Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

http://dx.doi.org/10.5209/rev_JIGE.2014.v40.n2.45300

www.ucm.es/info/estratig/journal.htm
ISSN (print): 1698-6180. ISSN (online): 1886-7995

Structure of the Andean Palaeozoic basement in the Chilean coast at

31º 30’ S: Geodynamic evolution of a subduction margin

J. García-Sansegundo1*, P. Farias1, N. Heredia2, G. Gallastegui2, R. Charrier3,4, A. Rubio-

Ordóñez1, A. Cuesta1

Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Oviedo, c/ Jesús Arias de Velasco s/n, 33005 Oviedo, Spain
1

2
Instituto Geológico y Minero de España (IGME), c/ Matemático Pedrayes 25, 33005 Oviedo, Spain.
3
Departamento de Geología y Advanced Mining Technology Center (AMTC), F.C.F.M., Universidad de Chile, Casilla 2777,
Santiago, Chile
4
Escuela de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad Andrés Bello, Campus República, Santiago, Chile

e-mail addresses: j.g.sansegundo@geol.uniovi.es (J.G.-S., *corresponding author); pfarias@uniovi.es (P.F.); arubio@geol.uniovi.es (A.R.O.); n.heredia@
igme.es (N.H.); leon@igme.es (G.G.); rcharrie@ing.uchile.cl (R.C.); acuesta@geol.uniovi.es (A.C.)

Received: 30 September 2013 / Accepted: 5 May 2014 / Available online: 25 June 2014

Abstract
The Palaeozoic basement outcropping to the north of Los Vilos is formed by (i) the Choapa Metamorphic Complex (ChMC) made of
metabasites (amphibolites and retrogressed eclogites), fine-grained gneisses, schists and quartz-schists, and (ii) the meta-sedimentary and
sedimentary rocks of the Arrayán and Huentelauquén formations respectively. Near Huentelauquén (31º 30’ S), the ChMC has been af-
fected by three deformation episodes related with the Gondwanan orogenic episode. The first episode (D1) is represented by a foliation
(S1) formed under HP-LT metamorphic conditions and preserved in syn-D2 garnet and albite porphyroblasts. A generalised crenulation
cleavage (S2) was developed under pressure decreasing conditions during the second deformation episode (D2). This episode is responsible
for the exhumation of the ChMC, which took place through an east-directed reverse fault system that thrusts the ChMC over the Arrayán
Formation, producing more than 20 km shortening. The third deformation episode (D3) is represented by a west-verging kilometre-scale
anticline, with a thrust in its reverse limb (Las Caldas thrust). Minor folds and crenulations are also associated with D3. D3 structures af-
fect the ChMC and the Arrayán Formation and are responsible for the overturning of the D2 thrusts. The Huentelauquén Formation, late
Carboniferous – Permian in age, is the latest unit deformed by Gondwanan structures. The characterisation of the structure and its relation
to metamorphism in the study area, lead to propose a geodynamic model related with an Andean type non-collisional orogenic process, for
the Gondwanan orogenic episode of the Andes at this latitude.
Keywords: Gondwanan structure, tectono-metamorphic evolution, Choapa Metamorphic Complex, Chile, system thrust

Resumen
El basamento Paleozoico que aflora al norte de Los Vilos está constituido por (i) el Complejo Metamórfico de Choapa (CMCh), formado
por esquistos, cuarzo esquistos, gneises de grano fino y metabasitas (anfibolitas y retroeclogitas) y (ii) rocas metasedimentarias y sedimen-
tarias de las formaciones Arrayán y Huentelauquén respectivamente. En los alrededores de Huentelauquén (31º 30’ S), las rocas del CMCh
han sido afectadas por tres fases de deformación (D1, D2, D3), relacionadas con el episodio orogénico Gondwánico. Las estructuras D1
están representadas por una foliación tectónica (S1), que se desarrolló bajo condiciones metamórficas de AP-BT y que está preservada en
porfiroblastos de granate y albita, crecidos durante el segundo episodio de deformación. Durante la fase de deformación D2 se produce
una bajada de la presión y se desarrolla la foliación regional S2. La foliación S2 es contemporánea con el emplazamiento de un dúplex de
cabalgamientos dirigidos hacia el este que exhuman el CMCh y lo sitúan sobre las series epimetamórficas de la Formación Arrayán. El
acortamiento que producen las estructuras D2 es superior a 20 km. La tercera fase de deformación está representada por pliegues y crenula-
ciones asociados a un antiforme de escala kilométrica, vergente al oeste, al que se asocia un cabalgamiento dirigido en esa misma dirección
(cabalgamiento de Las Caldas). Estas estructuras D3 son las responsables de la inversión de los cabalgamiento D2 de la zona estudiada. La
Formación Huentelauquén, del Carbonífero superior – Pérmico, es la unidad más moderna afectada por estructuras Gondwánicas. El análi-
sis de la estructura y su relación con el metamorfismo en la zona estudiada permiten proponer un modelo geodinámico ligado a un proceso
orogénico no-colisional, de tipo Andino, para el episodio orogénico Gondwánico de los Andes a esta latitud.
Palabras clave: Estructura gondwánica, evolución tectono-metamórfica, Complejo Metamórfico de Choapa, Chile, sistema de cabalgamientos
294 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

1. Introduction

In the Chilean coast, the existence of rock suites that

formed part of a Palaeozoic accretionary prism during sub-
duction of the palaeo-Pacific plate is accepted since the
works of Hervé (1988), Hervé et al. (1988) and Irwin et al.
(1988). These rocks are exposed in several discontinuous
outcrops from the Península de Mejillones (23º S latitude,
see Fig. 1b), in northern Chile, to the Los Vilos area, located
at 32º S latitude (Fig. 1a). Further south, the Palaeozoic ac-
cretionary complex is exposed almost continuously from the
Pichilemu area to the Taitao peninsula (Hervé et al., 2007)
(Fig. 1b). In the study area, these rocks were deformed dur-
ing the Gondwanan orogenic episode (San Rafael orogeny)
(Ramos, 1988), that took place in late Carboniferous – mid
Permian times and have been also involved in the Andean
orogeny. In the Huentelauquén region (Fig. 1a), north of Los
Vilos (30º – 31º latitude S), Palaeozoic basement rocks were
studied by Rebolledo (1987), Godoy and Charrier (1991) and
Rebolledo and Charrier (1994)�����������������������������
, who proposed a late Carbon-
iferous – Permian age for the accretionary process. New data
have been recently reported on the metamorphic processes
that affected these rocks and the chronology of their evolu-
tion (Willner, 2005; Willner et al., 2008, 2012). The detailed
study of the structure, microstructure and metamorphism of
these rocks has permitted us to construct a geological cross-
section and to establish their tectono-metamorphic evolution.
This study also led to fit the study area in a new proposal
of geodynamic evolution model for the Gondwanan orogenic
episode at this latitude.

2. Lithologies

The rocks cropping out in the Punta Claditas area can be

included in two main lithologic groups, separated by thrusts
and deformed under different metamorphic conditions: the
Choapa Metamorphic Complex (ChMC) and the three meta-
sedimentary units included in what we will name Arrayán ba-
sin. This basin, Devonian – Permian in age, hosted the Agua
Dulce Metaturbidites (Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994), the
sedimentary rocks of the Arrayán Formation, locally Puerto
Fig. 1.- (a) Geological map of the Chile coast between 31º 00’ and
Manso Formation (Rivano and Sepúlveda, 1991), and the
31º 35’ S, based on Rebolledo and Charrier (1994). (A) Location of
Huentelauquén Formation (Muñoz Cristi, 1942). All these the geological map of figure 2. (1) Huentelauquén Formation, (2)
rocks have been deformed during the subduction-accretion Arrayán�����������������������������������������������������
Formation, (3) Choapa Metamorphic Complex, (4) Meso-
process developed in the Gondwana – Chilenia continental zoic and Cenozoic rocks, (5) fault, (6) thrust. (b) Map of Chile with
margin during the early Carboniferous – mid Permian (Figs. study area location.
1a and 2).
schists. These three rock units are separated by tectonic con-
2.1. Choapa Metamorphic Complex (ChMC) tacts, show a similar tectono-metamorphic evolution (Fig. 2)
and have been affected by structures developed during three
This group of rocks consists of three main lithologies: (i) a superimposed deformation events (D1, D2, D3).
monotonous sequence of schists and quartz-schists; (ii) fine- The schists and quartz-schists (Esquistos Grises de Punta
grained gneisses with intercalations or boudins of schists and Claditas and Esquistos Grises de la Gruta, after Rebolledo
metabasites; and (iii) metabasites which, in the vicinity of and Charrier, 1994) consist of quartz, white-mica, chlorite,
the gneisses, contain boudins of fine-grained gneisses and albite and garnet (Grt1±Grt2), with tourmaline, epidote, apa-
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 295

Fig. 2.- Geological map of the study area (see location in Fig. 1). Modified after Rebolledo and Charrier (1994), Ring et al. (2012). A-A’ corresponds
to the geological cross-section of western part of Fig. 4, further detailed in Fig. 8b. B-B’ corresponds to the geological cross-sections of Fig. 8a,
and C-C’ to the geological cross-section of Fig. 5a.
296 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

Fig. 3.- Microstructure and petrographic aspects of the ChMC: (a) Aspect of the S2 regional foliation defined by white-mica (W-m) in schists with
Ab and Grt porphyroblasts folded by S3 crenulation. The S1 is preserved in the S2 microlithons (plane polarised light). Location at coordinates:
31º 31’ 23” S, 71º 34’ 30” W. (b) Schists with S2 regional foliation defined by white-mica (W-m) and Ab porphyroblasts with S1 internal foliation
(crossed polars). Location at coordinates: 31º 31’ 36” S, 71º 34’ 25” W. (c) Schists with Grt porphyroblasts (Grt2) showing helicitic microstructure
(S1 foliation) (plane polarised light). Location at coordinates: 31º 31’ 46” S, 71º 34’ 24” W. (d) S2 regional foliation and S1 folded, both defined by
white-mica, and small garnets (Grt1) in fine-grained gneisses (plane polarised light). Location at coordinates: 31º 31’ 47” S, 71º 34’ 23” W. (e) Ab
porphyroblasts with Grt1 inclusions in schists (plane polarised light). Location at coordinates: 31º 31’ 53” S, 71º 34’ 21” W. (f) Amphibolites with
S2 regional foliation (Amp, Ep, Rt, and Ttn) and pre-S2 garnet (Grt1). The internal foliation (S1) is preserved in Ab porphyroblasts (plane polarised
light). Location at coordinates: 31º 31’ 56” S, 71º 34’ 15” W. (g) Pre-S2 garnet (Grt1) and S2 regional foliation (Amp, Zo, Rt, Qz) in amphibolites
(plane polarised light). Location at coordinates: 31º 32’ 00” S, 71º 34’ 17” W. (h) Retrogressed eclogite with garnet, white-mica, and Rt with Ttn outer
rims (plane polarised light). Location at coordinates: 31º 31’ 46” S, 71º 34’ 24” W.
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 297

Fig. 4.- Geological cross-section of the study area. For location see figure. 2.

tite, zircon, titanite, ilmenite and rutile as accessory miner- can show abundant crystals of Ep and of Rt partially retro-
als. The regional foliation is mostly a schistosity (S2) defined graded to Ilm or Ttn. Other accessory minerals are the same
by the alternance of quartz and chlorite+white-mica bands as in the schists.
(Fig. 3a). The composition of the white-mica is muscovite to In some gneisses, and in the previously described schists,
phengite (Willner et al., 2012)����������������������������
. Albite (Ab) and Grt2 (min- there are also small idiomorphic or subidiomorphic garnets
eral abbreviations from ���������������������������������
Whitney and Evans, 2010)���������
are por- (Fig. 3d) showing two or more stages of growth indicated by
phyroblasts mainly syn-kinematic with the S2 and frequently the arrangement of inclusions. These garnets (Grt1) formed
helicitic, including a previous foliation (S1) (Figs. 3b, 3c). In previous to the Ab porphyroblasts, in which they appear as
the Ab porphyroblasts, an internal foliation (S1) is defined inclusions (Fig. 3e), and are pre-kinematic with the regional
by graphite inclusion trails, and sparsely oriented inclusions foliation (S2).
of Rt, Ilm, Ttn, Ep ± Tur ± Qz ± white-mica. The S1 is also The metabasites, included in the “Esquistos Verdes de
preserved in S2 microlithons and polygonal arcs defined by Maintencillo” by Rebolledo and Charrier (1994), show a
white-mica. Most of the Grt2 porphyroblasts appear as chlo- wide compositional and textural variety. However, most of
ritised pseudomorphs but retain an internal foliation (S1) of the studied metabasites are nematoblastic amphibolites, con-
graphitic inclusion trails or opaque minerals. sisting of Amp, Ep, Rt, Chl, Qz ± Grt ± white-mica ± Cb
This group of rocks includes the “Filitas de La Quebrada and Ilm ± Ttn after Rt. These rocks show a main foliation
Poleo” (Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994), that crop out to the corresponding to the regional S2 defined by the dimensional
east of the studied region and are in fault contact with the preferred orientation of Amp, Ep, Rt, Ttn and Chl. The S1
Huentelauquén Formation to the west. foliation can be seen deformed by centimetre-scale D2 folds.
The fine-grained gneisses have been included in the “Es- These amphibolites are characterised by a remarkable devel-
quistos de Punta Claditas” by Rebolledo and Charrier (1994). opment of syn-kinematic Ab porphyroblasts parallel to the
Most of these gneisses are formed by re-crystallised polyg- regional S2 foliation. This Ab porphyroblasts exhibit an in-
onal aggregates of Pl and Qz (triple junctions at 120º) and ternal foliation (S1) (Fig. 3f), in some cases folded, and de-
white-mica+chlorite bands defining the S2 foliation and also fined by oriented inclusions of Rt, Ttn, Grt, Amp and Ep. The
the folded S1. Like the schists, the gneisses are characterised garnets usually host numerous inclusions of epidote, are pre-
by the abundance of syn-S2 albite and garnet (Grt2) porphy- kinematic with the regional foliation (S2) and previous to the
roblasts. Internal foliation (S1) in Ab porphyroblasts is de- Ab porphyroblasts, in which they are included. In some me-
fined by graphitic inclusion trails and opaque minerals. Most tabasites both Amp and Grt are totally chloritised, which re-
of the Grt2 porphyroblasts are chloritised but preserve the S1 sults in schists consisting mainly of Chl, Ab, Ep, Ttn ± white-
defined by opaque mineral or rutile inclusions. These rocks mica ± Cb. Other metabasites are nematoblastic amphibolites
298 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

composed by Amp, Zo, Grt, Qz, Rt and Ttn. Prismatic Amp mation, sensu Rivano and Sepúlveda (1991), includes similar
and Zo are arranged in parallel defining the regional folia- deposits exposed in the coastal area of north central Chile,
tion (S2) (Fig. 3g). The Grt is pre-kinematic respect to the S2 which were formerly named Puerto Manso (in the study re-
and rich in inclusions of Ep+Qz. Associated with both types gion), Arrayán (south of the Choapa river outlet), and Los Vi-
of amphibolites there are lenses of rocks that are interpreted los (near the south of the city of Los Vilos) formations (Muñoz
as retrogressed eclogites. These rocks consist of Grt (up to Cristi, 1942). In the study region, it consists of sandstones al-
35%), Zo, white-mica, Chl, Qz and Rt variably transformed ternating with gray, black and green shales interpreted as a
into Ilm ± Ttn. The garnets reveal a complex history with two turbiditic succession deposited in a medial to distal submarine
or more episodes of concentric growth or rotational move- fan, with a western to north-western source determined on the
ments indicated by the arrangement of inclusions (Fig. 3h). basis of palaeocurrent indicators ���������������������������
(Muñoz Cristi, 1942; Cecio-
The schists and gneisses of the ChMC were described as a ni, 1962, 1974; Charrier, 1977; Rebolledo, 1987; Rivano and
set of greywackes and/or arkoses resulting from erosion of a Sepúlveda, 1991; Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994). Based on
volcanic arc, and the metabasites as oceanic ridge tholeiitic fossil remains, this formation has been assigned to the Dev-
basalts, all of them affected by successive processes of low- onian – early Carboniferous (Muñoz Cristi, 1942; Cecioni,
grade regional metamorphism (Rebolledo, 1987). Rebolledo 1962, 1974; Bernardes de Oliveira and Roesler, 1980). The
and Charrier (1994) regarded the above described schists maximum depositional age obtained for this formation is 343
and gneisses as the metamorphic equivalent to the Arrayán Ma (U-Pb dating of detrital zircons) (Willner et al., 2012).
Formation (Devonian – early Carboniferous) according to The Agua Dulce Metaturbidites are in all aspects similar to
Muñoz Cristi (1942), Cecioni (1962, 1974) and Bernardes de the Arrayán Formation, except for their higher-grade meta-
Oliveira and Roesler (1980)������������������������������
. However, U-Pb age determina- morphism. For this reason we prefer to include them within
tions on detrital zircons from the schists of the ChMC yielded the Arrayán Formation. This view is shared by Willner et al.
a 308 Ma maximum age for the protoliths of these rocks (late (2012) based on the maximum depositional age of 337 Ma
Carboniferous – Permian) (Willner et al., 2008), which is (U-Pb dating of detrital zircons) for the Agua Dulce Metat-
quite close to the age of the Huentelauquén Formation. urbidites (Willner et al., 2008), which is similar to that ob-
tained for the Arrayán Formation in the study region. These
2.2. The Arrayán basin metaturbidites consist of an alternance of shales and sand-
stones, interpreted as turbidites from a distal to middle part
To facilitate the description of the geodynamic evolution of a submarine fan (Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994). The Agua
model for the Gondwanan orogenic episode to be discussed Dulce Metaturbidites pass gradually into a broken-formation
later, it is necessary to define the basin in which the strati- (mélange type 1 of ��������������������������������������
Cowan, 1985)��������������������������
(Fig. 2), which is uncon-
graphic units, Devonian to Permian in age, were deposited formably covered by the Punta Tomás breccia, possibly Tri-
(Arrayán and Huentelauquén formations). The Arrayán For- assic in age.
The exposures of the Huentelauquén Formation in the north-
ern part of the study area (Muñoz Cristi, 1942; Rebolledo and
Charrier, 1994)���������������������������������������������
consist mainly of gray and black shales, in-
cluding encrinitic levels. East of the study area, the Huente-
lauquén Formation is formed by an alternance of sandstones,
shales, limestones and conglomerates made of up to 60-70%
rhyolite and leucogranite pebbles (Rebolledo and Charrier,
1994; Willner et al., 2008). These deposits accumulated in a
shallow and restricted environment with deltaic and carbon-
ate facies (Mundaca et al., 1979; Rivano and Sepúlveda, 1983
Charrier et al., 2007; Méndez-Bedia et al., 2009). The age of
the Huentelauquén Formation has been dated on the base of
its fossiliferous content as late Carboniferous – early Permian
(Sundt, 1897; Groeber, 1922; Fuenzalida, 1940; Muñoz Cristi,
1942, 1968; Minato and Tazawa, 1977; Mundaca et al., 1979;
Thiele and Hervé, 1984; Díaz-Martínez et al., 2000). This age
is consistent with the maximum deposition age of this forma-
tion (~303 Ma) obtained on magmatic zircons in leucogranite/
Fig. 5.- (a) Detailed geological cross-section of the Las Caldas River,
rhyolite conglomerate pebbles (Willner et al., 2008), and is
(C-C’ in figure 2). (b) S-C mylonites in the shear zone at the base of
the metabasites of the ChMC, that allow deduce that the hanging-wall very similar to that obtained using the same method by these
down. (c) Shear zone, showing folds developed in competent levels authors for the schists and quartz-schists of the ChMC.
of the metabasites of the ChMC, with thickened hinges and strongly The Arrayán Formation was deposited in a pre-orogenic
stretched limbs, which can even disappear. stage of the Arrayán retro-wedge basin (Willner et al., 2012),
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 299

Fig. 6.- Photographs of the Las Caldas River. (a) S-C mylonites of the figure 5b. (b) Shear zone of the figure 5c. (c) West-verging D3 fold associ-
ated to the hanging-wall of the Las Caldas thrust. (d) Shear zone showing west-verging sheath tight folds associated with the Las Caldas thrust
(red curved line: hinge fold). Location at coordinates (a) and (b): 31º 31’ 55” S, 71º 34’ 16” W; (c) and (d): 31º 31’ 58” S, 71º 34’ 12” W.

which to the east of the study area shows shallow marine 3. Structure
platform facies. On its behalf, the syn-orogenic Huentelau-
quén Formation formed during the deformation stage of the As previously described, the regional foliation is a schis-
Arrayán basin, coinciding with the Gondwanan compressive tosity (S2) developed in the rocks of the ChMC, in which
deformation (San Rafael orogenic phase) (Charrier et al., different evidences of a previous S1 cleavage can be ob-
2007). The magmatic arc represented by the Elqui superunit served. At microscopic scale the Ab porphyroblasts show
of the Elqui – Limarí batholith developed to the east of the syn-S2 growth, but at the outcrop scale a direction of pre-
eastern platform deposits. ferred stretching lineations has not been observed. The S2
corresponds to the S4 foliation described in the schists and
2.3. Igneous rocks quartz schists (“Esquistos Grises de Punta Claditas” unit)
and the S2 foliation described in the metabasites (“Esquis-
In this area, igneous rocks are represented by abundant, tos Verdes de Maitencillo” unit) by Rebolledo and Charrier
mostly E-W orientated, andesitic dykes 2 to >10 m thick and (1994). The number of foliations described by these authors
possible Jurassic in age, that cross-cut structures developed in each of these units was based on a geometric analysis. For
in the ChMC (Berg and Charrier, 1987). According to these this reason, the number of foliations resulting from super-
authors, the dykes host granitic xenoliths of late Carbonifer- posed deformations detected in the quartz-rich lithologies is
ous age. This age is similar to that of the Santo Domingo greater than in the amphibole schists, which contain almost
Complex in the Coastal batholith (Parada et al., 1999, 2007) no quartz. Our own analysis is based mostly on mineralogical
that outcrops further south between 31-34 ºS latitude. This criteria that allow a better geodynamic approach to the inter-
could attest to the presence of intrusive rocks, similar in age pretation of the ChMC.
to those of the Coastal batholith, underlying the current out- The Arrayán Formation and the three lithological units of
crops of ChMC. the ChMC previously described are bounded by tectonic con-
tacts consisting of faults dipping NE with an apparently nor-
300 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

mal component of displacement. Associated to these faults grained gneisses of the same unit (Fig. 5a). A 40º NE dipping
there are mylonites and, locally, foliated cataclasites. Accord- ductile shear zone, more than 20 m thick and associated to
ing to the kinematic criteria these faults have been interpreted the thrust, developed in the metabasites in this locality. In the
as east-directed inverted thrusts that caused the superposition more ductile levels of the metabasites within the shear zone,
of three thrust sheets, which we named, from west to east: there are folds with thickened hinges and extremely, often
upper, intermediate and lower thrust sheet. thrusts separat- disrupted, stretched limbs (Figs. 5c, 6b). Kinematic criteria
ing these sheets form a kilometre-scale duplex in which the in the gneisses show the descent of the hanging-wall, so the
floor-thrust is the Agua Dulce fault (Figs. 2, 4) that overlaps fault appears like a normal fault (Figs. 5b, 6a). However, the
the ChMC on the turbiditic Arrayán Formation. This thrust- fact that the metabasites are located in the foot-wall of the
sequence is folded by a kilometre-scale west-vergent anti- fault must be interpreted in the sense that, actually, it consists
form that produces its inversion and the tectonic window; in of a thrust which has been overturned by a younger west-
which the Arrayán Formation is exposed. The reverse limb vergent structure.
of this fold is affected by a west-directed thrust (Las Caldas The geological cross-section shows that the basal thrust of
thrust) (Figs. 2, 4) and the normal limb is cut by Andean ver- the upper thrust-sheet is in a normal position in the eastern
tical faults. part of the study area (Fig. 4). Thus, in the vicinity of High-
way 5, the La Gruta Schists (Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994)
3.1. Upper thrust sheet are overthrusting the Arrayán Formation. In this area, the La
Gruta Schists show tectonic foliations and folds belonging
This thrust sheet crops out in the Quebrada de Las Caldas to the three deformation episodes (D1, D2, D3) defined in
(southern part of the study area), and also in the eastern part the study area. D1 structures correspond to S1 cleavage that,
of the study area, next to Highway 5 (Fig. 2). The floor thrust within quartzitic beds, appears crenulated by D2 millimetre-
of this sheet can be seen in the Quebrada de Las Caldas, scale folds, which in turn have been folded by D3 centimetre-
putting in contact the metabasites of the ChMC over the fine- to metre-scale folds (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7.- Superimposed deformations observed in the La Gruta Schists. (a) Microscopic photograph of the La Gruta Schists. Location at coordinates
31º 31’ 20” S, 71º 33’ 20” W. (b) Scheme of the photograph 6a. (c) Explanation of the structures observed in the La Gruta Schists: 1. D1 fold with
S1 associated and refracted in competent levels. In the short limb S0 is subvertical and, therefore, perpendicular with respect to main shortening
direction. 2. D2 folds developed in the normal and short limbs of the D1 fold. The S1 appears folded in the short limb of the D1 fold, and the S0
is unfolded due to its perpendicular attitude with respect to the main shortening direction and undergoes a bedding-perpendicular flattening (in
this case, S0 and S2 remain sub-parallel). 3. The D2 short limb is folded by a west-verging D3 structure. Similar cases to the described here been
observed for instance in relation to the Variscan structure of the Axial zone of the Pyrenees, Spain (García-Sansegundo, 1992; García-Sansegundo
et al, 2014b).
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 301

The frontal part of this thrust sheet extends 20 km to the observed in the south-western end of the Agua Dulce beach.
east of the study area, close to the Millahue fault (Fig. 1a) A shear zone of about 10 m thick is associated to this fault,
where the easternmost outcrops of the ChMC schists are ex- mainly constituted by foliated cataclasites and mylonites
posed. According to this we estimate a tectonic displacement (Fig. 8c). The tail of this thrust is not exposed, therefore the
over 20 km for this thrust. tectonic displacement cannot be deduced, although its magni-
tude is certainly kilometric.
3.2. Intermediate thrust sheet In this thrust sheet, structures associated to the three pre-
viously mentioned deformation episodes (D1, D2, D3) can
In the El Peñón area, the intermediate thrust sheet crops be recognised in the schists and quartz-schists alternations of
out underneath the upper thrust sheet. This sheet consists of the ChMC. Foliation S1 is deformed by isoclinal, metric D2
gneisses, schist and quartz-schists of the ChMC (Fig. 8a). folds with an associated S2 (Fig. 9b). Finally, the S2 foliation
The basal thrust of this sheet is associated with a 10 m thick is folded by D3 structures, which can be related with the last
ductile shear zone that includes chunks of metabasites (Figs. Gondwanan deformation episode (Fig. 4).
8a, 9a). This basal thrust, like the basal thrust of the upper
sheet, is rooted in the metabasites of the ChMC. The tectonic 3.4. West-vergent structures
displacement associated with this structure deduced from the
cross-section is approximately 700 m (Fig. 4). As previously mentioned, west-vergent structures can be
observed in the study area, which are responsible for the in-
3.3. Lower thrust sheet version of the east-directed duplex previously described. Such
structures are the kilometre-scale antiform that folds the previ-
The lower thrust sheet of this duplex is exposed in the Pun- ously described sheets and the Las Caldas thrust, developed
ta Claditas area, where the schists and quartz-schists of the in its reversed frontal limb (Fig. 4). This southwest-directed
ChMC overthrust the Arrayán Formation. The basal thrust of thrust can be observed in the Quebrada de Las Caldas, dipping
this sheet is the Agua Dulce fault (Figs. 4, 8b), that can be 30º to the NE. A shear zone 2 m thick is associated to this struc-

Fig. 8.- Detailed geological cross-section of the (a) El Peñón area (B-B’ in Fig. 2), and (b) Punta Claditas zone (A-A´ in Fig. 2). (c) Mylonites
developed in relation to the basal thrust of the Upper thrust sheet (Agua Dulce fault). The oblique foliation in quartz indicates sinistral sense of
shear. North-east to the left. Undulose extinction and lobate contacts of quartz grains point to low-grade metamorphic conditions during mylo-
nitisation (crossed polars). Location at coordinates 31º 31’ 20” S, 71º 34’ 30” W. (d) Foliated cataclasites associated to a N-S Andean fault, close
to the Highway 5 (location at coordinates 31º 31’ 20” S, 71º 33’ 17” W). Several kinematic criteria (trails, P-foliation and R1 shear) indicate a
sinistral sense of shear. East to the left (plane polarised light).
302 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

ture. In this shear zone, the fine-grained gneisses are deformed conditions. These processes occurred between 307 and 274
by isoclinal sheath folds (Fig. 6d). In the hanging wall of this Ma (late Carboniferous – early Permian) (Willner et al.,
thrust, the gneisses are affected by a metre-scale fold trending 2012). In the schists and fine-grained gneisses, the absence of
NW-SE and vergent to the SW (Fig. 6c). This fold is inter- biotite and the occurrence instead of phengite-rich muscovite
preted as a hanging wall ramp of this thrust. The displacement coexisting with Grt is a characteristic feature of rocks affect-
of the Las Caldas thrust is about 100 m (Fig. 4). The normal ed by HP-LT subduction-related metamorphism (Bucher and
limb of this fold is cut by Andean vertical faults, with sinistral- Frey, 2002)�����������������������������������������������
. This phengite-rich muscovite forms the micro-
reverse displacement (Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994; Ring et lithons and polygonal arcs (S1) preserved in the S2 regional
al., 2012) and associated foliated cataclasites (Fig. 8d). foliation. On the other hand, minerals defining the internal fo-
The retro-vergent D3 structures must have formed because liation within the syn-S2 albite porphyroblasts in the schists,
of the difficulty of the propagation of the deformation to the leucogneisses and metabasites (graphitic inclusions trails ±
east. This could be explained by the existence of a buttress Rt ± Ilm ± Ep ± Grt1 ± white-mica) represent a high-pressure
or rigid obstacle that prevented the progression of thrusting relict assemblage in rocks that underwent significant further
towards the foreland (probably the plutonic rocks of Elqui retrogression and total destabilisation of previous high-P
superunit of the Elqui – Limarí batholith). minerals (Arenas et al., 1995; Rubio Pascual et al., 2002).
Garnet (Grt2) and albite porphyroblasts are mainly syn-kine-
4. Tectono-metamorphic evolution of the Choapa Meta- matic with the regional (S2) foliation. In the schists, garnets
morphic Complex show a zonal growth characterised by enrichment in Fe, Mg,
as well as an increase in the XMg ratio towards the borders,
The rocks of the ChMC have been exposed to different coupled with a decrease in Ca and Mn (Willner et al., 2012).
P-T metamorphic conditions during the Gondwanan oro- This zoned pattern, as described by Willner et al. (2004)
genic episode. Godoy and Charrier (1991) estimated pressure for the metamorphic complex located south of 34º S in the
conditions of >5 kbar according to the composition and zon- Chilean coast and García-Sansegundo et al. (2009; 2014a)
ing patterns of amphibole and garnet. Subsequently, Willner in the Argentine Andes at 41º S, indicates a temperature rise
(2005) indicated that these rocks underwent a HP-LT meta- and pressure drop during garnet growth. The widespread
morphism, and Richter et al. (2007) considered them as a ba- development of Ab porphyroblasts in schists, fine-grained
sal accretionary complex, similar to the one exposed further gneisses and metabasites, points to a pervasive metamorphic
south, between 34º 32´ S and 40º 57´ S, along the Chilean retrogression of the previous HP minerals in a decompressive
coast (Willner et al., 2004; Willner, 2005). Recently, Willner tectonic context (Jamieson and O’Beirne-Ryan, 1991; Arenas
et al. (2012) established the P-T conditions reached during et al., 1995). The growth of Ab porphyroblasts could result
HP-LT metamorphism in the ChMC, the age of the metamor- from destabilisation of jadeite through reactions such as Jd
phic peak, and the onset of exhumation based on K-Ar ages + Qz = Ab, or paragonite, present in some rocks of ChMC
obtained in white-micas. (Willner et al., 2012). In the metabasites, Ab porphyroblasts
The crystallisation-deformation relationships and mineral can also represent pseudomorphs after lawsonite, given the
parageneses observed in the schists, gneisses, and metaba- abundance of Ca-rich minerals included. Maximum condi-
sites of the ChMC allowed us to advance the tectono-meta- tions of P and T obtained by Willner et al. (2012) for this
morphic evolution during the HP-LT subduction – related first stage of high-P metamorphism, in the schists (Grt,
metamorphism and later retrogression to greenschists-facies Qz, white-mica, Chl, Ep, Rt) of Quebrada Las Caldas, are

Fig. 9.- Photographs of the (a) boudin in the metabasites of the ChMC in El Peñón area, and (b) D2 recumbent folds in the Punta Claditas zone.
Location at coordinates (a) 31º 31’ 47” S, 71º 34’ 23” W; (b) 31º 31’ 17” S, 71º 34’ 31” W.
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 303

ca. 11-13 kbar and 570-585 ºC. In metabasites without Grt slower rate during the Mesozoic associated with the Andean
(Amp, white-mica, Ep, Pl, Chl, Rt) the same authors obtained cycle. The Gondwanan deformation and metamorphism are
maximum P-T conditions of 6-9 kbar and 500-570 ºC. The also post-dated by the latest Permian? – Triassic sequences
peak of the HP-LT metamorphism would have taken place (Rebolledo and Charrier, 1994; Charrier et al., 2007).
around 279±3 Ma (early Permian) (Willner et al., 2012). The
destabilisation of previous HP minerals and growth of Ab and 5. Geodynamic Model
Grt2 porphyroblasts, indicate a pressure drop occurred during
development of the regional (S2) foliation. This regional fo- A new model is presented in the next paragraphs to explain
liation must be related with the emplacement of east-directed the evolution of the western Gondwana margin in central
thrusts that caused the exhumation, metamorphic retrogres- Chile and western central Argentina during Devonian to mid
sion to greenschist-facies conditions and the overlap of the Permian times. This is based on: (i) the structural data and
ChMC on no- or low grade metamorphic units. Such exhu- the analysis of the tectono-metamorphic relationships in the
mation process would have started at ~274 Ma and must have Palaeozoic rocks, (ii) the ages and geochemical signature of
come to its end before ~260 Ma (Willner et al., 2012). the Gondwanan magmatism and metamorphism, and (iii) the
The S3 crenulation cleavage was formed under no- or low palaeogeographic distribution and characteristics of the sedi-
grade metamorphic conditions. The D3 deformation episode mentary basins associated with the Gondwanan orogenic epi-
carries an incipient development of biotite from chlorite, in- sode (Mpodozis and Ramos, 1990; Ramos, 1988; Rebolledo
dicating a slight increase in temperature. The D3 microstruc- and Charrier, 1994) (Fig. 10). At this latitude, the Palaeozoic
tures are related with the major west-vergent fold (Fig. 3). accretionary processes that occurred in the ancient south-
The exhumation of the rocks of the ChMC continued at a western margin of Gondwana start with the Cuyania collision

Fig. 10.- Sketch of the palaeogeographic evolution of the Gondwana margin, between 28° and 39° S latitude, before the Permian period
(San Rafael orogeny). Asterisc: study area. Main Carboniferous basins: (1) Arrayán, (2) Río Blanco, (3) Paganzo, (4) Chaco – Paraná,
(5) San Rafael. Location of the main Palaeozoic outcrops of the Andean Frontal Cordillera: Sierra de Castaño and Cordón de Colangüil
(black oval). Cordón del Plata, Cordón del Portillo and Cordón del Carrizalito (white oval). Cordillera del Viento (black box).
 304
García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

Fig. 11.- Geodynamic model for the Gondwanan episode in the Andes at 31º S latitude. (A) Palaeo-Pacific steep subduction. (B) Start of the flat-slab stage and beginning of the San Rafael orog-
eny. (C) End of the flat-slab stage. (D) Collision of an oceanic relief, slab roll-back and ending of the San Rafael orogeny. Present location of: 1) Huentelauquén coast, 2) Las Caldas Quebrada,
3) Mincha, 4) Illapel.
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 305

to Gondwana (old Pampia terrane), causing to Famatinian a horst formed in the pre-Gondwanan basement (Protopre-
orogeny in Ordovician times (Fig. 10) and ended with the cordillera in figure 10d and 11c), which is an old remain of
late Carboniferous – mid Permian San Rafael orogenic phase the Chanic orogen (Limarino and Spalletti, 2006; Limarino
(Fig. 11b-d). et al., 2006; Heredia et al., 2012) (Fig. 10c and d). That horst
During the Palaeozoic, until Late Devonian times, the could be the local source area for the sediments of the Río
study sector of the Chilean coast was located on the western Blanco and Paganzo basins.
or rear border of the Chilenia terrane, which was positioned The lack of late Carboniferous rocks in most of the An-
to the west of Gondwana and partially separated from this dean High Cordillera hinders the establishment of whether
continent to the N (Fig. 10a and b) (Dalla Salda et al., 1992). the Arrayán and Río Blanco basins were connected or not in
At that time, Lower to Middle Devonian deposits were accu- this period. According to Spalletti et al. (2012), the lack of
mulating in a subsident marine platform on the rear (western) volcanogenic sediments suggests that the Río Blanco basin
side of Chilenia – Occidentalia (Fig. 10a and b). Final dock- was open towards a proto-Pacific ocean (Fig. 10d), located
ing of Chilenia to the Gondwana margin took place in Late to the west rather than being separated from it by a volcanic
Devonian – early Carboniferous times (Fig. 10c), producing arc, as previously suggested by several authors. We consider
the Chanic orogeny (Ramos,
������������������������������������������
1988)�����������������������������
(Fig. 10c). After that, sub- that a discontinuous tectonic high (similar to the Protopre-
duction began under the formerly passive western margin of cordillera) could have existed between both basins, but with-
Chilenia (Fig. 10c) and the accretionary complex began to out volcanic activity at this time (Protocordillera high in Fig.
grow, gradually forming a ridge that emerged above sea level 11a). This tectonic high could have been submarine and/or
leading to the creation of a retro-wedge basin separated from subaerial, but in both cases the connection between the Pa-
the oceanic trench (Fig. 11). This new basin, the Arrayán ganzo and Arrayán basins must been maintained.
basin (Fig 10d and 11a), hosted the turbiditic series of the From the late Carboniferous to the mid Permian took place
Arrayán Formation (Agua Dulce Metaturbidites and Puerto the San Rafael orogeny, in which the deformation spread
Manso formations) on its western side and platform deposits from the accretion prism (in the study area) towards the east,
on its eastern side, which at the latitude of the study area are reaching in Argentina the eastern Precordillera (Figs. 11b and
the Las Placetas beds ��������������������������������������
(Reutter, 1974)�����������������������
and the Hurtado Forma- c). At this time, while the subducted oceanic crust was get-
tion (Mpodozis and Cornejo, 1988). ting younger, the plate was progressively rising up, passing
The continuous early Devonian to early Carboniferous to a flat-slab subduction (Ramos and Folguera, 2009). This
sedimentation in the Arrayán basin (Charrier et al., 2007) interpretation permits to explain the rapid displacement of the
demonstrates that the Chanic deformation did not affect the deformation front towards the east in this period. At the same
western passive margin of the Chilenia – Occidentalia terrane time, the magmatism migrated to the east, allowing the build-
(Fig 10c). After the Chilenia – Gondwana collision, a new ing of a new magmatic arc, the Elqui superunit of the Elqui
subduction process started at the western margin of Gond- – Limarí batholith (Fig. 11b), in early Permian times (~285
wana in the early Carboniferous (old Chilenia passive mar- Ma) (Pankhurst et al., 1996). This is the age of the oldest
gin). Associated with this subduction, a first plutonic arc was intrusive superunit of this batholith: the Guanta unit (Nasi et
developed (Fig. 11a) to the west of the former Chanic arc (Fig al., 1985)���������������������������������������������������
that exhibits foliated fabrics and mid-crustal em-
10b-d) and close to the Gondwanan subduction zone (Fig. placement conditions (Sial et al., 1999). Extrusive rocks of
10d). This new arc has a similar chronologic position that the Permian age, associated with the Elqui magmatic arc, cov-
Coastal batholith (Fig. 10d) exposed south of the study area, ered the shallow marine deposits on the east side of the Ar-
and yielded ages comprised between the late Carboniferous rayán pre-orogenic basin (Charrier et al., 2007).
and early Permian (Hervé et al., 1988; Mpodozis and Kay, The compressive deformation resulted in the uplift of both
1990; Parada, 1990; Parada et al., 2007)������������������
(Fig. 11a). West- the acretionary prism and the western segment of the Arrayán
wards of this plutonic arc, the Arrayán basin developed in a basin, whose emerged portions were affected by erosion and
retro-wedge subsident basin. The scarcity or absence of late supplied sediments to the oceanic trench (Fig. 11b). Part of
Carboniferous series in the accretionary prism (schists and these sediments entered in the subduction zone, reaching HP
quartz-schists of the ChMC), can be understood by the highly metamorphic conditions, while another portion resulted in
subsident character of the Arrayán basin that trapped the sedi- the Huentelauquén Formation, deposited on a pre-arc fore-
ments and hindered their transport to the trench (Figs. 10d land basin. With the eastward progression of the deformation,
and 11a). Eastwards of the Arrayán basin, a shallow marine the tectonic setting to the east of the Elqui – Limarí batholith
basin (Río Blanco basin) and a continental basin (Paganzo changed into a continental retroarc foreland basin. This basin,
basin) were developed (Fig. 11c) (Limarino and Spalletti, developed on top of the previous Río Blanco basin, hosted
2006; Limarino et al., 2006). The sediments of these basins the San Ignacio Formation (Fig 11c). Due to its syn-orogenic
are respectively preserved in the Argentine Andean Frontal character and its proximity to the volcanic arc associated with
Cordillera and in the Precordillera (2 and 3 in figure 10d) and the Elqui – Limarí batholith, the San Ignacio Formation rest
its main source area was located to the east, in the western unconformably on the Cerro Agua Negra Formation (Río
Sierras Pampeanas (Spalletti et al., 2012) (Pampean high in Blanco basin) and contains abundant interbedded volcanic
Fig. 10d). These basins were partially separated in relation to rocks (Busquets et al., 2005, 2013a, b). Evidence of Permian
306 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308

magmatic activity in the Argentine Precordillera and Sierras -The Arrayán basin hosted in its western side two sedimen-
Pampeanas can be also related with the latest stage of the tary formations: the pre-orogenic and partially meta-sedi-
flat-slab subduction process and indicates the maximum east mentary Arrayán Formation (Devonian – Carboniferous) and
migration of the arc (Ramos
���������������������������������������
and Folguera, 2009)�������������
. The lithos- the syn-orogenic Huentelauquén Formation (late Carbonifer-
pheric flexure linked to the development of the retroarc fore- ous – middle Permian).
land basin also migrates to the east, producing the downfall -The marine sediments of the Arrayán basin (>3000 m) be-
of the ancient Protoprecordillera relief simultaneously with gan to accumulate in later Devonian times over a continental
the deposition of the Del Salto Formation (Fig. 11c). platform on the rear side of the Chilenia terrane. The depo-
At the end of early Permian the main compressive proc- sition continued once the accretionary wedge was already
ess stopped in the eastern orogenic front and remained con- developed and formed an outer ridge that separated a retro-
centrated close to the oceanic trench until the middle Per- wedge basin (Arrayán basin) from the open sea.
mian, ending before late Permian times. East-directed crustal -The ChMC (Carboniferous – Permian) consists of three
thrusts developed, producing the exhumation of both the units, namely schists, fine-grained gneisses and metabasites
basal accretionary wedge and a part of the oceanic crust, as (amphibolites and retrogressed eclogites), separated by tec-
well as the thrusting of the ChMC units over the no- or low tonic contacts. These units show a similar tectono-metamor-
grade metamorphic Arrayán and Huentelauquén formations phic history and depict structures developed during three
(Fig. 11d). This obduction process, possibly caused by the consecutive deformation events (D1, D2, D3).
arrival at the subduction zone of some oceanic relief (guyots -In the ChMC, the crystallisation-deformation relationships
chain, oceanic ridge, oceanic plateau, etc.), that was unable to indicate that HP-LT metamorphism was associated with the
enter in the subduction zone (X terrane of Mpodozis and Kay, first episode of deformation (D1).
1990), implied exhumation and retrograde metamorphism of -The retrogression of HP metamorphic parageneses to
the rocks of the ChMC (Fig. 11d). greenschists-facies conditions occurs in relation to the ex-
The blocking of the subduction during the middle Permian humation of the ChMC. This process took place during the
may have produced the formation of a roll-back in the sub- D2 deformation episode by the emplacement of east-direct-
ducted slab which increased their inclination. This could be ed thrusts, in connection with which different types of fault
the cause for the significant changes described for this period rocks were generated. The shear deformation during D2 led
in the configuration of the San Rafael orogen: (i) the migra- to the development of the regional foliation S2.
tion to the west of the syn-orogenic basins and the deforma- -The D3 deformation episode occurred under no- or low
tion, which concentrated in the hinterland of the orogen (up- grade metamorphic conditions and is represented by the
per part of the Huentelauquén Formation); (ii) to the east, in west-verging kilometre-scale anticline, and its associated
the foreland, the orogeny was now completed and extension thrust (Las Caldas thrust).
began that gave rise to very subsident sedimentary basins in -A new geodynamic model is proposed to explain the evo-
which deposited unconformably the volcanic, sedimentary lution of the Gondwanan orogenic episode at 31º S in rela-
and volcano-sedimentary series of the Choiyoi Group. This tion to the subduction zone developed in the south-western
intense volcanic activity was accompanied to the east of the margin of Gondwana during early Carboniferous to middle
study region by the intrusion of a large number of plutons Permian times. In late Carboniferous times, deformation and
in upper crustal levels (e. g. the Cochiguás unit of the Elqui magmatism associated to this non-collisional orogeny began
– Limarí batholith and the Colangüil batholith, ~276-246 to migrate rapidly to the east, in relation with the flat-slab
Ma, see Parada et al., 2007). Accumulation of the extrusive developed during most of the early Permian. At the end of the
equivalents of the mentioned plutonic activity, the Choiyoi early Permian, an oceanic relief arrived to the trench, and due
Group, remained active until late Triassic at this latitude (see to the difficulty to enter in the subduction zone, an important
Heredia et al., 2002, and literature therein). The Gondwanan deformation developed circumscribed to the continental mar-
orogenic episode ended in middle Permian times, giving way gin. This deformation led to the exhumation of the accretion-
to the development of new tectonic conditions that ended al basal prism in the middle Permian, and to the obduction of
with resumption of subduction in the current South American a part of the subducted palaeo-Pacific oceanic crust onto the
continental margin, which was fully active in Jurassic times Gondwana continental margin.
and remained so until present.
Acknowledgements
6. Conclusions
We thank B. Ábalos, J. S. Davis and I. Gil Ibarguchi for
-The rocks exposed in the Huentelauquén – Punta Claditas their suggestions and comments. This work has been sup-
area can be grouped in two main units of different lithologies, ported by CGL2006-12415-CO3/BTE and CGL2009-13706-
separated by thrusts and deformed under different metamor- CO3 projects (Spanish I+D+i Plan) and FEDER Found from
phic conditions during the San Rafael orogen: the Arrayán ba- the EU.
sin deposits and the Choapa Metamorphic Complex (ChMC).
 García-Sansegundo et al. / Journal of Iberian Geology 40 (2) 2014: 293-308 307

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