Introduction

In most optics texts, illumination is either not mentioned, or is given only cursory treatment. The probable
reason for this is that illumination involves the psychophysics of the visual sense, which may seem out of
place in "straight" physics. However, illumination is not only of considerable practical importance, but its
definitions and methods are applicable to the transfer of any kind of radiant energy. The strange units of
illumination may be regarded askance, but a basic unit, the candela, is a fundamental unit of the SI
system. The theory of illumination involves only the cosine factor for projecting areas, and the inverse-
square spreading from a point source. Its practical results are expressed as surface integrals, which can
now be done numerically with computer aid. The theory, therefore, is quite simple and easily mastered.
Names and definitions often create confusion, however, which this article will strive to overcome.

The measurement of the energy of radiation, an objective quantity that can be measured in W, is
called radiometry. when the spectral sensitivity of the eye is taken into account, the measurement is
called photometry, where light is measured in lumens. Photometry is semi-objective, intermediate
between the physical stimulus of energy and the psychophysical response of brightness. Although we
often say "eye", the visual sense is actually located in the brain; the eye is merely a sensor.

The results of illumination theory will be applied to two important theorems about the intensity of an
image formed by an optical system. One is that the brightness of the image cannot exceed the brigtness of
the extended source that is imaged, and the other is that the illumination in the image decreases as the
fourth power of the cosine of the angle of the principal ray (the one through the centre of the entrance
pupil).

Lumens
We use the same word "light" for electromagnetic radiation of
frequencies in the narrow band 4 x 1014 Hz to 8 x 1014 Hz, and
also for the psychological sensation produced by it when it
impinges on our eyes and excites our visual sense. The energy
in physical light can be expressed in watt, which is precisely
defined. Its value in producing sensation, the strength of which
is called "apparent brightness," is less well defined because of
the difficulty in the quantitative evaluation of sensation.
Nevertheles, by averaging the responses of many observers, a
curve of the relative efficiency of energy at different spectral
wavelengths in producing sensation can be determined. The
result is called the "Standard Observer," whose spectral
sensitivity is plotted at the left. The peak of this curve is at 555
nm, taken as unity, and is down to 0.0004 at 400 nm and 735
nm. The commonly used visual range of 380-760 nm includes a
lot of worthless "tail" region. A better statement would be 500-
630 nm, showing how narrow the eye's spectral response really
is. A quantity called luminous flux, F, is defined that is
analogous to energy, but reflects the effectivness of the radiation at producing visual sensation. This unit
is the lumen, and at the peak of the photopic (light-adapted) eye's sensitivity, 680 lm = 1 W (some
references give 683; the difference is inconsequential). Now we can convert any spectral distribution of
energy into lumens with precision, and work with lumens as we would work with energy. It is only
necessary to multiply the energy in watts in each small wavelength interval by the visual efficiency, and
sum the results, multiplying by 680 or 683 to get the lumens.

It must be carefully appreciated that lumens do not measure brightness, which is like loudness in
acoustics. Establishing a scale of brightness is a completely different matter, and one that belongs
exclusively to psychophysics. All we know is that equal amounts of luminous flux produce equal
brightness, and more flux means more brightness, but no more than that. In fact, brightness is about
proportional to the logarithm of the luminous flux (Fechner's Law). Brightness could be defined by the
relation B = k log(F/F0), where we would have to choose a constant k and a reference luminous flux F 0.
Doubling the luminous flux does not double the apparent brightness. The term "brightness" was once used
for certain photometric quantities, but now has been replaced by "luminance" to avoid confusion with
psychophysical brightness. The eye can, however, detect equality of brightness quite reliably, and this
property is a valuable one. It is impossible to say when one surface is twice as bright as another, so
establishing a quantitative scale of brightness is difficult.

We may proceed as we have done for lumens with any similar weighted energy distribution, or with
energy itself, in what follows. Some of the names used, however, are peculiar to illumination and lumens,
and should not be used with energy or other radiant quantities. The Latin word lumen, luminis (n.) is one
of two words meaning "light." The other is lux, lucis (f.). Lumen was often thought of as light coming
from the eye, or a lamp, while lux was light coming into the eye, or from the sun or moon. Both these
words are used in photometry to name concepts and units. Light measured in lumens may be
monochromatic, but the concept is really intended for use with broad-spectrum light, often perceived as
white.

Intensity
Now let us consider a source of luminous flux, and a specially simple
one that has no spatial extension, but emits luminous flux along radial
lines. This point source need not be equally strong in all directions, and
can be as anisotropic as desired. Any finite amount of radiation must
be emitted in a finite cone surrounding the direction considered, that
can be made as small as desired. This cone has its vertex at the source,
and its base of area dA at a distance r from the source, the normal to
dA making an angle of φ with the radius. Then, this cone is measured
by the quantity dΩ = dA cos φ/r2 called a differential solid angle,
measured in steradians. The definition is illlustrated at the right. It is
positive or negative as the normal to dA points outwards or inwards. It is clear that the total solid angle
surrounding a point is 4π.

The luminous intensity I of a point source is the ratio dF/dΩ, and is in general a function of direction. It is
measured in candela, cd. If 1 lm is emitted per steradian, the intensity is 1 cd. An isotropic point source
of intensity I cd, then, emits 4πI lm. The candela is not far from the actual luminous intensity of a normal
candle flame, and was once defined in terms of standard lamps burning pentane, amyl acetate, or colza
oil. These days it is the intensity of an area of 1/60 cm 2 of a black body at 2042K (freezing platinum). A
60W gas-filled tungsten incandescent lamp provides about 870 lm when new. This corresponds to 14.5
lm/W referred to the electrical input power to the lamp. If the lamp radiated uniformly, its luminous
intensity would be 69 cd. The specification of lamps by candlepower was once common, but it is easier
just to give the electrical input if you want to make substandard lamps. Actually, both should be given to
estimate the balance between life and efficiency. A very efficient lamp will burn hot and expire sooner
from evaporation of the tungsten. Long-life lamps are easily made by simply reducing the lumens per
watt. A 400W high pressure sodium arc gives 50,000 lm, or 125 lm/W, about twice the efficiency of a
fluorescent lamp. An Edison carbon-filament lamp gave about 3 lm/W. This efficiency should not be
confused with the visual ratio of 680 lm/W, where the energy is already in the form of radiation. If all the
energy input to a lamp were output at 555 nm, then its efficiency would be 680 lm/W, which we can
regard as a kind of upper limit, never closely approached. The renaming of the time-honored luminous
efficiency to "luminous efficacy" is yet another example of worthless pedanticism.

Illumination
The luminous flux falling on the area dA from a source of intensity I is
given by dF = IdA cos φ/r2, as shown in the diagram at the left. This
follows directly from the definition of I as luminous flux per unit solid
angle and the definition of solid angle. If the source is an extended one,
then this must be integrated over the source area. The luminous flux per
unit area falling on a surface is called the illumination E of the surface, and
is measured in lm/m2. A lm/m2 is called a lux, and a lm/cm2 is called
a phot. Clearly, 10000 lx = 1 phot, for what it is worth. For a point source,
E = dF/dA = I cos φ/r2.

All that is involved here is an intensity in cd and a distance. We get

different units if we take the metre, centimetre and foot as the distance
units. So, in addition to the lux and the phot, we have the ft-cd, foot candle,
which is lm/ft2. It is easy to convert between these units, but it would be
less confusing to use the full dimensions rather than the given names. I get 1 ft-cd = 10.76 lux. See if you
agree. 30 ft-cd or 300 lux is considered adequate for normal work. A ft-cd (fc) is 0.929 milliphots, by the
way.

The term illuminance has been proposed to replace illumination, apparently to show that the word has a
technical meaning that should be distinguished from the general term illumination. This is yet another
useless complication, with much less reason than the substitution of luminance for brightness. It might
even create some confusion with luminance, which sounds similar. Nobody confuses illumination with
lumination, and if one does, it is harmless.

Luminance
Most of the confusion in illumination calculations now comes when we consider the illuminated surface
as a new source of luminous flux. Illuminated surfaces differ greatly in their response to incident light. A
specularly reflecting surface, such as that of a metal, reflects the light according to the laws of reflection.
A surface may be perfectly absorbing, or black, and in this case it just soaks up the luminous flux and
does not return any. Most surfaces are somewhere in between. The science of illumination mainly
concerns itself with the ideal case of a diffusing surface as defined by Lambert. Such a lambertian surface
does not lose any incident radiant flux, but re-emits it in all the available solid angle, which here is 2π
radians, on the illuminated side of the surface. Moreover, it emits it so that the surface appears equally
bright from any direction. That is, equal projected areas radiate equal amounts of luminous flux. Though
this is an ideal, many real surfaces approach it.

We consider, then, an infinitesimal area dS of a lambertian

surface emitting luminous flux at an angle θ with its normal,
into solid angle dΩ. Then, d2F = BdS cos θ dΩ, where d2F is
written to indicate that it contains two differentials, dS and dΩ. The factor B is a constant for a lambertian
surface (it may vary with θ for a more general surface). The illumination of an element of surface dA by
an element of bright surface dS is shown in the diagram. The expression involves only cosine factors and
the inverse square spreading, so it should be easy to understand. The letter B suggests brightness, which
was its original name, but possible confusion with the psychophysical brightness has led to its renaming
as luminance. Since dF/dω is measured in cd, B must be measured in cd/m 2, cd/cm2 or cd/ft2. The
cd/m2 has been named the nit, and the cd/cm2 the stilb by the enthusiasts for unit names, not altogether
felicitously. The nit is in disgrace, but the stilb appears to be officially sanctioned. The name comes from
the Greek , "I shine." Nit comes from Latin niteo, also meaning "I shine." Nit is also the larva of
the head louse.

If we integrate over dS (presuming dΩ remains unchanged), we find dF = I dΩ, where I = ∫B cos θ dS. If
θ is also about constant, then I = B (S cos θ) = B x projected area, which makes clear Lambert's definition
of his ideal diffuse reflecting surface. If we are looking normal to a disc of radius a and luminance B, then
its intensity is πa2B cd. The illumination at a distance r will then be E = π(a/r) 2B. The angular subtense of
the diameter of the disc is 2a/r = δ. Therefore, E = (π/4)δ 2B. When finding the illumination due to an
extended source, dI = B cos θ dS.

The luminance of the sun is about 1.6 x 109 cd/m2, and its angular subtense is δ = 0.5° = 8.73 x 10-3 rad.
Therefore, E = 96,000 lux on a surface normal to the sun's rays, or 62,000 lux on the level ground when
the sun's elevation is 50°. The moon's brightness is only about 2500 cd/m 2, so it illuminates a surface
normal to its rays with 0.15 lux. The remarkable adaptation of our eyes to the full range of natural
illumination is much to be admired, and gives a good reason for logarithmic response. 120 lux is the
geometric mean of solar and lunar illumination, and this is about the lower limit for comfortable vision.
The luminance of a 400W high-pressure sodium lamp is 780 cd/cm 2.

The total luminous flux E emitted per unit area from a lambertian
surface of luminance B is easily calcuated. ∫(0,π/2) cos θ dΩ = 2π ∫
cos θ sin θ dθ = π, so E = πB. The construction of this integral is
shown at the left. Note that the radius of the hemisphere is
immaterial. An area of luminance 1 cd/m2 emits π lm/m2. This factor
of pi should cause no confusion if its source is kept in mind.
However, there are other units of luminance B that include it. A
surface with a luminance of 1/π cd/m2 emits 1 lm/m2. This amount of
luminance is called an apostilb, confusingly changing from
centimetres to metres, so a square metre of lambertian diffuse radiator
radiates a total amount of lumens equal to its luminance in apostilb. Similarly, 1/π cd/cm 2 is a lambert,
and 1/π cd/ft2 is a foot-lambert. In Greek,  means "away from," so apostilb is "I shine out." We should
have consistently used apostilbs for lamberts, and "exnits" for cd/πm 2. All this Greek and Latin is
interesting, but I prefer to use only lumens, candela and the distance unit so I can keep things straight.
The factor of π applies only to an ideal lambertian radiator, of course. If you assume that a surface
reradiates all the luminous flux that falls on it, then its luminance in apostilbs, lamberts or foot-lamberts is
the same as its illumination in lux, phot or ft-cd.

Since the idea of lamberts may be confusing, perhaps another description would be welcome. Suppose
you are looking at a small illuminated diffuse reflector of area dA from a certain angle, and receive a flux
of dF lumens from it. The projected area normal to your line of vision is dScos θ. If you look at it from a
different direction, the projected area may change, but the area will look equally bright, which means the
same flux per unit projected area. We may also introduce the solid angle dΩ of your pupil to find the flux
per unit solid angle as well, which will allow us to integrate the flux over any surface. Then, our
observation is that dF/dΩdAcos θ equals a constant, say L, so that dF = Lcosθ dAdΩ. To find the total
light emitted by dA, we integrate over dΩ=2π sin θdθ from θ = 0 to π/2. The result is dF = πLdA, so the
constant L is L = (1/π)dF/dA = E/π, or the total flux emitted (which will be a fraction of the total
illumination) divided by π. A lambert is a lumen/cm 2 received and reemitted per unit solid angle dΩ, not
the luminance B, which is also lumen/cm2, but directly emitted into dΩ.

If a diffuse surface receives E lumens/cm 2, then E/π is its surface brightness in lamberts, and the light
emitted at an angle θ into solid angle dΩ is (E/π)dAcos θ dΩ. The total light emitted from dA is then E.

Brightness in Images
We have now defined the four main illumination quantities: F, I, E and B, and given the connections
between them. It is good to remember that I = dF/dΩ, E = dF/dA and B = d 2F/dAdΩ. We will now look at
some important properties of the illuminance of images formed by optical systems. In optics texts, this is
usually called "brightness," but we have explained above why this term has been generally replaced by
"luminance." The argument can be made rigorous, but we shall be satisfied with a simple demonstration
that emphasizes the principal facts.

As shown in the diagram, a lens L forms an image I of an

object O. dA and dA' are elements of an extended source and
image. The rim of the lens is the entrance and exit pupil of
the system, defining the extent of the pencil of rays that
passes through it. Since the magnification y'/y = -s'/s, dA' =
(s'/s)2 dA. The solid angle subtended by the entrance pupil at
the object is Ω = πh2/s2, while the solid angle subtended by
the exit pupil at the image is Ω' = πh2/s'2. Therefore, Ω'/Ω =
(s/s')2. If B is the luminance of the object, and B' the
luminance of the image, then the luminous flux in the input is
BΩdA, while the luminous flux in the output is B'Ω'dA'. If there are no losses between source and image,
these quantities must be equal, or BΩdA = B'Ω'dA'. This means that B'/B = (Ω/Ω')(dA/dA') = 1, or B' =
B. The image luminance is equal to the object luminance.

The reason for this is clear. If the image becomes smaller, so that the same energy is concentrated in a
smaller area, the solid angle under which it is illuminated increases proportionately, so the product
remains constant. If the image is viewed by the eye so that the entrance pupil of the eye is full, the
luminous flux entering the eye will be constant, equal to the image brightness times the solid angle
subtended by the eye pupil.

If the image is formed on a diffusing screen, the same total luminous flux will come from a smaller area,
which will appear brighter to the eye. A small image of the sun may ignite tinder if its temperature is
raised enough, but this does not mean that the actual image has a greater luminance than the surface of the
sun, but only that the energy comes from a larger solid angle.

The illumination in an image (not the luminance!) falls off for off-axis image points. If Ω is the solid
angle on the axis, say A/s'2, the solid angle off the axis at an angle θ will be Ω' = (A cos θ)/(s'/cos θ) 2 = Ω
cos3θ. Since the illumination now falls obliquely at an angle θ, there is a further factor of cos θ. The
illumination BΩ' = BΩ cos4θ. Therefore, the off-axis illumination falls off as cos 4θ, which can be rather
rapid. At only 20°, the illumination is off by 22%.
CHAPTER 49 : ILLUMINATION
Edit examples of this chapter

EXAMPLE 49.1 , PAGE NO :- 1899

In [1]:

'''A lamp giving out 1200 lm in all directions is suspended 8 m above the
working plane. Calculate the illumination at a point on
the working plane 6 m away from the foot of the lamp.'''

import math as m

I = 1200/(4*3.14) #Cd (luminous intensity of lamp)

h = 8.0 #m (height)
b = 6.0 #m (breadth)
length = m.sqrt(h**2 + b**2) #m

cosQ = h/length
E = I*cosQ/length**2 #lm/m^2

print "Illumination at point =",round(E,2),"lm/m^2 ."

Illumination at point = 0.76 lm/m^2 .

EXAMPLE 49.2 , PAGE NO :- 1899

In [5]:

'''A small light source with intensity uniform in all directions is mounted
at a height of 10 metres above a horizontal surface.
Two points A and B both lie on the surface with point A directly beneath the
source. How far is B from A if the illumination at B
is only 1/10 as great as at A ?'''

from sympy import Eq,solve,Symbol

#let the intensity of lamp be I and distance between A and B be x metres
x = Symbol('x')

l = 10.0 #m (vertical distance)

#Illumination at point A
Ea = I/l**2 #lux
#Illumination at point B

Eb = I/(l**2)*(l/(l**2 + x**2)**0.5)**3

I = 10.0 #lm (assumed value as the equation does not depend on

I)
#As Eb = 1/10*Ea
eq = Eq(Eb,Ea/10.0)
x = solve(eq)

x1 = x[1]

print "Distance between A and B is =",round(x1,2),"m."

Distance between A and B is = 19.08 m.

EXAMPLE 49.3 , PAGE NO :- 1900

In [2]:

'''A corridor is lighted by 4 lamps spaced 10 m apart and suspended at a

height of 5 m above the centre line of the floor.
If each lamp gives 200 C.P. in all directions below the horizontal,find the
illumination at the point on the floor mid-way
between the second and third lamps.'''

import math as m

I = 200.0 #C.P (luminous intensity)

h = 5.0 #m (height between lamps and ground)
l1 = 15.0 #m (horizantal distance 1)
l2 = 5.0 #m (horizantal distance 2)

d1 = m.sqrt(h**2 + l1**2) #m (Dist btwn L1 and mid-pt)

d2 = m.sqrt(h**2 + l2**2) #m (Dist btwn L2 and mid-pt)

#(i)Illumination due to L1
#L = (I/r^2)*cosQ
L1 = (I/d1**2)*(h/d1) #lm/m^2

#(ii)Illumination due to L2
L2 = (I/d2**2)*(h/d2) #lm/m^2

#Illumination at mid-pt due to 4-lamps

Lt = 2*(L1+L2) #lm/m^2

print "Illumination due to 4 lamps = ",round(Lt,2),"lm/m^2 ."

Illumination due to 4 lamps = 6.16 lm/m^2 .

EXAMPLE 49.4 , PAGE NO :- 1901

In [3]:

'''Two lamps A and B of 200 candela and 400 candela respectively are situated
100 m apart. The height of A above the ground
level is 10 m and that of B is 20 m. If a photometer is placed at the centre
of the line joining the two lamp posts,
calculate its reading.'''

import math as m
I1 = 200.0 #Cd (lamp 1 intensity)
I2 = 400.0 #Cd (lamp 2 intensity)
h1 = 10.0 #m (height between lamp 1 and ground)
h2 = 20.0 #m (height between lamp 2 and ground)
d1 = 50.0 #m (horizontal distance from 1)
d2 = 50.0 #m (horizontal distance from 2)

l1 = m.sqrt(h1**2 + d1**2)
l2 = m.sqrt(h2**2 + d2**2)

cosQ1 = h1/l1
cosQ2 = h2/l2

#Illumination at point C = Illumination due to 1 + Illumination due to 2

I_tot = (I1/l1**2)*cosQ1 + (I2/l2**2)*cosQ2 #lm/m^2

print "Reading of photometer =",round(I_tot,3),"lm/m^2."

Reading of photometer = 0.066 lm/m^2.

EXAMPLE 49.5 , PAGE NO :- 1901

In [1]:

'''The average luminous output of an 80-W fluorescent lamp 1.5 metre in

length and 3.5 cm diameter is 3300 lumens. Calculate its
average brightness.If the auxiliary gear associated with the lamp consumes a
load equivalent to 25 percent of the lamp,
calculate the cost of running a twin unit for 2500 hours at 30 paise per
kWh.'''

length = 1.5 #m (lamp output length)

dia = 3.5e-2 #m (lamp output diameter)
l_flux = 3300.0 #lumens (luminous flux)
P = 80.0 #W (Power output)

#Surface area of lamp

sa = 3.14*dia*length #m^2

#Flux emmited per unit area

fluxA = l_flux/sa #lm/m^2
#Therefore,
B = fluxA/3.14 #cd/m^2
print "Average Brightness =",round(B,2),"cd/m^2."
#Total load of twin fitting
load = 2*(P +0.25*P) #W
time = 2500.0 #hr
enrgy = load*time/1000 #kWh (Energy consumed)

#Total cost
cost = enrgy*0.3 #Rs
print "cost of running = Rs",round(cost)
Average Brightness = 6375.22 cd/m^2.
cost of running = Rs 150.0

EXAMPLE 49.6 , PAGE NO :- 1901

In [5]:

'''A small area 7.5 m in diameter is to be illuminated by a lamp suspended at

a height of 4.5 m over the centre of the area.
The lamp having an efficiency of 20 lm/w is fitted with a reflector which
directs the light output only over the surface to be
illuminated,giving uniform candle power over this angle. Utilisation
coefficient = 0.40. Find out the wattage of the lamp.
Assume 800 lux of illumination level from the lamp.'''

dia = 7.5 #m (diameter)

h = 4.5 #m (height)
E = 800.0 #lux (illumination)
eff = 20.0 #lm/w (lamp efficiency)
A = 3.14*(dia**2)/4
#Luminous flux reaching the surface
flux = A*E #lm

#Total flux emmited is

f_out = flux/0.4 #lm

#Lamp in watts
watt = f_out/eff #W
print "lamp wattage =",round(watt,2),"W."
lamp wattage = 4415.63 W.

EXAMPLE 49.7 , PAGE NO :- 1902

In [6]:

'''A lamp of 100 candela is placed 1 m below a plane mirror which reflects
90% of light falling on it. The lamp is hung 4 m above
ground.Find the illumination at a point on the ground 3 m away from the point
vertically below the lamp.'''

import math as m

h1 = 4.0 #m (height of 1 from ground)

d1 = 3.0 #m (horizontal distance 1)
I1 = 100.0 #cd (intenstity)

l1 = m.sqrt(h1**2 + d1**2) #m
cosQ1 = h1/l1
#The lamp L1 will produce the image L2 1m behind the mirror.Therefore,

h2 = h1+1+1 #m (height of 2 from ground)

d2 = 3.0 #m (horizontal distance 2)
I2 = 0.9*I1 #cd (intensity)

l2 = m.sqrt(h2**2 + d2**2) #m
cosQ2 = h2/l2

#Illumination at the required point is

E = I1/l1**2*cosQ1 + I2/l2**2*cosQ2 #lux

print "Illumination = ",round(E),"lux."

Illumination = 5.0 lux.

EXAMPLE 49.8 , PAGE NO :- 1902

In [2]:
'''A light source having an intensity of 500 candle in all directions is
fitted with a reflector so that it directs 80% of its
light along a beam having a divergence of 15º. What is the total light flux
emitted along the beam? What will be the average
illumination produced on a surface normal to the beam direction at a distance
of 10 m? '''

import math as m

I = 500.0 #cd (intensity)

Q = 15.0 #degrees (Beam angle)
h = 10.0 #m (height)

#Total flux emmited is

flux = 0.8*(4*3.14*I) #lm
#radius of circle to be illuminated
r = h*m.tan(Q/2*(3.14/180)) #m

#Area of surface to be illuminated is

A = 3.14*(r*r) #m^2

#Avg illumination
avg = flux/A #lux

print "Average illumination =",round(avg,2),"lux ."

Average illumination = 924.08 lux .

EXAMPLE 49.9 , PAGE NO :- 1902

In [8]:

'''A lamp has a uniform candle power of 300 in all directions and is fitted
with a reflector which directs 50% of the total
emitted light uniformly on to a flat circular disc of 20 m diameter placed 20
m vertically below the lamp. Calculate the
illumination (a) at the centre and (b)at the edge of the surface without the
reflector. Repeat these two calculations with
the reflector provided.'''

import math as m

I = 300.0 #Cd (intensity)

h = 20.0 #m (height)
dia = 20.0 #m (diameter of luminous area)

#(i)Without reflector
Ec = I/h**2 #lm/m^2 (illumination at centre)

theta = m.atan((dia/2)/h)
l = m.sqrt(h**2 + (dia/2)**2) #m (distance between edge and source
lamp)

Eb = I/l**2*m.cos(theta) #lm/m^2 (illuminaton at edge)

print "----Without reflector ----"
print "Illumination at centre =",round(Ec,2),"lm/m^2."
print "Illumination at edge =",round(Eb,2),"lm/m^2."

#(ii)With reflector
#Luminous output of lamp
lflux = I*4*3.14 #lm

#flux directed by reflector

reflux = 0.5*lflux #lm

#Area of disc
A = 3.14*(dia*dia)/4 #m^2

#Illumination at every point will be same and will be equal to

Et = reflux/A #lm/m^2

print "----With reflector ----"

print "Illumination at every point =",round(Et,2),"lm/m^2"
----Without reflector ----
Illumination at centre = 0.75 lm/m^2.
Illumination at edge = 0.54 lm/m^2.
----With reflector ----
Illumination at every point = 6.0 lm/m^2

EXAMPLE 49.10 , PAGE NO :- 1903

In [10]:

'''A light is placed 3 m above the ground and its candle power is 100 cos θ
in any downward direction making an angle q with the
vertical. If P and Q are two points on the grond, P being vertically under
the light and the distance PQ being 3 m, calculate.
(a) the illumination of the ground at P and also at Q.
(b) the total radiations sent down by the lamp.'''

import math as m
from scipy.integrate import quad
r1 = 3.0 #m
r2 = m.sqrt(3**2 + 3**2) #m
#(a)
#Candela Power along LP
CP1 = 100.0*m.cos(0) #cd
#Illumination at P is
Ep = CP1/(r1**2) #cd/m^2

#Candela Power along LQ

CP2 = 100.0*m.cos(45*3.14/180) #cd

#Illumination at Q is
Eq = CP2/(r2**2) #cd/m^2

print "Iluminaton at P = ",round(Ep,2),"cd/m^2"

print "Iluminaton at Q = ",round(Eq,2),"cd/m^2"

#After working out , total flux = integral (100*pi*sin2Q*dQ) 0->pi/2

def integrand(Q):
return 100*3.14*m.sin(2*Q)

ans, err = quad(integrand, 0,3.14/2)

print "Total radiations sent = ",round(ans),"lumens."
Iluminaton at P = 11.11 cd/m^2
Iluminaton at Q = 3.93 cd/m^2
Total radiations sent = 314.0 lumens.

EXAMPLE 49.11 , PAGE NO :- 1903

In [9]:

'''A drawing office containing a number of boards and having a total

effective area of 70 m2 is lit by a number of 40 W
incandescent lamps giving 11 lm/W. An illumination of 80 lux is required on
the drawing boards. Assuming that 60% of the
total light emitted by the lamps is available for illuminating the drawing
boards, estimate the number of lamps required.'''

A = 70.0 #m^2 (area)

watt = 40.0 #W (each bulb wattage)
eff = 11.0 #lm/W (luminous efficacy)
E = 80.0 #lux (Illumination)

#Output per lamp is

oplamp = watt*eff #lm
#Flux actually used per lamp is
flux = 0.6*oplamp #lm

#Now, Total flux required is Illumination*Area

flux_tot = E*A #lm

#Therefore number of lamps required are

N = flux_tot/flux

print "Number of lamps =",round(N)

Number of lamps = 21.0

EXAMPLE 49.12 , PAGE NO :- 1904

In [10]:

'''A perfectly diffusing surface has a luminous intensity of 10 candles at an

angle of 60º to the normal. If the area of the
surface is 100 cm2, determine the brightness and total flux radiated.'''

import math as m

I = 10.0 #Cd (Intensity)

theta = 60.0 #degrees (angle to normal)
A = 100.0 #cm^2 (Area)

proA = A*m.cos(theta*3.14/180) #cm^2

B = I/proA*(10000) #cd/m^2 (Brightness)

B = B*3.14 #lm/m^2 (Brightness)

flux = B*A*10e-5 #lm (Total flux radiated)

print "Total flux radiated =",round(flux,2),"lm."
Total flux radiated = 62.74 lm.

EXAMPLE 49.13 , PAGE NO :- 1904

In [3]:

'''Calculate the brightness (or luminance) of snow under an illumination of

(a) 44,000 lux and (b) 0.22 lux. Assume that snow
behaves like a perfect diffusor having a reflection factor of 85 per cent.'''

E1 = 44000.0 #lux (illumination 1)

E2 = 0.22 #lux (illumination 2)
rf = 0.85 # (reflection factor)
L1 = (E1*rf/3.14) #cd/m^2 (Brightness 1)
L2 = (E2*rf/3.14) #cd/m^2 (Brightness 2)

print "Brightness 1 = %e cd/m^2." %round(L1,2)

print "Brightness 2 =",round(L2,2),"cd/m^2."
Brightness 1 = 1.191083e+04 cd/m^2.
Brightness 2 = 0.06 cd/m^2.

EXAMPLE 49.14 , PAGE NO :- 1904

In [4]:

'''A 21 cm diameter globe of dense opal glass encloses a lamp emitting 1000
lumens and has uniform brightness of 4e+3 lumen/m^2
when viewed in any direction. What would be the luminous intensity of the
globe in any direction? Find what percentage of the
flux emitted by the lamp is absorbed by the globe.'''

d = 21.0 #cm (diameter)

flux = 1000.0 #lumens (luminous flux)
B = 4e+3 #lm/m^2 (uniform Brightness)

#Surface Area of the globe

sa = 3.14*(d*d)*10e-5 #m^2
#Flux emitted by globe is
fluxe = sa*B #lm

#luminous intensity of globe is

lint = fluxe/(4*3.14) #Cd
print "luminous intensity of globe is =",round(lint),"Cd."
#Flux absorbed by globe is
fluxab = flux - fluxe #lm

#% absorption is
absrp = fluxab/flux*100 #% absorption
print "percentage absorption = ",round(absrp,2),"%."
luminous intensity of globe is = 44.0 Cd.
percentage absorption = 44.61 %.

EXAMPLE 49.15 , PAGE NO :- 1904

In [5]:

'''A 2.5 cm diameter disc source of luminance 1000 cd/cm2 is placed at the
focus of a specular parabolic reflector
normal to the axis. The focal length of the reflector is 10 cm, diameter 40
cm and reflectance 0.8. Calculate the axial
intensity and beam-spread. Also show diagrammatically what will happen if the
source were moved away from the reflector
along the axis in either direction.'''

import math as m

dia = 0.025 #m (diameter of disc)

d = 0.4 #m (diameter of relector)
L = 1000.0e+4 #Cd/m^2 (luminance)

#Surface area is
A = 3.142*d*d/4 #m^2 (Area)

#Luminous intensity is
I = 0.8*A*L #Cd
print "Luminous intensity is =",round(I,2),"Cd"

#Let us assume 'theta' as the beam-spread .Then

r = dia/2 #m (radius)
f = 0.1 #m (focal length)
theta = 2*m.degrees(m.atan((r/f)))

print "The beam spread is =",round(theta,2),"degrees"

Luminous intensity is = 1005440.0 Cd
The beam spread is = 14.25 degrees

EXAMPLE 49.16 , PAGE NO :- 1905

In [14]:

'''A 22cm diameter globe of opal glass encloses a lamp of uniform luminous
intensity 120 C.P. Thirty per cent of light emitted
by the lamp is absorbed by globe. Determine (a) luminance of globe (b) C.P.
of globe in any direction.'''

d = 0.22 #m (diameter)
I = 120.0 #Cd (luminous intensity)

#surface area is
sa = 3.14*d*d #m^2

#Flux emmited by source is

flux = I*(4*3.14) #lm
#Flux emmited by globe is
reflux = 0.7*flux #lm

#(a)Luminance of globe is
L = reflux/sa #lm/m^2
print "Flux emmited by source is =",round(L,2),"lm/m^2 ."
#(b) C.P of globe is
cp = reflux/(4*3.14) #Cd
print "C.P of globe is = ",round(cp,2),"Cd."
Flux emmited by source is = 6942.15 lm/m^2 .
C.P of globe is = 84.0 Cd.

EXAMPLE 49.17 , PAGE NO :- 1905

In [15]:

'''A 0.4 m diameter diffusing sphere of opal glass (20 percent absorption)
encloses an incandescent lamp with a luminous flux of
4850 lumens. Calculate the average luminance of the sphere.'''

d = 0.4 #m (diameter)
lflux = 4850.0 #lm (luminous flux)
reflux = 0.8*lflux #lm (flux emmited by globe)

sa = 3.14*d*d #m^2 (surface area)

#Brightness B = flux emmited/surface area . i.e

B = reflux/sa #lm/m^2 (brightness)

print "Average luminance =",round(B,2),"lm/m^2 ."

Average luminance = 7722.93 lm/m^2 .

EXAMPLE 49.18 , PAGE NO :- 1907

In [8]:

'''A show case is lighted by 4 metre of architectural tubular lamps arranged

in a continuous line and placed along the top of the
case.Determine the illumination produced on a horizontal surface 2 metres
below the lamps in a position directly underneath the
centre of the 4 m length of the lamps on the assumption that in tubular lamps
emit 1,880 lm per metre run.
Neglect the effect of any reflectors which may be used.'''

import math as m
L = 4.0 #m (length of source of light)
d = 2.0 #m (height)
flux = 1880.0 #lumens (flux)
#Now
theta = m.atan(L/(2*d))

#As I = flux/(3.14*3.14*L)
I = 4*flux/(3.14*3.14*L) #cd/m

#Illumination produced is
E = I/(2*d)*(m.sin(2*theta) + 2*theta) #lm/m^2

print "Illumination produced is =",round(E,2),"lm/m^2."

Illumination produced is = 122.55 lm/m^2.

EXAMPLE 49.19 , PAGE NO :- 1913

In [6]:

'''If an integrating sphere 0.6 m in diameter whose inner surface has a

reflection coefficient of 0.8 contains a lamp producing
on the portion of the sphere, screened from direct radiation,a luminance of
1000 cd/m2, what is the luminous flux yield of
the source ?'''

from sympy import Eq,solve,Symbol

coef = 0.8 # (reflection coefficient)

L = 1000.0 #cd/m^2 (luminance)
d = 0.6 #m (diameter)

Fl = Symbol('Fl')
E = coef*Fl/(3.14*d*d*(1-coef)) #lm/m^2
L1 = coef*E/3.14 #cd/m^2
#As L is equal to L1
eq = Eq(L,L1)
Fl = solve(eq)
Fl1 = Fl[0] #lumens

print "Luminous flux yield of the source =",round(Fl1,2),"lm."

Luminous flux yield of the source = 1109.2 lm.

EXAMPLE 49.20 , PAGE NO :- 1919

In [9]:
'''A room 8 m * 12 m is lighted by 15 lamps to a fairly uniform illumination
of 100 lm/m^2. Calculate the utilization coefficient
of the room given that the output of each lamp is 1600 lumens.'''

Area = 8*12 #m^2 (area of room)

num = 15.0 # (number of lamps)
I = 1600.0 #lumens (output of each lamp)
E = 100.0 #lm/m^2 (illumination)

#Lumens emmited by lamp

I_tot = num*I #lumens

#Lumens recieved by working plane

I1 = Area*E #lumens

#Utilization coefficient is
coef = I1/I_tot

print "Utilization coefficient = ",round(coef,2)

Utilization coefficient = 0.4

EXAMPLE 49.21 , PAGE NO :- 1919

In [10]:

'''The illumination in a drawing office 30 m*10 m is to have a value of 250

lux and is to be provided by a number of 300 W
filament lamps. If the coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and the depreciation
factor 0.9, determine the number of lamps
required. The luminous efficiency of each lamp is 14 lm/W.'''

A = 30*10.0 #m^2 (area)

E = 250.0 #lm/m^2 (illumination)
coef = 0.4 # (coefficient of utilization)
p = 0.9 # (depriciation factor)
eff = 14.0 #lm/W (luminous efficiency)
watt = 300.0 #W (wattage of eacch lamp)
#Now, flux = E*A/coef*p
flux = E*A/(coef*p) #lm (output in lumens)

#Flux emmited per lamp is

Fl2 = watt*eff #lm

#No. of lamps required are

num = flux/Fl2
print "Number of lamps required =",round(num)
Number of lamps required = 50.0

EXAMPLE 49.22 , PAGE NO :- 1919

In [11]:

'''Find the total saving in electrical load and percentage increase in

illumination if instead of using twelve 150 W tungsten-
filament lamps,we use twelve 80 W fluorescent tubes. It may be assumed that
(i) there is a choke loss of 25 per cent of rated
lamp wattage (ii) average luminous efficiency throughout life for each lamp
is 15 lm/W and for each tube 40 lm/W and
(iii) coefficient of utilization remains the same in both cases.'''

#Luminous efficiency
eff1 = 15.0 #lm/W
eff2 = 40.0 #lm/W

#Total load in filament-lamps

flamp = 12*150.0 #W
#Total load in fluoroscent tubes
tube = 12*(80 + 0.25*80) #W
#Net saving
load = flamp - tube #W
print "Net saving in load =",round(load,2),"W."

#Let us assume that

#E1 -> illumination with lamps
#E2 -> illumination with tubes
#Now E1/E2 = (O/P in lumens 1)/(O/P in lumens 2)

tube2 = 12*80.0 #W

E1_E2 = flamp*eff1/(tube2*eff2)

#Increase in illumination is given by %increase = (E2/E1 - 1)*100

increase = (1/E1_E2 - 1)*100.0

print "Increase in illumination = ",round(increase,2),"%"

Net saving in load = 600.0 W.
Increase in illumination = 42.22 %

EXAMPLE 49.23 , PAGE NO :- 1919

In [12]:
'''A football pitch 120 m * 60 m is to be illuminated for night play by
similar banks of equal 1000 W lamps supported on twelve
towers which are distributed around the ground to provide approximately
uniform illumination of the pitch.Assuming that 40% of
the total light emitted reaches the playing pitch and that an illumination of
1000 lm/m2 is necessary for television purposes,
calculate the number of lamps on each tower. The overall efficiency of the
lamp is to be taken as 30 lm/W.'''

Area = 120.0*60.0 #m^2 (Area of pitch)

E = 1000.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination of pitch)

#Flux required is
flux = Area*E #lm

#Since only 40% reaches the ground.Total flux required is

lflux = flux/0.4 #lm

#There are 12 tower banks . Therefore flux by each tower bank is

flux_each = lflux/12 #lm

#Output of each 1000 W lamp is

I = 30.0*1000 #lm

#Therefore, number of each lamps is

num = flux_each/I

print "Number of lamps on each tower is =",round(num)

Number of lamps on each tower is = 50.0

EXAMPLE 49.24 , PAGE NO :- 1920

In [13]:

'''Design a suitable lighting scheme for a factory 120 m * 40 m with a height

of 7 m. Illumination required is 60 lux.
State the number, location and mounting height of 40 W fluorescent tubes
giving 45 lm/W. Depreciation factor = 1.2;
utilization factor = 0.5 .'''

A = 120.0*40.0 #m^2 (Area)

h = 7.0 #m (Height)
E = 60.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination)
watt = 40.0 #W (Wattage of bulb)
eff = 45.0 #lm/W (Luminous efficiency)
dep = 1.2 # (Depriciation factor)
uti = 0.5 # (Utilization factor)

#Total output flux is

flux = E*A/(uti*1/dep) #lm
#Flux per tube is
flux_tube = eff*watt #lm

#Therefore,number of flouroscent tubes required

num = flux/flux_tube
print "number of flouroscent tubes =",round(num)
#For twin fittings
num = num/2
print "number of twin fittings =",round(num)
print "These can be arranged in 8 rows and 24 columns with space/height ratio
= 1."
number of flouroscent tubes = 384.0
number of twin fittings = 192.0
These can be arranged in 8 rows and 24 columns with space/height ratio = 1.

EXAMPLE 49.25 , PAGE NO :- 1920

In [14]:

'''A drawing hall in an engineering college is to be provided with a lighting

installation. The hall is 30 m * 20 m * 8 m (high).
The mounting height is 5 m and the required level of illumination is 144
lm/m^2. Using metal filament lamps, estimate
the size and number of single lamp luminaries and also draw their spacing
layout. Assume :
Utilization coefficient = 0.6; maintenance factor = 0.75; space/height
ratio=1 lumens/watt for 300-W lamp = 13,
lumens/watt for 500-W lamp = 16.'''

A = 30.0*20 #m^2 (Area)

E = 144.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination)
coef = 0.6 # (Utilization coefficient)
mfac = 0.75 # (maintenance factor)

#The flux is given by

flux = E*A/(coef*mfac) #lm

#Lumen output for 500-W lamp

I5 = 500.0*16 #lm
#Lumen output for 500-W lamp
I3 = 300.0*13 #lm

#No. of 500 W lamps required is

num5 = flux/I5
print "Number of 500-W lamps required =",round(num5)

#No. of 300 W lamps required is

num3 = flux/I3
print "Number of 300-W lamps required =",round(num3)
Number of 500-W lamps required = 24.0
Number of 300-W lamps required = 49.0

EXAMPLE 49.26 , PAGE NO :- 1920

In [15]:

'''Estimate the number and wattage of lamps which would be required to

illuminate a workshop space 60 * 15 metres by means of
lamps mounted 5 metres above the working plane. The average illumination
required is about 100 lux.Coefficient of
utilization=0.4 ; Luminous efficiency=16 lm/W.Assume a spacing/height ratio
of unity and a candle power depreciation of 20%.'''

A = 60.0*15.0 #m^2
E = 100.0 #lm/m^2
coef = 0.4 # (coefficient of utilization)
lum = 16.0 #lm/W (luminous efficiency)
dep = 1+0.2 # (depriciation factor)

#Total flux is given by

flux = E*A/(coef*1/dep) #lm

#Total wattage required is

watt = flux/lum #W

#Now,space/height ratio is 1.
h = 5.0 #m

#Therefore along breadth , lamps are

num_b = 15.0/h

#Therefore along length , lamps are

num_l = 60.0/h

#Total number of lamps are

num_tot = num_b*num_l

#Wattage of each lamp is

watt_each = watt/num_tot

print "Total number of lamps =",num_tot

print "Wattage of each lamp is =",round(watt_each,-2),"W."
Total number of lamps = 36.0
Wattage of each lamp is = 500.0 W.

EXAMPLE 49.27 , PAGE NO :- 1921

In [16]:

'''A drawing hall 40 m * 25 m * 6 high is to be illuminated with metal-

filament gas-filled lamps to an average illumination of
90 lm/m^2 on a working plane 1 metre above the floor.Estimate suitable
number, size and mounting height of lamps. Sketch the
spacing layout.Assume coefficient of utilization of 0.5, depreciation factor
of 1.2 and spacing/height ratio of 1.2

Size of lamps : 200 W 300 W 500 W

Luminous efficiency (in lm/W) : 16 18 20
'''

A = 40.0*25.0 #m^2 (Area)

E = 90.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination)
coef = 0.5 # (Coefficient of utilization)
dep = 1.2 # (Depreciation factor)

#Total flux required is

flux = E*A/(coef*1/1.2) #lumens

#Lumen output of each 200-W lamp is

flux_200 = 200.0*16 #lumens

#Lumen output of each 200-W lamp is

flux_300 = 300.0*18 #lumens

#Lumen output of each 200-W lamp is

flux_500 = 500.0*20 #lumens

#Number of 200-W lamps required is

num_200 = flux/flux_200
#Number of 200-W lamps required is
num_300 = flux/flux_300
#Number of 200-W lamps required is
num_500 = flux/flux_500

print "Number of 200-W lamps required are =",round(num_200)

print "Number of 300-W lamps required are =",round(num_300)
print "Number of 500-W lamps required are =",round(num_500)
Number of 200-W lamps required are = 68.0
Number of 300-W lamps required are = 40.0
Number of 500-W lamps required are = 22.0

EXAMPLE 49.28 , PAGE NO :- 1922

In [17]:

'''A school classroom, 7 m * 10 m * 4 m high is to be illuminated to 135

lm/m^2 on the working plane. If the coefficient of
utilization is 0.45 and the sources give 13 lumens per watt,work out the
total wattage required, assuming a depreciation factor
of 0.8 .Sketch roughly the plan of the room, showing suitable positions for
fittings, giving reasons for the positions chosen.'''

A = 7.0*10.0 #m^2 (Area)

E = 135.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination)
coef = 0.45 # (Coefficient of utilization)
dep = 0.8 # (Depreciation factor)
eff = 13.0 #lm/W (luminous efficiency)

#Total flux is
flux = E*A/(coef*dep) #lumens

#Therefore,total wattage required is

watt = flux/eff #W

print "Total wattage required is =",round(watt,2),"W."

Total wattage required is = 2019.23 W.

EXAMPLE 49.29 , PAGE NO :- 1922

In [18]:

'''A hall 30 m long and 12 m wide is to be illuminated and the illumination

required is 50 lm/m2. Calculate the number,
the wattage of each unit and the location and mounting height of the units,
taking a depreciation factor of 1.3 and
utilization factor of 0.5, given that the outputs of the different types of
lamp are as under :
Watts : 100 200 300 500 1000
Lumens : 1615 3650 4700 9950 21500
'''

A = 30.0*12.0 #m^2 (Area)

E = 50.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination)
coef = 0.5 # (coefficient of utilization)
dep = 1/1.3 # (depreciation factor)

#Total flux required is

flux = E*A/(coef*dep) #lumens

#For 100-W lamps are used ,Number required

num_100 = flux/1615.0
#For 200-W lamps are used ,Number required
num_200 = flux/3650.0
#For 300-W lamps are used ,Number required
num_300 = flux/4700.0
#For 500-W lamps are used ,Number required
num_500 = flux/9950.0
#For 1000-W lamps are used ,Number required
num_1000 = flux/21500.0

print "Number of 100-W lamps required =",round(num_100)

print "Number of 200-W lamps required =",round(num_200)
print "Number of 300-W lamps required =",round(num_300)
print "Number of 500-W lamps required =",round(num_500)
print "Number of 1000-W lamps required =",round(num_1000)
print "If we take the mounting height of 5 m, then 300 W lamps would be
suitable."
print "The No.of lamps required would be 10, arranged in two rows, each row
having 5 lamps thus giving space/height ratio of 6/5"
Number of 100-W lamps required = 29.0
Number of 200-W lamps required = 13.0
Number of 300-W lamps required = 10.0
Number of 500-W lamps required = 5.0
Number of 1000-W lamps required = 2.0
If we take the mounting height of 5 m, then 300 W lamps would be suitable.
The No.of lamps required would be 10, arranged in two rows, each row having 5
lamps thus giving space/height ratio of 6/5

EXAMPLE 49.30 , PAGE NO :- 1924

In [19]:

'''It is desired to floodlight the front of a building 42 m wide and 16 m

high.Projectors of 30° beam spread and 1000-W lamps
giving 20 lumen/watt are available. If the desired level of illumination is
75 lm/m2 and if the projectors are to be located
at ground level 17 m away,design and show a suitable scheme. Assume the
following :
Coefficient of utilization = 0.4 ; Depreciation factor = 1.3 ;
Waste-light factor = 1.2. '''

A = 42.0*16.0 #m^2 (Area)

E = 75.0 #lm/m^2 (Illumination)
W = 1.2 # (Waste-light factor)
coef = 0.4 # (Coefficient of utilization)
dep = 1/1.3 # (Depreciation factor)
eff = 20.0 #lm/W (luminous efficiency)

#Total flux is
flux = E*A*W/(coef*dep) #lm/m^2

#Lumen output of each 1000-W lamp is

flux_each = 1000.0*eff

#Number of lamps required are

num = flux/flux_each

print "Number of lamps required are =",round(num)

Number of lamps required are = 10.0

EXAMPLE 49.31 , PAGE NO :- 1925

In [20]:

'''Estimate the number of 1000-W floodlight projectors required to illuminate

the up per 75 m of one face of a 96 m tower of
width 13 m if approximate initial average luminance is to be 6.85 cd/m2. The
projectors are mounted at ground level 51m from base
of the tower.Utilization factor is = 0.2; reflection factor of wall = 25% and
efficiency of each lamp = 18 lm/W.'''

A = 13.0*75.0 #m^2 (Area to be flood-lighted)

B = 6.85 #cd/m^2 (Average luminance)
watt = 1000.0 #W (Wattage floodlight projectors)
coef = 0.2 # (Utilization factor)
ref = 0.25 # (Reflection factor)

#Illumination E = pi*B/reflection factor

E = 3.14*B/ref #lm/m^2
#Therefore, total flux required is
flux = E*A #lm

#Flux to be emmited by lamp is

lflux = flux/coef #lm

#Flux from each lamp is

flux_each = 18.0*watt #lm

#The number of floodlight projectors required are

num = lflux/flux_each

print "The number of floodlight projectors required =",round(num)+1

The number of floodlight projectors required = 24.0

EXAMPLE 49.32 , PAGE NO :- 1928

In [24]:

'''If the filament of a 32 candela, 100-V lamp has a length l and diameter
d,calculate the length and diameter of the filament
of a 16 candela 200-V lamp,assuming that the two lamps run at the same
intrinsic brilliance.'''

#As l*d is directly propotional luminous intensity .

#Let a = l1*d1 & b = l2*d2 . Then, l1*d1/l2*d2 = 32/16

a_b = 32.0/16 # (= a/b = l1*d1/l2*d2)

#As luminous intensity is directly propotional to power output

# 32 o< 100*I1 & 16 o< 200*I2

I1_I2 = 32*200.0/(16*100.0) #( = I1/I2)

#Also , I o< d^3/2

d1_d2 = (I1_I2)**(2.0/3) #( = d1/d2)

print "Diameter d2 = ",round(1/d1_d2,2),"*d1."

#As , d1_d2 = d1/d2

l1_l2 = a_b/d1_d2 #( = l1/l2)
print "Length l2 = ",round(1/l1_l2,2),"*l1."
Diameter d2 = 0.4 *d1.
Length l2 = 1.26 *l1.

EXAMPLE 49.33 , PAGE NO :- 1928

In [25]:

'''An incandescent lamp has a filament of 0.005 cm diameter and one metre
length. It is required to construct another lamp of
similar type to work at double the supply voltage and give half the candle
power. Assuming that the new lamp operates at the same
brilliancy,determine suitable dimensions for its filament.'''

d1 = 0.005 #cm (diameter)

l1 = 100.0 #cm (length)
#As l*d is directly propotional luminous intensity .
#Let a = l1*d1 & b = l2*d2 . Then, l1*d1/l2*d2 = 2.0/1.0

a_b = 2.0/1 # (= a/b = l1*d1/l2*d2)

#As luminous intensity is directly propotional to power output

# I1 o< V1*i1 & I2 o< V2*i2

I1_I2 = (2.0/1)*(2.0/1) #( = I1/I2)

#Also , I o< d^3/2

d1_d2 = (I1_I2)**(2.0/3) #( = d1/d2)
d2 = d1/d1_d2 #cm
print "Diameter d2 = ",round(d2,5),"cm."

#As , d1_d2 = d1/d2

l1_l2 = a_b/d1_d2 #( = l1/l2)
l2 = l1/l1_l2 #cm
print "Length l2 = ",round(l2),"cm."
Diameter d2 = 0.00198 cm.
Length l2 = 126.0 cm.

EXAMPLE 49.34 , PAGE NO :- 1928

In [52]:

'''A 60 candle power, 250-V metal filament lamp has a measured candle power
of 71.5 candela at 260 V and 50 candela at 240 V.
(a) Find the constant for the lamp in the expression C = aV^b where C =
candle power and V = voltage.
(b) Calculate the change of candle power per volt at 250 V. Determine the
percentage variation of candle power due to a voltage
variation of æ 4% from the normal value. '''

from sympy import Symbol,solve,Eq

#Given expression is C = a*V^b

b = Symbol('b')
# 71.5/50 = (260/240)^b
lhs = 71.5/50.0
rhs = (260.0/240)**b
eq = Eq(lhs,rhs)
b = solve(eq)
b1 = b[0] #constant

a = 71.5/(260.0)**b1
print "Hence expression for candle power is C = %e" %a,"*V^",round(b1,2)

#Change of candle power per volt

# dC/dV = b*a*V^b
change = b1*a*((250.0)**(b1)) #cd/V
print "Change of candle power per volt = ",round(change,1),"cd/m."

#When voltage is increases by 4% C2/C1 = (1.04)^b

per_change = ( (1.04)**b1 - 1 ) * 100

print "% change in candle power for increase =",round(per_change,2)

#When voltage is decreases by 4% C2/C1 = (0.96)^b

per_change = ( (0.96)**b1 - 1)* 100

print "% change in candle power for decrease =",round(per_change,2)

Hence expression for candle power is C = 1.155816e-09 *V^ 4.47
Change of candle power per volt = 268.1 cd/m.
% change in candle power for increase = 19.16
% change in candle power for decrease = -16.67
In [ ]:

In [ ]:
A surge arrester is a device to protect electrical equipment from over-voltage transients caused by
external (lightning) or internal (switching) events. Also called a surge protection device (SPD)
or transient voltage surge suppressor (TVSS), this class of device is used to protect equipment in
power transmission and distribution systems. (For consumer equipment protection, different
products called surge protectors are used.)

 Low-voltage surge arrester: Apply in Low-voltage distribution system, exchange of

electrical appliances protector, low-voltage distribution transformer windings
 Distribution arrester: Apply in 3 kV, 6 kV, 10 kV AC power distribution system to protect
distribution transformers, cables and power station equipment
 The station type of common valve arrester: Used to protect the 3 ~ 220 kV transformer
station equipment and communication system
 Magnetic blow valve station arrester: Use to 35 ~ 500 kV protect communication systems,
transformers and other equipment
 Protection of rotating machine using magnetic blow valve arrester: Used to protect the
AC generator and motor insulation
 Line Magnetic blow valve arrester: Used to protect 330 kV and above communication
system circuit equipment insulation
 DC or blowing valve-type arrester: Use to protect the DC system’s insulation of electrical
equipment
 Neutral protection arrester: Apply in motor or the transformer’s neutral protection
 Fiber-tube arrester: Apply in the power station’s wires and the weaknesses protection in the
insulated
 Plug-in Signal Arrester: Used to twisted-pair transmission line in order to protect
communications and computer systems
 A Gas Tube Arrester commonly used in the sockets of Coaxial cables

 High-frequency feeder arrester: Used to protect the microwave, mobile base stations
satellite receiver, etc.
 Receptacle-type surge arrester: Use to Protect the terminal Electronic equipment
 Signal Arrester: Apply in MODEM, DDN line, fax, phone, process control signal circuit etc.
 Network arrester: Apply in servers, workstations, interfaces etc.
 Coaxial cable lightning arrester: Used on the coaxial cable to protect the wireless
transmission and receiving system

Advantages
 High Power transmission.
  Low installation and material cost.
 Long distance transmissions.
 The fault or damage in overhead lines can easily locate.
 Maintenance of the line is easier.
 Extension or joining on overhead lines can be performed easily and also
it facilitates easy replacing.
Disadvantages
 As it is exposed to the surrounding, safety risk is high.
 A continuous pathway for the line creates obstructions.
 Vulnerable to lightning strikes

Underground transmission system

Advantages
 The underground transmission systems are safer than the overhead
transmission system.
 Safer from lightning.
 It creates no obstructions.
Disadvantages
 Installation process through various geographic areas has high
difficulties, because of ground excavation.
 The installation cost of Underground transmission is high, as it requires
a continuous trench or concrete ducts for cable installation. Also, it has a
high material cost due to the requirement of thick and insulated
conductors.
 Underground transmission systems have a high cost of maintenance.
Because the line needs to dig up before any repair activities and required
to reinstall again.
 High complications in fault detection and maintenance.
 High voltage transmission is difficult in underground transmission.
 Limited by thermal capacity.