Global city, an urban centre that enjoys significant competitive

advantages and that serves as a hub within a globalized economic

system. The term has its origins in research on cities carried out
during the 1980s, which examined the common characteristics of the
world’s most important cities. However, with increased attention being
paid to processes of globalization during subsequent years, these
world cities came to be known as global cities. Linked with
globalization was the idea of spatial reorganization and
the hypothesis that cities were becoming key loci within global
networks of production, finance, and telecommunications. In some
formulations of the global city thesis, then, such cities are seen as the
building blocks of globalization. Simultaneously, these cities were
becoming newly privileged sites of local politics within the context of a
broader project to reconfigure state institutions.
Early research on global cities concentrated on key urban centres
such as London, New York City, and Tokyo. With time, however,
research has been completed on emerging global cities outside of this
triad, such as Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Houston, Los Angeles, Mexico
City, Paris, São Paulo, Sydney, and Zürich. Such cities are said to knit
together to form a global city network serving the requirements of
transnational capital across broad swathes of territory.
The rise of global cities has been linked with two globalization-related
trends: first, the expansion of the role of transnational
corporations (TNCs) in global production patterns and, second, the
decline of mass production along Fordist lines and
the concomitant rise of flexible production centred within urban areas.
These two trends explain the emergence of networks of certain cities
serving the financial and service requirements of TNCs while other
cities suffer the consequences of deindustrialization and fail to
become “global.” Global cities are those that therefore become
effective command-and-coordination posts for TNCs within a
globalizing world economy. Such cities have also assumed a
governance role at the local scale and within wider configurations of
what some commentators have termed the “glocalization” of state
institutions. This refers to processes in which certain national state
functions of organization and administration have been devolved to
the local scale. An example of this would be London. Since the 1980s
London has consolidated its position as a global banking and financial
centre, de-linked from the national economy.

The global city thesis poses a challenge to state-centric perspectives on

contemporary international political economy because it implies the
disembedding of cities from their national territorial base, so that they occupy
an extraterritorial space. Global cities, it is suggested, have more
interconnectedness with other cities and across a transnational field of action
than with the national economy. Global cities are also said to share many of
the same characteristics because of their connectedness and shared
experiences of globalization. They all exhibit clear signs of
deindustrialization. They possess the concentration of financial and service
industries within their spatial boundaries, as well as the concentration of large
pools of labour. On the downside, many also share experiences of class
and ethnic conflict. They often have segmented labour markets in which
employees of key industries enjoy well-paid and consumerist lifestyles while
a lower stratum of workers staffs less well-paid, more precarious, and less
attractive positions within the urban economy. It has been further argued that
the promotion of global cities runs the risk of
economically marginalizing nonurban populations within the national
economy.
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Although global cities are interconnected, embedded as they are in global
production and financial networks, they are also locked into competition with
one another to command increasing resources and to attract capital. To
successfully compete, local governments have been keen to promote their
cities as global. Such cities have been marketed as “entrepreneurial” centres,
sites of innovation in the knowledge economy, and as being rich with cultural
capital. A common strategy has been to stress the multiethnic qualities of a
city, for example. This is intended to stress its cosmopolitan and global
character and to disassociate the city from its actual territorial, ethnic, or
cultural setting. Such cities also regularly compete to host world events of
considerable prestige that present further economic opportunities, such as
the Olympic Games.
 There has been some skepticism regarding the global city thesis in its
simplest formulation. On a qualitative level, some scholars questioned
whether global cities are indeed new phenomena and pointed to the long-
standing existence of similar economic centres over time. One can think
of Florence during the Renaissance, for example, or Manchester during
the Industrial Revolution. Other commentators questioned whether the
ascendance of global cities implies state decline along zero-sum lines. These
skeptics argued that a more complex and interdependent relationship exists
between the state and cities under its national jurisdiction. Indeed, national
governments can play a proactive role in the promotion of key urban centres
as global cities. Correspondingly, it is possible that global cities occupy the
forefront position within a hierarchy of cities and local spaces that
together constitute the national economy. Such a perspective would appear
to transcend a dichotomizing view of global cities and the national state.
Greig Charnock

Global city
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"World city" redirects here. For other uses, see World city (disambiguation).

A global city, also called a power city, world city, alpha city or world center, is a city which is a
primary node in the global economic network. The concept comes from geography and urban
studies, and the idea that globalization is created, facilitated, and enacted in strategic geographic
locales according to a hierarchy of importance to the operation of the global system
of finance and trade.
The most complex node is the "global city", with links binding it to other cities having a direct and
tangible effect on global socio-economic affairs.[1] The term "megacity" entered common use in the
late 19th or early 20th centuries; one of the earliest documented uses of the term was by
the University of Texas in 1904.[2] The term "global city", rather than "megacity", was popularized
by sociologist Saskia Sassen in her 1991 work, The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo.[3] "World
city", meaning a city heavily involved in global trade, appeared in the May 1886 description
of Liverpool, by The Illustrated London News.[4] Patrick Geddes later used the term "world city" in
1915.[5] More recently, the term has focused on a city's financial power and high technology
infrastructure, with other factors becoming less relevant. [6][7]

Contents

 1Criteria
 o 1.1Characteristics
 2Rankings
o 2.1Global Economic Power Index
o 2.2Global Power City Index
o 2.3GaWC study
 2.3.1Alpha ++
 2.3.2Alpha +
o 2.4Global Cities Index
o 2.5The Wealth Report
o 2.6Global City Competitiveness Index
o 2.7Schroders Global Cities Index
o 2.8Global Cities Initiative
o 2.9The World's Most Talked About Cities
 3See also
 4References
 5External links

Criteria
Global city status is considered beneficial and desirable [according to whom?]. Competing groups have
developed multiple alternative methods to classify and rank world cities and to distinguish them
from non-world cities.[5] Although there is a consensus upon leading world cities,[8] the chosen criteria
affect which other cities are included.[5] Selection criteria may be based on a yardstick value (e.g., if
the producer-service sector is the largest sector then city X is a world city) [5] or on an imminent
determination (if the producer-service sector of city X is greater than the combined producer-service
sectors of N other cities then city X is a world city.) [5]
Cities can fall from ranking, as in the case of cities that have become less cosmopolitan and less
internationally renowned in the current era.
Characteristics
Although criteria are variable and fluid, typical characteristics of world cities are: [9]

 A variety of international financial services,[10] notably in finance, insurance, real

estate, banking, accountancy, and marketing
 Headquarters of several multinational corporations
 The existence of financial headquarters, a stock exchange, and major financial institutions
 Domination of the trade and economy of a large surrounding area
 Major manufacturing centres with port and container facilities
 Considerable decision-making power on a daily basis and at a global level
 Centres of new ideas and innovation in business, economics, culture, and politics
 Centres of media and communications for global networks
 Dominance of the national region with great international significance
 High percentage of residents employed in the services sector and information sector
 High-quality educational institutions, including renowned universities, international student
attendance,[11] and research facilities
 Multi-functional infrastructure offering some of the best legal, medical, and entertainment
facilities in the country
 High diversity in language, culture, religion, and ideologies.

Rankings
Global city rankings are numerous, with one study suggesting as many as 300 [12]. Ranked cities tend
to be concentrated in North America and Europe.
Global Economic Power Index
In 2015, the second Global Economic Power Index, a meta list compiled by Richard Florida, was
published by The Atlantic (distinct from a namesake list[13] published by the Martin Prosperity
Institute), with city composite rank based on five other lists.[13][14]
Global Power City Index
The Institute for Urban Strategies at The Mori Memorial Foundation in Tokyo issued a
comprehensive study of global cities in 2018. They are ranked based on six categories: economy,
research and development, cultural interaction, livability, environment, and accessibility, with 70
individual indicators among them. The top ten world cities are also ranked by subjective categories
including manager, researcher, artist, visitor and resident. [15]

 Global Power City top 10:

1. London
2. New York City
3. Tokyo
4. Paris
5. Singapore
6. Amsterdam
7. Seoul
8. Berlin
9. Hong Kong
10. Sydney
GaWC study
Main article: Globalization and World Cities Research Network

A map showing the distribution of GaWC-ranked world cities (2010 data)

Jon Beaverstock, Richard G. Smith and Peter J. Taylor established the Globalization and World

Cities Research Network (GaWC). A roster of world cities in the GaWC Research Bulletin 5 is
ranked by their connectivity through four "advanced producer services": accountancy, advertising,
banking/finance, and law.[8] The GaWC inventory identifies three levels of global cities and several
sub-ranks,[16] although the authors caution that "concern for city rankings operates against the spirit
of the GaWC project"[17] (emphasis in original).
The 2004 rankings added several new indicators while continuing to rank city economics more
heavily than political or cultural factors. The 2008 roster, similar to the 1998 version, is sorted into
categories of Alpha world cities (with four sub-categories), Beta world cities (three sub-categories),
Gamma world cities (three sub-categories) and additional cities with High sufficiency or Sufficiency
presence. The cities in the top two classifications in the 2018 edition are: [18]
Alpha ++

  London
  New York City

Alpha +

  Beijing
  Dubai
  Hong Kong
  Paris
  Shanghai
  Singapore
  Sydney
  Tokyo
Global Cities Index
In 2008, the American journal Foreign Policy, in conjunction with the consulting firm A.T.
Kearney and the Chicago Council on Global Affairs, published a ranking of global cities, based on
consultation with Saskia Sassen, Witold Rybczynski, and others.[19] Foreign Policy noted that "the
world’s biggest, most interconnected cities help set global agendas, weather transnational dangers,
and serve as the hubs of global integration. They are the engines of growth for their countries and
the gateways to the resources of their regions." [20] The ranking is based on 27 metrics across five
dimensions: business activity, human capital, information exchange, cultural experience, and
political engagement and was updated in 2010, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 and 2019 [21].
Since 2015 it has been published together with a separate index called the Global Cities Outlook: a
projection of a city's potential based on rate of change in 13 indicators across four dimensions:
personal well-being, economics, innovation, and governance. [22]

 Global Cities Index :

1.  New York City

2.  London
3.  Paris
4.  Tokyo
5.  Hong Kong
6.  Singapore
7.  Los Angeles
8.  Chicago
 9.  Beijing
10.  Washington, D.C.
The Wealth Report
"The Wealth Report" (a global perspective on prime property and wealth) is made by the London-
based estate agent Knight Frank LLP together with the Citi Private Bank. The report includes a
"Global Cities Survey", evaluating which cities are considered the most important to the world's
HNWIs (high-net-worth individuals, having over $25 million of investable assets). For the Global
Cities Survey, Citi Private Bank's wealth advisors, and Knight Frank's luxury property specialists
were asked to name the cities that they felt were the most important to HNWIs, in regard to:
"economic activity", "political power", "knowledge and influence" and "quality of life". [23][24]
Global City Competitiveness Index
In 2012, the Economist Intelligence Unit (The Economist Group) ranked the competitiveness of
global cities according to their demonstrated ability to attract capital, businesses, talent and visitors.
[25]

Schroders Global Cities Index

The Schroders ranked the competitiveness of global cities. The cities in the classifications as
"Top30" in the 2019 edition are:[26]

1. Los Angeles
2. London
3. Hong Kong
4. New York
5. Boston
6. Chicago
7. Shanghai
8. Beijing
9. San Francisco
10. Houston
11. Sydney
12. Singapore
13. San Jose
14. Melbourne
15. Seattle
16. Atlanta
17. Paris
18. Washington
19. Toronto
20. Dallas
21. San Diego
22. Baltimore
23. Shenzhen
24. Miami
25. Austin
26. Philadelphia
 27. Phoenix
28. Munich
29. Tokyo
30. Brisbane
Global Cities Initiative
A study by Brookings Institution conducted in 2016 introduced its own typology defining global cities
into seven categories: Global Giants, Asian Anchors, Emerging Gateways, Factory China,
Knowledge Capitals, American Middleweights, and International Middleweights [27]
The Global Giants classification includes wealthy, extremely large metro areas that the largest cities
from developed nations. They are hubs for financial markets, major corporations, and serve as key
nodes in global capital and talent flows.

  London
  Los Angeles
  New York City
  Osaka-Kobe
  Paris
  Tokyo
The World's Most Talked About Cities
A study by ING Media, a London-based Built environment communications firm, has ranked 250
global cities by total online mentions across social media and online news for 2019. It found that one
in every five digital mentions were for Tokyo, New York City, London and Paris, identifying these as
the world's super brands[28][29]. The "Top 10 in the 2019 edition are[30]:

1. Tokyo
2. New York
3. London
4. Paris
5. Madrid
6. Dubai
7. Rome
8. Barcelona
9. Seoul
10. Osaka

See also

What makes a city “global”?

Nowadays globalization occurs in places where a mass of people work and live in cities.
However, for a city to achieve the title of being global, it must have values and ideas that will
have an impact of the rest of the world. “ Global city is a term that raises an understanding for
the cognoscenti” (Low, 2005: p218). Low (2005) further says that a global city is a city that is
well thought out to be an important node in the world’s economic system. A global city has
wealth, power and influence to other countries as well as hosts the largest capital markets.
Moreover, a city that has wealthy multinational companies, good infrastructure, better economy,
well-educated and diverse populations and powerful organizations as well as a good political
structure that are linked to the other parts of the world like nowhere else is considered to be
global (Badcock, 2002: p31). A global city, therefore, is the world’s most important and
influential city that covers the dimensions of the globalization. These dimensions are cultural
experience, business activity, human capital as well as political engagement. London, New York,
Paris, Rome and Tokyo are one of the most well-known global cities as it provides global
competitiveness for its citizens and companies.

There are several ways in which a city can be considered as a global city. Firstly, a city should
have a combination of powerful, strong and unique culture, style and history. This is because
culture is one of important businesses in a city that provides many tourist attractions. Rome for
instance, has been very powerful and influential in the development of world culture. It is one of
the richest and dynamic cities in Europe. During the previous years, cultures in Rome have been
contained within its borders. However, as the rate of communication increases due to
globalization, the culture in Rome is now rapidly mixed on a global scale. A culture may not
necessarily mean the traditions and values in that particular city but also the art, food and
architecture. Moreover, culture has become an economic machine where by it has a variety of
activities through its traditional and modern appeal like the Roman Catholic Church in Rome
(Taylor, 2004: p57). In addition, Rome actually influences the world on the subjects of culture,
religion and architecture and it is worldwide known as a center of arts. Due to the city’s
importance and influence in culture and religion, it has been nicknames as the Eternal City of the
world (Taylor, 2004: p57). Most importantly fact about Rome is that it is “the main center of
pilgrimage in the Christian community” (Taylor, 2004: 56p). Because of the presence of the first
Roman Catholic, it has made it to be an influential city since many people especially Christians
meet in that area during Easter season to experience and enjoy the traditional procession of the
pope. Additionally, for a city to become global, it should have an existence of substantial and
vibrant cultural economy with a high level of interconnectedness in the global cultural network.
And since the city of Rome and Paris contain world heritage sites, it has a significance being a
global city historically and culturally.

Secondly, a global city is a city of demographic and economic change. It contains international
organizations, different firms such as law firms, headquarters for the multinational countries as
well as stock exchanges that influences the world’s economy. Also, in a global city, the cost of
living is better than other cities and there are a number of billionaires. For instance New York
City, it is the most populous city in the United States of America. It is also the center of
international business, a command center in the world’s economy and also the main center for
business such as legal services, world trade, insurance, banking etc. Due to its increase in the
economic growth, New York City has become the largest city in the world in terms of economy
(Sassen, 2001: p39). New York City is considered to be a global city because it has powerful
organizations that are linked to the other parts and many of the major corporations and
multinational companies are headquartered in this city. According to Lipsitz (2010), a global city
needs to have a lot of capital, information on trade, business and multinational companies. New
York City has all this. Furthermore, New York City made it as a global city because it is
considered as a location for one of the major centers of finance and commerce (Lipsitz, 2010).
Manhattan, which is one of the districts of New York City, it is the economic heart of the city
that contains many headquarters such as the United Nations which has a major influence in the
world as well as the stock exchange on the Wall Street. Since the stock market is presence in
New York, the city has an advantage of controlling on what goes in and out of the country. Thus,
if a problem occurs in New York, it means that it will have an effect on the stock markets
globally. For instance during the September attacks, there was an effect on the global economy
causing the global stock markets to decrease rapidly and also caused a delay in the opening of
the New York’s stock exchange when a plane crashed into the World Trade Center building.
This shows that a global city has a major influence in other cities as well not just its domain city
like when the New York stock exchange delayed, London, which is a global city as well, its
stock exchange was evacuated.

Manila ranks low in

global city indices
The Philippine capital has some catching up to do as it ranks in the bottom
half of the Global City Competitiveness Index and Global Cities Index

Reynaldo Santos Jr
@reysantosjr

Published 1:07 PM, April 08, 2012

Updated 7:43 PM, July 18, 2012

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MANILA, Philippines - The Philippine capital has some catching up to do, as it

lags behind some neighboring cities when ranked in terms of importance in
the global economic system.
Manila has found itself in the bottom half of ranking in two reports, the Global
City Competitiveness Index (GCCI) and Global Cities Index (GCI), both
released this year. These reports rank selected cities in the world based on
parameters that indicate their development.

In the GCCI, Manila ranks 85th out of 120 cities, with a score of 43.2 out of
100. New York City tops the list with a 71.4 score.

Categories for ranking cities under this report include:

 economic strength
 human capital
 institutional effectiveness
 financial maturity
 global appeal
 physical capital
 social and cultural character
 environment and natural hazards

5 big challenges facing

big cities of the future
The UN estimates that 55% of the global population lives in urban areas – a
figure that is projected to rise to 68% by 2050. With few exceptions, cities are
expected to become bigger and more numerous.

As urbanization speeds up, particularly in Asian and African countries, here

are five of the biggest challenges confronting the future of cities:

1. Environmental threats
Rapid urbanization, which strains basic infrastructure, coupled with more
frequent and extreme weather events linked to global climate change is
exacerbating the impact of environmental threats. Common environmental
threats include flooding, tropical cyclones (to which coastal cities are
particularly vulnerable), heat waves and epidemics.
Owing to the physical and population density of cities, such threats often
result in both devastating financial loss and deaths. Making cities more
resilient against these environmental threats is one of the biggest challenges
faced by city authorities and requires urgent attention.

2. Resources
Cities need resources such as water, food and energy to be viable. Urban
sprawl reduces available water catchment areas, agricultural lands and
increases demand for energy. While better application of technology can
boost agricultural productivity and ensure more efficient transmission of
electricity, many cities will continue to struggle to provide these resources to
an ever-growing urban population.

Beyond these basic requirements, haphazard growth will see the reduction of
green spaces within cities, negatively affecting liveability. As fresh water
becomes scarce and fertile lands diminish, food prices may escalate, hitting
the poorest hardest.
 3. Inequality
When it comes to both the provision of basic resources and resilience against
environmental threats, the forecast is uneven for different groups of urban
inhabitants. As the number of urban super-rich grows, many cities will also
see increased numbers of urban poor.

The widening gap between the haves and have-nots will be accentuated in
the megacities of the future. Such inequalities, when left unchecked, will
destabilize society and upend any benefits of urban development. There is a
critical need for policy-makers to ensure that the fruits of progress are shared
equitably.

4. Technology
Technology will be increasingly used in the development and running of cities
of the future. Smart planning used in Singapore can harness solar energy for
use in housing estates and create man-made wetlands for ecological balance.
Smart mobility technology can alleviate traffic gridlocks which plague many
cities.

The use of environmental technologies which can cool buildings more

efficiently or run vehicles that are less polluting will also lead to better future
cities. Installing sensors in the homes of ageing seniors living alone can
connect them to the community and summon help when they are unwell or
hurt.

Have you read?

 These 10 Asian cities are the most prepared for the future

 What global cities can learn from Melbourne

 This is what a smart city should do for its people

However, technology can exclude urban inhabitants who cannot afford it or

lack the capability required for its adoption. As future cities become more
digitized, care must be exercised to prevent the emergence of a new form of
social divide rooted in the technological.

5. Governance
Future cities offer immense possibilities to enrich the lives of their inhabitants
even as the challenges are stark. To make the best out of inevitable
urbanization, good governance is imperative. Cities will increase in size and
their populations become more diverse. Governing these cities will, therefore,
be progressively complex and require the most dedicated of minds.

Seoul, capital of South Korea

Image: Harvey Neo

Increasingly, cities around the world are learning about the best governance
and planning practices from one another, even as they remain accountable to
their respective national governments. The broad goals of urban governance
should address issues of equity, liveability and sustainability in cities of the
future.

Share
In the GCI, on the other hand, Manila ranks 51st out of 66 cities, and gets
1.49 out of 10. Again, New York City tops the list with a far 6.35 grade.

Categories for determining the grades in this report include:

 business activity
 human capital
 information exchange
 cultural experience
  political engagement

Among Asian cities, Manila ranks 30th out of 50 cities in the GCCI, and 15th
out of 23 cities in the GCI.

Neighbor cities Singapore, Hong Kong, Taipei, Bangkok, and Kuala Lumpur
are ahead of Manila in both lists. Jakarta is ahead of Manila only in the GCCI.
Manila is the only Philippine city included in the lists. Other countries such as
China, USA, India, and Korea have multiple cities ranked in one or both lists.

The term "global city" refers to cities that are big contributors in the global
economic system. All the cities ranked in these reports collectively represent
about 29% of the global economy, with a combined GDP of $20.2 trillion.

"Well over half of the world’s population now lives in cities, generating more
than 80% of global GDP. Already, global business is beginning to plan
strategy from a city, rather than a country, perspective," said in the GCCI.

High in character, financial stability

Though the overall grade of Manila in the GCCI is low, the city performs well
in some individual categories.

Manila got the highest mark in 'social and cultural character' category with
61.6, and lowest mark in 'economic strength' category with 34.
Manila competes well in two categories. The city ranks 60th in the 'social and
cultural character' category, and ranks 33rd in the 'financial stability' category
with a score of 50, tying with 27 other cities including Los Angeles, Rome, and
Taipei.

Zurich, in Switzerland, tops both categories.

Emerging cities

The GCI also makes an assessment of 29 emerging global cities, which

include Manila and neighboring Asean cities Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok, and
Jakarta.

Each emerging global city is assessed based on their: