the
roles that we play in society (Dale, 2004). Whereas sex is biological, gender is socially
constructed; it is the cultural meaning of sex. A culture constructs gender by attributing certain
qualities, activities, feelings, and roles to each sex in a way that we see it as natural for women to
stay home with babies and men to be competitive in careers (Samovar, Porter, and McDaniel,
2006).
People are not born with a gender, but they become gendered as they internalize and then embody
society’s views of femininity and masculinity. The meaning of gender is neither universal nor
stable. Instead, femininity and masculinity reflect the beliefs and values of particular cultures in
certain eras (Samovar et al., 2006).

Gender and stereotyping

Stereotyping, which is defined as “a complex form of categorization that mentally organizes your
experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group of people” (Samovar & Porter,
2004, p. 286), has been pervasive in advertising; in advertising, men and women are often
displayed in stereotypical roles that stress gender differences.
In fact, gender roles have long been subject to stereotyping from the part of the media in general
and advertising in particular. In this connection, Tilleuil (2002) defines the stereotype, following
Bourdieu (1990) as “one of the ‘practices that organize the relationships between the sexes’
produced by the habitus. Just like the habitus, the stereotype naturalizes . . . after family and
school, advertising has emerged as a privileged ‘place’ for the acquisition of the stereotypes.” (p.
4).
Put differently, it has become normal that men and women perform different tasks in social life.
Therefore, the way they are portrayed in advertising reflects this difference; gender advertising,
according to the literature, is a reflection of stereotyping in the family, school, and social life in
general.

References
DeFleur, M. L., & Dennis, E. (2002). Understanding Mass Communication. London:
Houghton-Mifflin Co.
Downing, J., Mohammadi, A., & Sreberny-Mohammadi, A. (1995). Questioning the Media: A
critical introduction. London: Sage Publications.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extensions of man. New York, NY: McGraw
Hill.