Chapter-35

Geometry

Lines and Angles

1. Point
Point is a basic concept in Geometry. A point is represented by a
fine dot made by a sharp pencil on a sheet of paper.

P
Thus, P is a point.

2. Plane
The surface of a smooth wall or the surface of a sheet of paper or
the surface of a smooth blackboard are examples of a plane. The
surface of a blackboard is, however, limited in extent and so are
the surfaces of a wall and a sheet of paper but the geometrical
plane extends endlessly in all directions. A plane has obviously
no size and definitely no shape.
3. Line
A geometrical straight line is a set of points and extends end-
lessly in both the directions. To emphasize this point, we use
two arrowheads, one at each end.

4. Collinear and Coplanar

Three or more points are said to be collinear if there is a line
which contains all of them.
Points and the lines which lie in the same plane are called copla-
nar; otherwise they are called non-coplanar.
5. Concurrent Lines
Three or more lines are said to be concurrent if there is a point
which lies on all of them.
6. Parallel Lines
Two lines l and m are said to be parallel lines if l  m  
If l and m are parallel lines in a plane, we represent them as
l || m.
238 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
If l is a line and P is any point that does not lie on the line l,
there is one and only one line which passes through P and is
parallel to l.

7. Intersecting Lines
Two lines whose intersection is non-empty set are said to be
intersecting lines. The common point is called the point of
intersection.
Thus, two distinct lines l and m are intersecting if l  m   .
8. Some Important Points regarding Line and Point
(i) Space contains at least two distinct points.
(ii) A line is the shortest distance between two points. Every
line is a set of points and contains at least two distinct
points.
(iii) Given any two distinct points in a plane, there exists one
and only one line containing them.
(iv) No line contains all the points of the space.
(v) A line contains infinitely many points.
(vi) Through a given point, there pass infinitely many lines.
(vii) If two distinct points of a line lie in a plane, then every
point of the line lies in that plane.
(viii) If two distinct planes intersect then their intersection is a
line.
9. Important points regarding Parallel and Intersect-
ing Lines
(i) Two distinct lines cannot have more than one point in
common.
(ii) Two intersecting lines cannot both be parallel to the same
line.
(iii) Two lines which are both parallel to the same line are paral-
lel to each other.
(iv) If l, m, n are lines in the same plane such that l intersects m
and n || m, then l intersects n also.
(v) If l and m are intersecting lines, l || p and q || m then p and
q also intersect.
Geometry 239
(vi) If lines AB, AC, AD and AE are parallel to a line l then points
A, B, C, D and E are collinear.

10. Line Segment

Given two points A and B on a line l, the connected part (seg-
ment) of the line with end points at A and B, is called the line
segment AB.

11. Ray
A ray extends infinitely in one direction from any given point.
This is exhibited by an arrow. The starting point, say P, of the ray
is called the initial point.

12. Angle
An angle is a figure formed by two rays with a common initial
point, say O. This point is called the vertex.

13. Interior of an Angle

The interior of an angle AOB is the set of all points in its plane
which lie on the same side of OA and also on the same side of
OB.

14. Congruent Angles

Two angles are said to be congruent if a trace copy of one can be
superposed on the other to cover it completely and exactly.
15. Measure of an Angle
Every angle has a measure. The unit of angle measure is a stan-
dard angle, called a “degree”.
240 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
16. Types of Angles
The following are the various types of angles on the basis of their
measure.
(i) Right Angle: A right angle is an angle of 90°. In the given
figure AOB is a right angle.

(ii) Acute Angle: An angle whose measure is less than 90° is

called an acute angle.

BOC is an acute angle if BOC < 90°.

(iii) Obtuse Angle: An angle whose measure is more than 90°
is called an obtuse angle.

BAC is an obtuse angle if BAC > 90°.

(iv) Straight Angle: An angle whose measure is 180° is called
a straight angle.

(v) Reflex Angle: An angle whose measure is more than 180°

is called a reflex angle.

(vi) Complementary Angles: Two angles whose sum of mea-

sures is 90° are called complementary angles.

BAD and DAC are complementary angles, if x° + y° = 90°.

Geometry 241
(vii) Supplementary Angles: Two angles, the sum of whose mea-
sures is 180°, are called the supplementary angles.

BAD and DAC are supplementary angles if x° + y° = 180°.

(viii) Angle Bisector: A ray AD is said to be bisector of BAC if
D is a point in the interior of BAC and BAD = CAD.

Thus if ray AD is the bisector of BAC, then BAD = CAD

1
= BAC.
2
(ix) Adjacent Angles: Two angles are called adjacent angles if
(a) they have the same vertex.
(b) they have a common arm.
(c) the uncommon arms are on either side of the common
arm.

In the adjoining figure ABC and CBD have a common

vertex B. Also, they have a common arm BC, and the dis-
tinct arms BD and BA lie on the opposite sides of the line
BC. Therefore the angles ABC and CBD are adjacent
angles.
17. Linear Pair of Angles
Two adjacent angles are said to form a linear pair of angles, if
their non-common arms are two opposite rays.
242 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
18. Vertically Opposite Angles
Two angles are called a pair of vertically opposite angles, if their
arms form two pairs of opposite rays.

AOC and BOD are a pair of opposite angles. Also, COB and
AOD are a pair of opposite angles.
Vertically opposite angles are equal.
Therefore, AOC = BOD and COB = AOD.
19. Transversal
A line which intersects two or more given lines at distinct points,
is called a transversal of the given lines.

LM is the transversal of the lines AB and CD respectively.

20. Corresponding Angles
Two angles on the same side of a transversal are known as the
corresponding angles if both lie either above the two lines or
below the two lines.
In the above figure, the following pairs are the pairs of corre-
sponding angles:
(a) 1 and 5 (b) 4 and 8 (c) 2 and 6 (d) 3 and 7
21. Alternate Interior Angles
The following pairs of angles are called the pairs of alternate
interior angles:
(a) 3 and 5 (b) 2 and 8
22. Consecutive Interior Angles
The pairs of the interior angles on the same side of the transver-
sal are called the pairs of consecutive interior angles.
Geometry 243
In the above figure, the following pairs of angles are called pairs
of consecutive interior angles:
(a) 2 and 5 (b) 3 and 8
23. Important Points Regarding Angles on a Line
(i) If a ray stands on a line, then the sum of the adjacent
angles so formed is 180°. Conversely, if the sum of two
adjacent angles is 180°, then their non-common arms are
two opposite rays.
(ii) Two adjace nt angle s are line ar pair if the y are
supplementary.
(iii) The sum of all the angles rounded at a point is equal to
360°.
(iv) If two lines intersect, then the vertically opposite angles
are equal.
(v) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines then each pair
of alternate interior angles are equal. Conversely, if a
transversal intersects two lines in such a way that the
pairs of alternate interior angles are equal, then the two
lines are parallel.
(vi) If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each
pair of consecutive interior angles are supplementary.
Conversely, if a transversal intersects two lines in such a
way that a pair of conse cutive inte rior angle s are
supplemenary, then the two lines are parallel.
(vii) If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then
the bisector of any pairs of alternate interior angles are
parallel.

In the figure, there are two parallel lines AB and CD and

the transversal EF intersects them at G and H respectively.
GI and HJ are the bisectors of alternate interior angles.
Then GI || HJ.
(viii) If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then
the bisectors of any two corresponding angles are parallel.
244 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

In the figure, GI || HJ.

Conversely, if the bisectors of a pair of corresponding angles
formed by a transversal with two given lines are parallel,
then the given lines are parallel.
(ix) If a line is perpendicular to one of two given parallel lines,
then it is also perpendicular to the other line.

If 1 = 90° (given), then 2 = 90°.

Let us see the examples given in the following pages.

Triangle and Its Angle

1. Triangle
A triangle is a closed figure formed by three line segments.

In the given figure, ABC is a triangle having sides AB, BC and CA.
A, B and C are the vertices of the triangle.
2. Types of Triangle on the Basis of Sides
(a) Scalene triangle: A triangle with no two sides equal is called
scalene triangle.
(b) Isosceles triangle: A triangle, two of whose sides are equal
in length, is called an isosceles triangle.
(c) Equilateral triangle: A triangle, all of whose sides are equal,
is called an equilateral triangle.
Geometry 245
3. Types of Triangle on the Basis of Angles
(a) Acute-angled triangle: A triangle, each of whose angles is
acute, is called an acute-angled triangle.
(b) Right-angled triangle: A triangle with one angle right angle
is called a right-angled triangle.
(c) Obtuse-angled triangle: A triangle with one angle an ob-
tuse angle is known as an obtuse-angled triangle.
4. Important Points Regarding Angles of a Triangle
(a) The sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.
(b) If two parallel lines are intersected by a transversal, then
the bisectors of the two pairs of interior angles enclose a
rectangle.

In the given figure AB || CD and EF is the transversal.

IH and GJ are the bisectors of alternate interior angles. So
are IJ and GH.
Therefore the parallelogram GHIJ thus formed is rectangle.
(c) If a side BC of a triangle is produced the exterior angle so
formed is equal to the sum of the two interior opposite angles.

In the given figure 4 is an exterior angle and 4 = 1 + 2.

(d) The sides AB and AC of a triangle ABC are produced to P and
Q respectively. The bisectors of PBC and QCB intersect at
1
O. Then BOC = 90° – A
2
246 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
5. Congruence of Two Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if and only if one of them can be
made to superpose on the others so as to cover it exactly.
(a) Congruence relation in the set of all triangles:
(i) Every triangle is congruent to itself, ie ABC is congru-
ent to ABC.
(ii) If ABC is congruent to DEF then DEF is congruent to
ABC.
(iii) If ABC is congruent to DEF and DEF is congruent to
PQR then ABC is congruent to PQR.
(b) Sufficient conditions for congruence of two triangles
(i) Side-Angle-Side (SAS) Congruence Criterion: Two
triangles are congruent if two sides and the included
angle of one triangle are equal to the corresponding sides
and the included angle of the other.

If in the above figure, ie ABC and DEF, AB = DE, AC =

DF and BAC = EDF; then, ABC is congruent to DEF.
We can also prove from the above S-A-S congruence
relation that
“Angles opposite to two equal sides of the triangle are
equal”.
(ii) Angle-Side-Angle (ASA) Congruence Criterion: Two
triangles are congruent if two angles and the included
side of one triangle are equal to the corresponding two
angles and the included side of the other.

In the above figure, two triangles ABC and DEF are such
that B = E, C = F and BC = EF; then ABC is con-
gruent to DEF by A-S-A congruence criterion.
(iii) Angle-Angle-Side (AAS) Congruence Criterion: If any
two angles and a non-included side of one triangle are
equal to the corresponding angles and side of another,
then the two triangles are congruent.
Geometry 247

In the above figure, two triangles ABC and DEF are such
that A = D, B = E and BC = EF; then by A-A-S
congruence criterion ABC is congruent to DEF.
(iv) Side-Side-Side (SSS) Congruence Criterion: Two tri-
angles are congruent if the three sides of one triangle
are equal to the corresponding three sides of the other.
(v) Right Angle-Hypotenuse-Side (RHS) Congruence Cri-
terion: Two right triangles are congruent if the hypot-
enuse and one side of one triangle are respectively equal
to hypotenuse and one side of the other.
6. Some Important Points Regarding a Triangle
(a) If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the longer side has
greater angle opposite to it.
Conversely, in a triangle the greater angle has the longer
side opposite to it.
(b) The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the
third side.
(c) In all the line segments that can be drawn to a given line
from a point not lying on it, the perpendicular line segment
is the shortest.
(d) Altitude: An altitude is the perpendicular dropped from one
vertex to the side opposite the vertex. It measures the dis-
tance between the vertex and the line which is the opposite
side. Since every triangle has three vertices, it has three
altitudes.

(e) Orthocentre: The perpendiculars drawn from the vertices to

opposite sides (called altitudes) meet at a point called
orthocentre of the triangle.
248 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
In the adjoining figure, O is the orthocentre of the triangle
ABC.
Also, BOC = 180° – A
AOB = 180° – C
AOC = 180° – B
(f) Median: A line segment from the vertex of a triangle to the
midpoint of the opposite side is called a median. Thus every
triangle has three medians.

(g) Centroid: When a vertex of a triangle is joined to the midpoint

of the opposite side, we get a median. All the three medians
meet at a point inside the triangle. That point is called
centroid of the triangle. Also, the centroid divides any median
of the triangle in the ratio 2 : 1.
(h) Circumcentre: The point at which the perpendicular bisectors
of the side s of the triangle s me e t is said to be the
circumcentre of the triangle. If S is the circumcentre of the
triangle ABC then SA = SB = SC.

Circumcentre of the triangle may lie inside the triangle, on

the side of the triangle or outside the triangle.

Circumcentre S lies inside the triangle ABC if ABC is acute-

angled triangle.
In the case of right-angled triangle the circumcentre lies on
the mid point of the hypotenuse.
Geometry 249

Circumcentre of the triangle ABC lies outside the triangle if

ABC is obtuse-angled triangle.

(i) Angle bisector: A line segment from the vertex of the tri-
angle to the opposite opposite is said to be angle bisector if
it bisects the angle at the vertex. Thus every triangle has
three angle bisectors.

Lines AD, BE and CF are the angle bisectors of angles A, B

and C respectively.
(j) Incentre: The point of intersection of the angle bisectors is
said to be incentre of the triangle.

I is the incentre of the triangle ABC. The perpendicular dis-

tance of I to any one side is inradius of the incircle of a
triangle. The three sides of the triangle are tangent to the
incircle. The incentre divides the bisector of A in the ratio
(b + c) : a.
250 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
(k) Excentre: The bisectors of two exterior angles of the tri-
angle is called excentre of the triangle corresponding to the
side of the triangle. Any triangle has three excentres.

I is the excentre of the triangle ABC corresponding to the

side BC.
(l) Angle bisector theorem: If in the triangle ABC, line AD is
angle bisector of A then the following hold true:

AB BD
(i) 
AC DC
(ii) AB × AC – BD × DC = AD2 (Try to prove it yourself)
(m) If in the triangle ABC, AD is the bisector of BAC and AF is
1
perpendicular to BC then DAF  B  C . (Try to prove it
2
yourself)

(n) If b + c > a, a + c > b and a + b > c where a, b and c are positive

numbers, then there exists a triangle with sides a, b and c.
(Try to prove it yourself)
(o) If in the triangle ABC, AD is the median of the triangle ABC,
then
Geometry 251

 AB  AC  BC 
AD   
 2 
(p) If we can form a triangle from segments with length a, b and
c then we can also form a triangle with segments of length
a , b and c . (Try to prove it yourself)
(q) The median of a triangle which lies between two of its un-
equal sides form a greater angle with the smaller of those
sides.

AD is the median of the triangle ABC and AB < AC then 1

2.
(r) External angle bisector theorem: The angle bisector of any
exterior angle of a triangle divides (externally) the side oppo-
site the angle in the ratio of the remaining two sides.

In ABC, DBC is an exterior angle and BE is the exterior

angle bisector.
BA AE
Here, 
BC CE
(s) Appollonius Theorem: The sum of the squares of any two
sides of the triangle is equal to twice the sum of squares of
median and half the third side.

In ABC, AD is the median. Then by Appollonius Theorem.


AB2  AC2  2 AD2  DC2 
(t) Midpoint Theorem: A line segment joining the midpoint of
any two sides of the triangle is parallel to the third side and
the length of the line segment is half the third sides.
252 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

Point D and E are the midpoints of side AB and AC respec-

tively.
1
 DE || BC and DE  BC .
2
7. Similarity of Triangles
For a given correspondence between two triangles, if the corre-
sponding angles are congruent and their corresponding sides
are in proportion, then the two triangles are said to be similar.
Similarity is denoted by the symbol ‘~’.
If ABC PQR then,
ABC PQR
BAC QPR
BCA QRP
Test for similarity: It is not necessary to list all the conditions
for similarity ie, proportionality of sides and congruence of angles
to prove that two triangles are similar. If certain selected
conditions are satisfied, then the others will necessarily follow.
These selected conditions are called the tests for similarity.
AA Test: For a given correspondence between two triangles, if
the two angles of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding
two angles of the other triangle, then the two triangles are similar.
ABC PQR
ACB PRQ
ABC PQR by AA test for similarity.
SSS Test: For a given correspondence between two triangles, if
the three sides of one triangle are proportional to the correspond-
ing three sides of the other triangle, then the two triangles are
similar.
PQR ABC by SSS test for similarity.
SAS Test: For a given correspondence between two triangles, if
the two sides of one triangle are proportional to the correspond-
ing two sides of the other triangle and the angle included by
them are congruent, then the two triangles are similar.
AB BC

PQ QR
ABC PQR
ABC PQR by SAS test for similarity.
Geometry 253
8. Properties of Similar Triangles
If two triangles are similar, Ratio of sides = Ratio of heights =
Ratio of Medians = Ratio of angle
bisectors = Ratio of inradii = Ratio of circumradii
If ABC PQR
AB AD BE
 
PQ PS QT
The ratio of the areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio
of the squares of the corresponding sides. If ABC PQR, then
A ΔABC  AB 2 BC 2  AC 2
 
A ΔPQR  PQ 2 QR 2 PR 2
The triangles on each side of the altitude drawn from the vertex
of the right angle to the hypotenuse are similar to the original
triangle and to each other.
ABC ADB BDC
The altitude from the vertex of the right angle to the hypotenuse
is the geometric mean of the segments into which the hypot-
enuse is divided.
In fig G, (DB)2 = AD × DC
Also, (CB)2 = CA × CD
(AB)2 = AD × AC

Quadrilateral and Parallelogram

1. Quadrilateral
The word ‘quad’ means four and the word ‘lateral’ means sides.
Thus, a plane figure bounded by four line segments AB, BC, CD
and DA is called a quadrilateral and is written as quad. ABCD or,
ABCD. The points A, B, C, D are called its vertices. The four
line segments, AB, BC, CD and DA are the four sides, and the
four angles A, B, C and D are the four angles of ABCD.
Two line segments AC and BD are called the diagonals of quad.
ABCD.
254 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
2. Some Definitions Regarding Quadrilateral
(a) Consecutive or Adjacent Sides
Two sides of quadrilateral are consecutive or adjacent sides,
if they have a common points (vertex). In the above figure, AB
and BC; BC and CD; CD and DA; DA and AB are four pairs of
the consecutive sides of ABCD.
(b) Opposite Sides
Two sides of a quadrilateral are opposite sides, if they have
no common end-point (vertex). In the above figure, AB and
CD; AD and BC are two pairs of opposite sides of ABCD.
(c) Consecutive Angles
The consecutive angles of a quadrilateral are two angles which
include a side in their intersection. In other words, two angles
are consecutive if they have a common arm. In the above
figure, A and B; B and C; C and D; D and A are
four pairs of the consecutive angles of ABCD.
(d) Opposite Angles
Two angles of a quadrilateral are said to be opposite angles if
they not have a common arm. In the above figure, A and C;
B and D; are two pairs of the opposite angles of ABCD.
3. Types of Quadrilateral
(a) Parallelogram
A quadrilateral is said to be a parallelogram if its opposite
sides are parallel.

In the figure, ABCD is a parallelogram whose opposite sides

are parallel, ie AB || CD and
AD || BC.
AC and BD are the diagonals of the parallelogram.
Properties of a parallelogram
(i ) Opposite sides are parallel and equal.
(ii) Diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
(iii) Opposite angles are equal.
(iv ) Sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°.
(v ) Each diagonal divides the parallelogram into two tri-
angles of equal area.
Geometry 255
(vi ) The straight line joining the midpoints of the adjacent
sides of any quadrilateral form a parallelogram.
D R C

S Q

A P B

C
R
C
R D Q
D

Q B
S S

P
A P B
A

In each of the above figures, P, Q, R and S are the

midpoints of quadrilateral ABCD. The quadrilateral
PQRS then obtained is a parallelogram.
(vii) AC and BD are the diagonals of the parallelogram ABCD.
Let AC = d1
BD = d2
AB = a
BC = b
2 2  2 2
Then, d1  d2  2 a  b 
ie the sum of the squares of the diagonals is equal to
the sum of the squares of the four sides in the figure.
(viii) A parallelogram inscribed in a circle is a rectangle.
(b) Rectangle
A parallelogram in which every angle is a right angle is called
a rectangle.
256 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
Properties of a Rectangle
(i ) Opposite sides are parallel and equal.
(ii) Diagonals are equal and bisect each other at their
midpoint.
(iii) Each angle is equal to 90°.
(c) Square
A square is a rectangle with a pair of adjacent sides equal. In
other words, a parallelogram having all sides and each angle
equal to a right angle, is called a square.

In the above figure, ABCD is a square in which AB||DC

and AD||BC; AB = BC = CD = DA and A = B = C = D
= 90°.
Properties of a Square
(i ) Each of the angles of a square is a right angle and each of
the four sides is of the same length.
(ii) The diagonals of a square are equal and perpendicular to
each other.
(d) Rhombus
A parallelogram in which all sides are equal is called a rhom-
bus.

Properties of a Rhombus
(i ) Opposite sides are parallel.
(ii) All sides are equal.
(iii)Diagonals are not equal but bisect each other at their
midpoints at right angles, ie diagonals divide the rhombus
into four equal right-angled triangles.
Geometry 257
(e) Trapezium
A quadrilateral is called a trapezium if two of the opposite
sides are parallel but the other two sides are not parallel.

D b C

E F
h

A M a N B

Let AB = a and CD = b
AB || CD
E and F are the midpoints of non-parallel sides AD and BC
respectively.
Properties of a Trapezium
The median of the trapezium is the line segment joining the
midpoints of the non-parallel sides.
Median = EF
1 1
=   Sum of parallel sides   a  b  ,
2 2
(f) Kite
A quadrilateral is a kite if it has two pairs of equal adjacent
sides and unequal opposite sides.
Thus, a quadrilateral ABCD is a kite, if AB = AD, BC = CD but
AD  BC and AB  CD.

4. Important Points Regarding Quadrilaterals

It follows from the above definitions that:
(i ) A square, rectangle and rhombus are parallelograms.
(ii) A parallelogram is a trapezium but a trapezium is not a par-
allelogram.
(iii) A rectangle or a rhombus is not necessarily a square.
(iv ) A kite is not a parallelogram.
258 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
5. Tabular Representation of Properties of Quadrilaterals

Properties Parallelogram Rectangle Rhombus Square

Opposite sides are

   
congruent

All sides are congruent - -  

Opposite sides are

   
parallel

Opposite angles are

   
congruent

All angles are 90º -  - 

Diagonals are
-  
congruent -

Diagonals bisect each

   
other

Diagonals bisect each

- -  
other at right angles

Diagonals bisect vertex

- -  
angles

Diagonals form four

   
triangles of equal area

Diagonals form four

- -  
congruent triangles

6. Important Facts Useful for Solving Questions on Quadri-

laterals

(1) Angle Sum Property of A Quadrilateral

The sum of four angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.

In the above ABCD, A + B + C + D = 360°

(2) The sides BA and DC of a quadrilateral ABCD are produced
shown in the figure given below. Then we have, a + b = x + y.
Geometry 259

(3) In a quadrilateral ABCD, AO and BO are the bisectors of A

1
and B respectively. Then AOB = (C +D).
2

(4) In a parallelogram, the bisectors of any two consecutive angles

itersect at right angle.

The above figure is a parallelogram ABCD such that the bi-

sectors of consecutive angles A and B intersect at P. Here,
APB = 90°
(5) If diagonal of a parallelogram bisects one of the angles of the
parallelogram, it also bisects the second angle. And such
parallelogram is a rhombus.
(6) The angle bisectors of a parallelogram form a rectangle.

The above figure is a parallelogram ABCD in which bisectors

of angles A, B, C, D intersect at P, Q, R, S to form a quadri-
lateral PQRS. This quadrilateral PQRS is a rectangle.
(7) If in a parallelogram ABCD, line segments AX, CY bisect the
angles A and C respectively, then AX||CY.
260 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

(8) If AN and CP are perpendiculars to the diagonal BD of a

parallelogram ABCD, then
(i) ADN  CBP (ii) AN = CP

(9) If PQRS is a parallelogram, PO and PQ are the angle bisec-

tors of P and Q respectively and a line OM is drawn paral-
lel to PQ, then
(i) PL = QM (ii) LO = OM

(10) If the diagonals of a parallelogram ABCD itersect at O and a

line through O intersects AB at X and DC at Y, then OX =
OY.

(11) If ABCD is a parallelogram and X, Y are the mid-points of

sides AB and DC respectively, then the AXCY is a paral-
lelogram.
Geometry 261
(12) If ABCD is quadrilateral in which P, Q, R and S are mid-
points of the sides AB, BC, CD and DA respectively, and AC
is a diagonal. Then,

1
(i) PQ||AC and PQ = AC
2

1
(ii) SR||AC and SR = AC
2
(iii) PQ = SR
(iv) PQRS is a parallelogram.

(13) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the

consecutive sides of a rectangle is a rhombus.

The above figure is a rectangle ABCD in which P, Q, R and S

are the mid-points of sides AB, BC, CD and DA respectively
and PQ, QR, RS and SP are joined, then the quadrilateral
PQRS is a rhombus.
(14) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the
sides of a rhombus is a rectangle.

In the above figure, a rhombus ABCD in which P, Q, R, S

are the mid-points of sides AB, BC, CD and DA respectively.
PQ, QR, RS and SP are joined. The resultant quadrilateral
PQRS is a rectangle.
(15) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the
sides of a square, is also a square.
262 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
(16) In a rhombus, sum of the squares of sides is equal to the
sum of the squares of its diagonals.
(17) If all sides of a quadrilateral are equal and its diagonals are
equal, then it is a square.
(18) If a ABCD is a trapezium in which side AB is parallel to
side DC and E, F are the mid-points of sides AD and BC
1
respectively, then EF = (AB + DC).
2

(19) The line segment joining the mid-points of the diagonals of

a trapezium is parallel to each of the parallel sides and is
equal to half the difference of these sides.

If the above figure is a trapezium ABCD in which AB||DC

and P and Q are the mid-points of its diagonals AC and BD
respectively, then
1
(i) PQ||AB or DC (ii) PQ = (AB – DC)
2
(20) Areas of Parallelograms
(i ) A diagonal of a parallelogram divides it into two tri-
angles of equal area.

If the above figure is a parallelogram ABCD in which

BD is one of the diagonals, then area (ABD) = area
(CDB)
It is noted that ‘Area of Triangle ABC’ is denoted by
area (ABC).
(ii) Parallelograms on the same base and between the same
parallels are equal in area.
Geometry 263

If the above figure consists of two parallelograms ABCD

and ABEF, which have the same base AB and which are
between the same parallel lines AB and FC, then area
(ABCD) = area (ABEF)
From the above fact it can be concluded that parallelo-
grams on equal bases and between the same parallels
are equal in area.
(iii) If a triangle and a parallelogram are on the same base
and between the same parallels, then the area of the
triangle is equal to the half the area of the parallelo-
gram.

If ABCD is a parallelogram, then

1
Area (DPC) = Area (ABCD)
2
(iv ) The line segment joining the mid-points of a pair of
opposite sides of a parallelogram divides it into paral-
lelogram of equal area.

ABCD is a parallelogram in which E and F are the mid-

points of sides CD and AB respectively. The area of
AFED = Area of EFBC
(v ) If mid-points of a parallelogram are joined, a quadrilat-
eral is formed which is also a parallelogram and area of
this parallelogram is half the area of the given paral-
lelogram.
264 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

If E, F, G and H are the mid-points of parallelogram

ABCD, then EFGH is also a parallelogram and area of
1
EFGH = Area (ABCD).
2
(vi ) Of all the parallelograms of which the sides are given,
the parallelogram which is rectangle has the greatest
area.
(vii) If P and Q are any two points lying on the sides DC and
AD respectively of a parallelogram ABCD, then the area
(APB) = area (BQC)

(viii) In the figure given below, P is a point in the interior of

a parallelogram ABCD, then
1
(a) area (APB) + area (PCD) = Area (ABCD).
2
(b) area (APD) + area (PBC) = area (APB) +
area (PCD)

(21) Diagonals of a trapezium divide each other proportionally.

Geometry 265
If the above figure is a trapezium ABCD in which the
DE CE
diagonals AC and BD itersect at E, then  .
EC EA
Conversely, if the diagonals of a quadrilateral divide each
other proportionally, then it is a trapezium.
(22) Any line parallel to the parallel sides of a trapezium divides
the non-parallel sides proportionally.

If the above figure is a trapezium ABCD in which BC||AB

AE BF
and EF is a line parallel to DC and AB, then  .
ED FC
(23) Sum of the squares of the diagonals of parallelogram is equal
to the sum of the squares of its sides. Thus it can be
concluded that the sum of squares of the diagonals of a
rhombus is equal to the sum of squares of its sides.
(24) If bisectors of B and D of quadrilateral ABCD meet CD
1
and AB produced at P and Q respectively, then P + Q =
2
(ABC + ADC)

(25) If ABCD is a rectangle, BM and DN are perpendiculars from

B and D respectively on AC, then
(i) BMC  DNZ (ii) BM = DN
266 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
Polygon
1. Polygon
The plane figure which is closed and formed by a series of straight
line segments is called a polygon. The lines segments forming a
polygon are called its sides and the end-points of the line seg-
ments are called its vertex. In other words, the meeting point of
a pair of sides is called a vertex of the polygon. Polygons are named
on the basis of the number of their sides as given below:

Number of sides or vertices (n) Name of the polygon

3 Triangle
4 Quadrilateral
5 Pentagon
6 Hexagon
7 Heptagon
8 Octagon
9 Nonagon
10 Decagon
11 Undecagon
13 Dodecagon
n n-gon
2. Types of Polygons

(a) Regular and Irregular Polygons

A polygon is called regular polygon if all its sides and angles
are equal, otherwise it is called irregular polygon.
A regular polygon has the following properties:
(i) a circle can be inscribed in it, and
(ii) a circle can be circumscribed about it.
Geometry 267
In a regular polygon the incentre and the circumcentre coin-
cide.

Here, if AB = BC = CD = DE = EF = FA and A = B = C = D
= E = F, then ABCDEF is a regular polygon.
(b) Convex Polygon
A Polygon in which none of the interior angles is more than
180° is called a convex polygon. In convex polygon all the di-
agonals will lie inside the polygon.

Here, ABCDE have five line segments and none of the angles
is more than 180°, therefore, ABCDE is a convex polygon.
(c) Concave Polygon
A polygon in which at least one angle is more than 180°, is
called concave polygon. In concave polygon, one or more di-
agonals can come outside the polygon.

Here, ABCDE is a polygon in which interior AED is more

than 180° (reflex angle). Therefore, ABCDE is a concave poly-
gon. In the above figure, if we draw a diagonal AD, it will come
outside the polygon.

3. Some More Definitions

(i) Adjacent Sides
Any two sides with a common end-point (vertex) are called the
adjacent sides of the polygon.
(ii) Adjacent Vertices
The end-points of the same side of a polygon are known as the
adjacent vertices.
268 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
(iii)Diagonals
The line segments obtained by joining vertices which are not
adjacent are called the diagonals of the polygon.
4. Important Facts For Solving Questions On Polygons
(1) Each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is equal to
 
 2n  4  n  2 
  90 or   180 or 180° – Exterior Angles.
n   n 
Some particular cases
Regular Polygon Internal Angle
Triangle 60°
Quadrilateral 90°
Pentagon 108°
Hexagon 120°
Octagon 135°
Nonagon 140°
Decagon 144°
(2) Each exterior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is equal to

 360 
  .
n 
(3) Sum of all exterior angles of a convex polygon is 360°.

Here, ABCDEFGH is a polygon in which 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5

+ 6 + 7 + 8 = 360°. Now, see another example,

Here, ABC is a polygon (triangle) in which 1 + 2 + 3 = 360°

Geometry 269
(4) Sum of all interior angles in a convex polygon of n sides
= (2n – 4) right angles = (n – 2) × 180°
(5) Number of diagonals of a polygon of n sides
 n (n  1)   n (n  3) 
=  n    ; where n > 3
 2   2
(6) Ratio of the measure of an interior angle of a polygon of n
n 
sides to the measure of its exterior angle is given by   1 :1 .
2
(7) If each interior angle of a regular polygon of n sides is m times
its exterior angle, the number of sides of the polygon (n) =
2 (m +1).
(8) If the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon of n sides
is m times the sum of its exterior angle, the number of sides
of the polygon (n) = 2 (m + 1).
(9) The difference between the each interior and each exterior
angle s of a re gular polygon of n side s is give n by

 n  4  
 n   180  .
 

Circle
1. Circle
A circle is a closed plane figure consisting of all those points of
the plane which are at a constant distance from a fixed point in
the plane.
The fixed point is called its centre and the constant distance is
called its radius.

The figure shows the circle with centre O and radius r. X is any
arbitrary point on the circumference of the circle.
2. Circular Disc
The set of all points lying inside and on the circle is called a
circular disc with centre O and radius r.
270 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

3. Concentric Circles
Circles having the same centre but with different radii are said to
be concentric circles.

4. Arc of a Circle
Any two points, say A and B, of a circle divide the circle into two
parts called the arcs of the circle. If the two parts are unequal,
the smaller part is called the minor arc and the larger one is
called the major arc.

The length of an arc AB is the length of fine thread which just

covers the arc completely. Sometimes a third point is taken on
the arc to distinguish it from the others. We denote the length of
arc by .
Unless stated otherwise, by an arc AB we shall mean the minor
arc.
5. Semicircle
If any two points A and B divide the circle into two equal parts
then each part is called a semicircle.
6. Degree Measure of an Arc
The degree measure of a minor arc is the measure of the central
angle containing the arc. And that of a major arc is 360° minus
the degree measure of the corresponding minor arc.
Geometry 271

The degree measure of an arc is denoted by .

7. Secant
A secant is a line, which intersects the circle in two distinct
points.

In this figure, line l is a secant which intersects the circle at

points A and B.
8. Chord
A line segment joining any two points of a circle is called a chord
of the circle.

In this figure, CD is a chord of the circle.

9. Diameter (d)
A chord passing through the centre of a circle is called its diam-
eter. A diameter is the longest chord of a circle. The length of the
diameter of a circle is twice its radius. In the above figure, PR is
the diameter of the circle.
10. Segment of a Circle
Let AB be a chord of the circle. Then AB divides the region en-
closed by the circle (ie the circular disc) into two parts. Each of
these parts is called a segment of the circle.
272 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

The segment containing the minor arc is called the minor seg-
ment, and the segment containing the major arc is called the
major segment.
11. Alternate Segment of a Circle
The major and minor segments of a circle are called the alternate
segments of each other.
12. Tangent
If line AB intersects the circle at two coincident points or exactly
one point, then the line AB is said to touch the circle. In other
words, AB is a tangent to the circle at that point. The point is
called the point of contact of AB with the circle.

13. Congruent Circles

Two circles are said to be congruent if and only if either of then
can be superposed on the other so as to cover it exactly. In other
words, two circles are congruent if and only if their radii are equal.
14. Central Angle
An angle in the plane of the circle with its vertex at the centre is
called a central angle.

In this figure AOB is a central angle subtended by arc ADB at

the centre.
Geometry 273
15. Tangent Circles
Circles lying in a plane are said to be tangent circles if they have
one and only one point in common.

In the above figures, P is the only common point.

16. Intercepted Arc

Arcs AC and BD are intercepted by the angle BOD.

17. Some Important Points
(i) The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bi-
sects the chord.

If OP AB then AP = PB
Conversely, the line joining the centre of a circle to the
midpoint of a chord is perpendicular to the chord.
If AP = PB then OP AB.
(ii) The perpendicular bisectors of two chords of a circle inter-
sect at its centre.

The perpendicular bisectors of two chords AB and CD of a

circle intersect at its centre O.
274 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
(iii) There is one and only one circle passing through three non-
collinear points.
In case, the three given points are collinear, then a single
circle cannot pass through these three points.
(iv) Two circles are congruent if and only if they have equal
radii.
(v) Equal chords of a circle subtend equal angles at the centre
and, conversely, if the angles subtended by the chords at
the centre (of a circle) are equal, then the chords are equal.

If AB = CD then AOB = COD.

Conversely, if AOB = COD then AB = CD.
(vi) Two arcs of a circle are congruent if the angles subtended
by them at the centre are equal and conversely if two arcs
of a circle are congruent, then the angles subtended by
them at the centre are equal.
(vii) If two circles intersect each other at two points then the
line joining their centres is the perpendicular bisector of
their common chord.

In the above figure, the line joining their centres, ie OP, is

the perpendicular bisector of the common chord AB.
(viii) If two chords AB and AC of a circle are equal, the centre of
the circle lies on the angle bisector of BAC.

AB and AC are two equal chords then AM, the angle bisec-
tor of BAC, passes through the centre O.
(ix) Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.
Geometry 275

Chords AB and CD are equidistant from the centre O, ie OL

= OM if AB = CD.
Conversely, chords of a circle which are equidistant from
the centre are equal.
(x) Of any two chords of a circle, the one which is larger is
nearer to the centre.
Conversely, of any two chords of a circle, the one which is
nearer to the centre is larger.

If there are two chords AB and CD of a circle with centre O

such that AB > CD then OL < OM, where OL and OM are
perpendiculars from O to AB and CD respectively.
(xi) If two chords of a circle bisect one another they must be
diameters.

AB and CD are two chords, bisecting each other at O.

Then AB and CD must be the diameters of the circle.
(xii) The angle subtended by an arc of a circle at the centre is
double the angle subtended by it at any point on the re-
maining part of the circle.

In each of the above figures, POQ = 2PRQ

(xiii) Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
276 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

In each of the above figures, PRQ = PSQ.

(xiv) The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.

PQ subtends an angle PRQ and PRQ = 90°.

Conversely, the arc of a circle subtending a right angle at
any point of the circle in its alternate segment is a semi-
circle.
(xv) Any angle subtended by a minor arc in the alternate seg-
ment is acute and any angle subtended by a major arc in
the alternate segment is obtuse.

S
PRQ is the angle subtended by minor arc and PSQ is
the angle subtended by major arc.
PRQ < 90° and PSQ > 90°.
(xvi) The diameter of a circle subtends
(i) an obtuse angle at a point in the interior of the circle.
(ii) an acute angle at a point in the exterior of the circle.
(iii) a right angle at a point on the circle.
T

R
Geometry 277
In the above figure , PRQ > 90°, PSQ = 90° and
PTQ < 90°.
(xvii) If a line segment joining two points subtends equal angles
at two other points lying on the same side of the line seg-
ment, the four points lie on the same circle, ie they are
concyclic.
R S

P Q

It is given that PRQ = PSQ.

Hence the points P, Q, R and S are concyclic.
(x viii) The sum of either pair of opposite angles of a cyclic
quadrilateral is 180°.
or The opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral are supple-
mentary.

Since points A, B, C and D lie on a circle.

A + C = 180° and B + D = 180°
The converse of this theorem is also true.
(xix) If a side of a cyclic quadrilateral is produced, then the
exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle.

In the above figure ABE = ADC

(xx) The quadrilateral formed by the angle bisectors of a cyclic
quadrilateral is also cyclic.

P
Q S
R
278 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae
In the given figure a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD has AP,
BP, CR and DR as the bisectors of A, B, C and D
respectively such that the quadrilateral PQRS is formed.
Then PQRS is a cyclic quadrilateral.
(xxi) If two sides of a cyclic quadrilateral are parallel then the
remaining two sides are equal and the diagonals are also
equal. or
A cyclic trapezium is isosceles and its diagonals are equal.
Conversely, If two nonparallel sides of a trapezium are
equal it is cyclic. or
An isosceles trapezium is always cyclic.

If there is a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD in which AB || CD

then
(i) AD = BC (ii) AC = DB
(xxii) The bisectors of the angles formed by producing the
opposite sides of a cyclic quadrilateral (provided that they
are not parallel), intersect at right angle.
Q

R
A
B
P
In a cyclic quadrilateral ABCD, AB and DC when produced
meet at P and AD and BC when produced meet at Q.
Bise ctors of P and Q me e t at a point R. The n
PRQ = 90°.
(xxiii) A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius through
the point of contact.
Geometry 279
In the above figure, AB is tangent to the circle with centre
O. Then, OP  AP.
(xx iv) The length of two tangents drawn from an external point
to a circle are equal.
P

O
A

In the above figure, AP and AQ are two tangents from a

point A to a circle; then AP = AQ.
(xxv) If two tangents are drawn to a circle from an external
point, then
(a) they subtend equal angles at the centre.
(b) they are equally inclined to the line segment joining
the centre to that point.

In the above figure, there is a circle with centre O and a

point A outside the circle such that AP and AQ are the
tangents drawn to the circle from point A. Then
(i) AOP =AOQ (ii) OAP = OAQ
(xx vi) If two chords of a circle intersect inside the circle or out-
side the circle when produced, then
Case I: When two chords AB and CD intersect internally
at point P, then

PA × PB = PC × PD
Case II: When two chords AB and CD intersect externally
at point P, then.
280 Magical Book on Arithmetical Formulae

PA × PB = PC × PD
(xxvii) If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A
and B and PT is a tangent segment, then PA × PB = PT2

(x xviii) If a chord is drawn through the point of contact of a

tangent to a circle, then the angle which this chord
makes with the given tangent is equal to the angle formed
in the alternate segment.

In the above figure, PQ is a tangent to the circle with

point of contact A. AB is a chord and D and C are points
in minor arc AB and major arc BA respectively. Then
BAQ =BCA and PAC =CBA
The converse of the above property also holds true. If a
line is drawn through an end point of a chord of a circle
so that the angle formed with the chord is equal to the
angle subtended by the chord in the alternate segment,
then the line is a tangent to the circle.
Geometry 281
(xxix) If two circles touch each other (internally or externally)
the point of contact lies on the line through the cen-
tres.

In the above figure two circles touch each other at a

point A. The points O, O and A are collinear.