Chapter 1

Fundamentals of power system protection & Circuit interrupting devices.

1.1 Introduction :
In day to day working electricity has become a vital part of life. As electricity is used every
where such as for domestic purpose, industrial applications, commercial applications, irrigation
purpose, traction systems etc; it is very difficult to survive without electricity. Continuous supply
of electricity is very necessary for over all growth of the country. Continuity of supply is
maintained by interconnected power system.
Hence it is essential to protect the entire power system from faults / abnormal conditions to
ensure maximum continuity of supply. The fault must be cleared within a fraction of a second. If a
short circuit persists on a system for a longer period, it may cause damage to some equipments /
sections in the system. This is ensured with the switching off of the certain equipments
automatically under fault condition and manually or remotely under normal condition. Such
equipments by which switching on and off operations are done are known as switch gears.
1.2 Functions of Protective Systems :
• As mentioned above, protective system should operate automatically under abnormal
condition within minimum time. Apart from this it should have following essential features :
• Quick operation : To minimize the damage to the faulty part, the switchgear must operate
as quickly as possible after the occurance of fault. If the fault current is allowed to pass for
more time then there will be considerable damage to the generators, transformers and other
equipments which are in the circuit upto the fault location. Also, if fault is not cleared
quickly, it is likely to spread into healthy parts of the system.
• Complete reliability : The ability of the portion system to operate under the
predetermined conditions is known as Reliability. The protection would be rendered largely
ineffectively and could even become a liability without the reliability.
• Discrimination : Switchgear (protective system) should be capable of identifying the faulty
section i.e. it must be able to discriminate between the faulty sections and the healthy
sections. It should isolate the faulty section from the system without affecting the healthy
section. This will ensure the continuity of supply.
• Provision for instruments : For metering purpose there should be the provision for
connecting instrument transformes to the system; so that the measuring instruments may
be mounted on main switch board or a separate panel.
The Table 1.1.1 indicates the function of various switchgears which are generally installed in
A.C substation.
Table 1.1.1

Sr. No. Switchgear equipment Symbol Function

1. Fuse To protect circuit against over current and

short circuit currents.

2. Circuit breaker To make or break the circuit manually or

remotely under normal condition and
automatically under fault condition.

3. Isolator To disconnect the part of the system for

maintenance from live circuit under no
current condition.

4. Earthing switch To discharge the voltage on the line (due

to charges of line capacitance to earth)
Sr. No. Switchgear equipment Symbol Function
after disconnecting line from live section.

5. Light using arrester To divert the high voltage surge towards

the earth, due to lightening stroke or
switching surges.

6. Current transformer To stepping down the magnitude of

current for measurement, protection and
control

7. Potential transformer
To stepping down the magnitude of line
voltage for measurement, protection and
control.

1.3 Power System Faults :

1.3.1 Normal and Abnormal Conditions :

(a) Normal condition :
Normal condition of the power system is the state of network in which current flowing
through it is rated or below rated provided that voltage and frequency remains constant. As long
as current is not diverted to other path (generally towards earth) then the condition is said to be
normal condition.
(b) Abnormal condition / fault :
It is a defect in any part of the power system due to which current is diverted from desired
path with increase in magnitude.

1.3.2 Reasons of Fault Occurance :

• Mostly the faults are caused by failure of insulation. The failure of insulation results in short
circuits which are very harmful.
• Faults are also caused by breaking of conductors due to excessive heat or mechanical
stresses.
• Most of the faults on transmission lines and distribution liens are caused by over voltages
due to lightening or switching surges, or by external conducting object falling on overhead
lines.
• Unbalance currents flowing in rotating machines set up harmonics, there by heating the
machines.
• Certain faults occur due to the poor quality of system components or because of faulty
system design.
• Sometimes circuit breakers may trip due to errors in the switching operations testing or
maintenance work, wrong connections defects in protective devices.
• Other causes of faults on overhead lines are : lightening strokes, air crafts, ice and snow
loading, abnormal loading, stroms, earthquakes, creepers etc.

1.3.3 Types of Faults :

A.C faults can be classified as :
• Single line to ground fault
• Line to line fault
• Double line to ground fault
• Simultaneous fault
• Open circuit fault
• Three phase fault
Other abnormal conditions in A.C. system includes :
• Voltage and current unbalance
• Over voltages
• Reversal of power
• Power swings
• Under frequency
• Temperature rise
• Instability etc.
But mainly faults can be classified into two category :
• Symmetrical faults and
• Unsymmetrical faults.
(a) Symmetrical faults :
• That fault which gives rise to symmetrical fault currents (i.e. equal magnitude of fault
currents with 120 phase displacement is called as symmetrical fault.
• The most common example of symmetrical fault is when all the three conductors of a
3 phase line are brought together simultaneously into short circuit condition with each
other including or excluding the ground.
(b) Unsymmetrical faults :
• Those faults which gives rise to unsymmetrical currents (i.e. with unequal magnitude of
fault currents with unequal phase displacement) are called unsymmetrical faults.
The unsymmetrical faults may take one of the following forms :
Single phase to ground (L – G) :

• A short circuit between any one of the phase conductors of 3 phase system and earth is
called a single phase to ground fault.
• It may be due to the failure of insulation between a phase conductor and earth or due to a
phase conductor breaking and falling to the ground.
Two phase to ground fault (L – L – G) :
A short circuit between any two phases and earth is called a double line to ground or a two
phase to ground fault.
Phase to phase faults (L – L) :
A short circuit between any two lines (phases) is called as line to line or phase to phase fault.
Open circuited phases :
• This type of fauslt is caused by a break in the conducting path. Such faults occur when one
or more phase conductors break or a cable joint or joint on the overhead lines fails.
• Such situation may also arise when circuit breakers or isolators open but fail to close one or
more phases.
• Due to the opening of one or two phases, unbalanced currents flows in the system, thereby
heating rotating machines.
Simultaneous faults :

• Two or more faults occurring simultaneously on a system are known as multiple or

simultaneous faults.
• In simultaneous faults, the same or different types of faults may occur at the same or
different points of the system.
• An example of two different types of faults occurring at the same point is a single line to
ground fault on one phase, due to insulation failure and breaking of the conductor of another
phase, both simultaneously present at the sametime.
• If the two L-G faults are on the same section of the line, they are treated as a double line to
ground fault. If they occur in different line sections, is known as cross country earth fault.
• Cross country faults are common on systems grounded through high impedance or Peterson
coil but they are rare on solidly grounded systems.

1.4 Effects of Faults on Power System :

The most dangerous type of fault is a short circuit as it
may have the following effects on a power system, if it
remains uncleared.
• Heavy short circuit current may cause damage to
equipment or any other element of the system due to
overheating and high mechanical forces set up due to
heavy current. Fig. 1.4.1 : Short circuit fault
• Arcs associated with short circuits may cause fire hazards. Such fires, resulting from arcing,
may destroy the faulty element of the system. There is also a possibility of the fire spreading
to other parts of the system if the fault is not isolated quickly.
• There may be reduction in the supply voltage of the healthy feeders, resulting in the loss of
industrial loads.
• Short circuit may cause the unbalancing of supply voltages and currents, there by heating
rotating machines.
• There may be a loss of system stability. Individual generators in a power system may loose
synchronism, resulting in a complete shut down of the system. Loss of stability of
interconnected systems may also results.
• The above faults may cause an interruption of supply to the consumers, there by causing a
loss of revenue.
High grade, high speed, reliable protective devices are the essential requirements of a power
system to minimizes the effect of faults and other abnormalities.

1.5 Fault Statistics :

• For design and application of protective scheme, it is very useful to have an idea of the
frequency of occurrence of faults on various elements of a power system.
• Usually the power stations are situated far away from the load centres, resulting in
hundreds of kilometres length of overhead lines beings exposed to atmospheric conditions.
• The chances of faults occurring due to stroms, falling of external objects on the lines, flash
overs resulting from dirt deposits on insulators, etc. are greater for overhead lines than for
other parts of the power system.
• Table 1.5.1 gives an approximate idea of the fault statistics.
 Table 1.5.1

Sr. No. Element % of Total faults

1. Over head lines 50
2. Underground cables 09
3. Transformers 10
4. Generators 07
5. Switchgears 12
6. CTs, PTs, Relays, Control equipment etc. 12

• From Table 1.5.1 it is evident that 50% of the total faults occur on overhead lines. Hence
overhead lines requires more attention while planning and designing protective scheme for a
power system.
• Table 1.5.2 shows the frequency of occurrence of different types of faults (mainly the
different types of short circuits) on overhead lines.
Table 1.5.2

Sr. No. Types of faults Fault symbol % of total faults

1. Line to ground L–G 85
2. Line to line L–L 8
3. Line to line to ground L–L–G 5
4. 3 Phase 3 2

• From the table it is clear that the frequency of line to ground faults is more than any other
type of fault, and hence the protection against L – G fault requires greater attention in
planning and design of protective schemes for over head lines.
• In case of cables 50% of the faults occur in cables and 50% at end junctions. Cable faults are
usually of a permanent nature and hence, automatic reclousers are not recommended for
cables.

1.6 Essential Qualities of Protection :

As soon as the fault occurs on the power system, protection scheme should disconnect/isolate
the faulty part as quickly as possible to minimize the damage to the system and to maintain the
continuity of supply. Protective scheme may have following qualities :
1. Sensitivity : Ability of the protective system to operate with low values of actuating
quantity is known as sensitivity.
The protective system should be enough sensitive to operate with the small quantity of fault
current.
2. Speed : As mentioned above, the protective system should disconnect the faulty part as
quickly as possible for the following reasons :
• If the fault current is allowed to flow for the longer time then there will be considerable
damage to the equipments which are feeding the fault.
• If the fault is not cleared quickly, then it is possibility of development of temporary
fault in to permanent fault.
 • If the faulty parts of the system are not cleared quickly then it is the possibility of
spreading these faults into healthy parts of the system.
• A fault on the system causes the reduction in the terminal voltage, causing the
complete shut down of consumer’s motors. Also the generators on the system may
become unstable.
3. Selectivity : The ability of the protective system to select correctly the faulty part of the
system and disconnect that part without disturbing the rest of the system is known as
selectivity.
• Protective system should operate the circuit breaker which is nearer to the fault
otherwise, opening of any circuit breaker to clear the fault will lead to disconnect the
greater portion of the power system. Refering to Fig. 1.6.1, if the fault occurs on the
transmission line (which is located by point F), then operating of circuit breakers 6 and
8 will cause minimum disconnection of the power system portion.
• In order to provide, selectivity to the system, the entire system is divided into several
protective zones. When a fault occurs in a given zone, then only the circuit breakers
within that zone will be opened. This will isolate only the faulty section and the
remaining healthy is unaffected.

Fig. 1.6.1 : Different protective zones

4. Reliability : The ability of the protection system to operate under the predetermined
conditions is known as reliability. The protection would be rendered largely ineffectively and
could even become a liability without the reliability.
5. Simplicity : A simple protective system is easy to maintain Reliability and Simplicity are
closely related. The simpler the protection scheme, the greater will be its reliability.
6. Adequateness : Providing protection scheme for every abnormal condition is very costly.
Therefore, protection provided for any machine should be adequate.
Adequateness of protection is judge by following aspects :
• Cost of the machine and importance of the machine.
• Rating of the machine to be protected.
• Probability of abnormal conditions due to internal and external causes.
• Continuity of supply as affected by failure of machine.
• Location of protected machine.
7. Economy : Cost is the most important factor in the choice of a particular protection scheme.
As a rule, the protective gear should not cost more than 5% of its total cost. However, when
 the apparatus to be protected is of atmost importance, then economic consideration are often
subordinated to reliability.

1.7 Short Circuit kVA Calculation :

• Most of the faults on the power system leads to short circuit condition. When such condition
occurs, a heavy current flows through the equipment, causing considerable damage to
consumers. Hence it is necessary to determine the short circuit currents under fault
condition.
• The choice of apparatus and the design and
arrangement of practically every equipment in
the power system depends upon short circuits
current condition.
Fig. 1.7.1 : Single line diagram 3 phase S.C
• When a short circuit occurs at any point in a system the short circuit current is limited by
the impedance of the system up to the point of fault.
• Thus referring to the Fig. 1.7.1, if fault occurs on the feeder at point F, then the short circuit
current from the generating station will be limited by the impedance of generator,
transformer and the impedance of the line between the generator and the point of fault.
• This shows that the knowledge of the impedance of various equipment and circuits in the
line of the system is very important for the determination of short circuit currents.
• In many situations, the impedances limiting the fault current are largely reactive such as
transformers, generators and reactors. Cables and lines are mostly resistive, but where the
total reactance in calculation exceeds three times the resistance, the resistance is usually
neglected the error due to this assumption will not exceed 5%.
• Percentage reactance :
The reactance of generators, transformers, reactors etc. is usually expressed in percentage
reactance to permit rapid short circuit calculations. The percentage reactance of a circuit is
defined as the percentage of the total phase voltage dropped in the circuit when full-load current
is flowing i.e.
IX
%X =  100 …(1)
V
where I = Full-load current
V = Phase voltage
X = Reactance in ohms per phase
Percentage reactance (% X) can also be expressed in terms of kVA and kV as under :
(% X) V (% X) V  V
From Equation (1), X = =
100 I 100  VI

(% X)
 V   V   1000
 1000  1000
=
100 
 V I
 1000
(% X) (kV)2  10
=
kVA

(kVA)  X
 %X = …(2)
10 (kV)2
 If ‘X’ is the only reactance element in the circuit, then the short circuit current is given by,
V
ISC =
X

ISC = I 
 100  [By putting the value of X from Equation (1) ] …(3)
% X 
• It is clear from the expression (2) that percentage reactance of an equipment depends upon
its kVA rating.
• Generally, various equipments used in the power system have different kVA ratings.
Therefore, it is necessary to find the percentage reactance of all the elements on a common
kVA ratings.
• This common kVA rating is known as Base kVA. The value of this base – kVA is quite
unimportant and it may be
1. Equal to that of largest plant.
2. Equal to total plant capacity.
3. Any arbitary value.
The conversion can be affected by using the following relation :
Base kVA
% reactance at base kVA =  % Reactance at Rated kVA. …(4)
Rated kVA
• Although the potential at the point of fault is zero, it is a normal practice to express the
short circuit current in terms of short circuit kVA based on the normal system voltage at the
point of fault.
• The product of normal system voltage and short circuit current at the point of fault
expressed in kVA is known as short circuit kVA.
Let V = normal phase voltage in volts.
I = Full load current in amperes at base kVA.
% X = Percentage reactance of the system on base kVA upto the fault point.
From Equation (2)

Short circuit current, ISC = I

 100 
% X 
 Short circuit kVA for 3 phase circuit
3 V  ISC
=
1000
3VI 100
= 
1000 %X
100
Short circuit kVA = Base kVA  …(5)
%X

1.8 Steps to Calculate Symmetrical Short Circuit Current and Short Circuit kVA :

• Draw a single line diagram of given network.

• Indicate all the rating, voltage and percentage reactance of each element of the network.
• Select a base-kVA according to your convenience.
• Convert all percentage reactance to this base value.
• Draw the reactance diagram corresponding to the single line diagram of network, showing
one phase of the system and the neutral.
• Indicate the % reactance’s on the base kVA in reactance diagram. (Transformer in the
system should be represented by a reactance in series.)
• Calculate total % reactance of the network upto the point of fault. Let it be % X.
• Calculate full load current corresponding to the selected base kVA and the normal system
voltage at the fault point. Let it be I.
• Then calculate short circuit current as :
100
Isc = I 
%X
• Calculate short circuit kVA as :
100
S.C. kVA = Base kVA 
%X

1.9 Solved Problems :

Ex. 1.9.1 : A 3 phase transmission line operating at 66 kV and connected through a 1000 kVA transformer
with 5% reactance to a generating station basbar. The generator is of 2500 kVA with 10%
reactance. The single line diagram of the system is shown in Fig. Calculate short circuit current if
fault occurs at the HT terminals of transformer.

Fig. P. 1.9.1(a)

Soln. :
Selection :

Select the base kVA = 2500 kVA

Reactance of transformer at base kVA
Base kVA
XT =  % reactance at rated kVA
Rated kVA
2500
= 5
1000
XT = 12.5%
Reactance of generator at base kVA,
2500
=  10
2500
XG = 10%
Total reactance = % X = % XG+ % XT Fig. P. 1.9.1(b)

 % X = 10 + 12.5
% X = 22.5%
Full load current corresponding to 2500 kVA base at 66 kV is given by,
P = 3 VI
2500  1000
 I =
3  66  1000
I = 21.87 A
 Short circuit current,
100
ISC = I 
%X
100
= 21.87 
22.5
ISC = 97.2 A …Ans.

Ex. 1.9.2 : Two alternators are connected to a bus bar operating at a 12,000 V. The alternator A is of
20,000 kVA and having 20% reactance. Alternator B is of 25,000 kVA and having 35% reactance.
Find the short circuit current that will flow in a complete three phase short circuit if fault occurs at
point ‘F’.

Fig. P. 1.9.2(a)

Soln. : Let the base kVA be 45,000 kVA.

% Reactance of alternator A at the base kVA is
45000
% XA =  20 = 45%
20000
% Reactance of alternator B at the base kVA is
45000
% XB =  35 = 63%
25000
Line current corresponding to 45000 kVA at 12000 V is
45000  103
I =
3  12000
I = 2165.06 Amp …Ans.
Total reactance is
% X = XA  XB
XA  XB
=
XA + XB
45  63
=
45 + 63
% X = 26.25% Fig. P. 1.9.2(b)
100
Short circuit current Isc = I 
%X
100
= 2165.06 
26.25
Isc = 8247 A …Ans.
Ex. 1.9.3 : A three phase transmission line operating at 10 kV and having a resistance of 1 and reactance
of 4 is connected to the generating station bus-bars through 5 MVA step up transformer having a
reactance of 5%. The busbars are supplied by 10 MVA alternator having 10% reactance. Calculate
the short circuit kVA fed to symmetrical fault between phases if it occurs.
1. At the load end of transmission line.
2. At the high voltage terminals of the transformer.
 Fig. P. 1.9.3(a)

Soln. : Let 10,000 kVA be the base kVA.

% Reactance of alternator at base kVA,
Base kVA
% XA =  % reactance at rated kVA
Rated kVA
10000
=  10
10  103
% XA = 10 %
% Reactance of the transformer at base kVA.
10000
% XT = 5
5  103
% XT = 10%
The line impedance is given in ohms. It can be converted into percentage impedance by
expression.
(kVA)  Reactance in 
% XL =
10 (kV)2
10000  4
% XL =
10  (10)2
% XL = 40%
% Resistance of transmission line,
10000  1
% RL =
10  (10)2

% RL = 10%

Fig. P. 1.9.3(b)

Total impedance is :
(i) For fault at the end of transmission line (Point F2),
Total % reactance :
%X = % X A+ % X T + % X L
= 10 + 10 + 40
% X = 60
% resistance = 10%
% Impedance from generator to fault point F2.

 % Z = (60)2 + (10)2
% Z = 60.83 %
100
Short circuit kVA = Base kVA 
%X
 100
= 10000 
60.83

S.C. kVA = 16, 440 kVA …Ans.

(ii) For a fault at high voltage terminals of the transformer (point F1).
Total reactance from generator neutral to fault point F1.
% X = % X A+ % X T
% X = 10 + 10
% X = 20
100
Short circuit kVA = 10000 
20

S.C. kVA = 50,000 kVA …Ans.

Ex. 1.9.4 : Two 3-phase alternators of rating 1 MVA and 15 MVA and voltage rating 3.3 kV have percentage
reactances of 10 and 18 respectively with respect to their ratings. Alternators are connected in
parallel to bus bar. A 3 phase short circuit occurs on the bus. Find short circuit kVA.

Soln. : Let base kVA = 1500 kVA

% Reactance of alternator with respect to base kVA.
Base kVA
% XA =  % reactance of rated kVA
Rated kVA
1500
=  10
1000
% XA = 15%
1500
% XA =  18
1500
% XB = 18%
Fig. P. 1.9.4(a)
Total reactance % X.
% X = XA || XB
15  15
=
15 + 15
% X = 7.5%
Fig. P. 1.9.4(b)
Line current at base kVA
1500  103
I =
3  3.3  103
I = 262.74 A
Short circuit current, ISC
100
ISC = I 
%X
100
= 262.74 
7.5
ISC = 3503.24 Amp. …Ans.

Ex. 1.9.5 : Two three phase generators of ratings 1000 kVA and 1500 kVA 3.3 kV, having percentage
reactance of 10 and 20 respectively with respect to their ratings, are connected to bus bars. A
three phase short circuit occurs on the bus. Find the short circuit current.
Soln. : Let Base kVA = 1500 kVA.
 % reactance of alternator with respect to base kVA
Base kVA
% XA =  % reactance of rated kVA
Rated kVA
1500
=  10
1000
% XA = 15%
1500
% XB =  20
1500
% XB = 20%

(a) (b)
Fig. P. 1.9.5

Total reactance % X.
15  20
% X = XA || XB =
15 + 20
300
=
45
% X = 6.667 %
Line current at base kVA.
1500  103
I =
3  3.3  103
I = 262.74 A
100
Short circuit kVA = Base kVA 
%X
100
= 1500 
6.667
= 22498.87 kVA
S.C. MVA = 22.498 MVA …Ans.
100 100
ISC = I  = 262.74 
%X 6.667
ISC = 1751.68 A …Ans.

Ex. 1.9.6 : Two generators of 11 kV, 3-phase, 3000 kVA having subtrancient reactance of 15% operate in
parallel. The generator supply power to a transmission line through a 6000 kVA transformer of
ratio 11/22 kV and having a leakage reactance of 5%. Calculate fault current and fault MVA for
3 phase fault on (1) H.T. side (2) L.T. side of a transformer.
Soln. :
Assume base kVA = 6000 kVA.
% reactance related to base kVA.
Base kVA
%X =  % reactance of rated kVA
Rated kVA
6000
 XG1 =  15 %
3000
 XG1 = 30%
XG2 = 30%
6000
XT = 5
6000

F ig. P. 1.9.6 (c)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. P. 1.9.6

XT = 5%
Total reactance for fault F1
% X = XG1 || XG2
= 30 || 30
% X = 15
Rated current at base kVA
6000  103
I =
3  11  103
I = 315.29 A
100
ISC = I 
%X
100
= 315.29 
15
ISC = 2102 A
Fault kVA
100
i.e. S.C. kVA = Base kVA 
%X
100
= 6000 
15
= 40000 kVA
S.C. MVA = 40 MVA
For fault F2 , total reactance is
Total % X = (XG1 || XG2) + FT
= 15 + 5
% X = 20%
Rated current at base kVA
6000  103
I =
3  22  103
 I = 157.64 A
100
ISC = I 
%X
100
= 157.64 
20
= 788.23 A
100 100
S.C. kVA = Base kVA  = 6000 
%X 20
= 30000 kVA
S.C. MVA = 30 MVA …Ans.
Ex. 1.9.7 : The plant capacity of a three phase generating station consists of two 15,000 kVA generators of
reactance 10% each and one 8000 kVA generator of reactance 18%. The generators are
connected to the station busbars from which load is taken through three 5000 kVA step up
transformers each having a reactance of 8%. Determine the maximum fault MVA which the circuit
breakers on (1) low voltage side and (2) High voltage side of transformer may have to deal with.
Soln. :

Fig. P. 1.9.7(a)

Let base kVA is 15,000 kVA.

Percentage reactance of generator A, B and C and each transformer with respect to base
kVA is,
Base kVA
% X =  % X at rated kVA
Rated kVA
15000
% XA =  10% = 10%
15000
15000
% XB =  10% = 10%
15000
15000
% Xc =  18% = 33.75%
8000
15000
% XT =  8% = 24%
5000
(1) When fault occurs on the low voltage side of transformer
(point F1) the reactance diagram is,
Total reactance upto point F1 = % X
% X = % XA || % XB || % XC
= 10% || 10% || 33.75%
5  33.75
= Fig. 1.9.7(b)
5 + 33.75
% X = 4.35% …Ans.
 100 1
Fault MVA = 15000  
4.35 1000
Fault MVA = 344.83 …Ans.
(2) When the fault occurs on the high voltage side of the transformer (point F2) reactance
diagram is,

Fig. 1.9.7(c)

Total reactance from generator to fault point F2 is,

= 4.35% + 24%
% X = 28.35% …Ans.
100
Fault MVA = Base MVA 
%X
100 1
= 15,000  
28.35 1000
Fault MVA = 52.91 …Ans.
Ex. 1.9.8 : Two section bus bars A and B are linked by a bus bar reactor rated at 6000 kVA with 12%
reactance. On bus bar A there are two generators each of 12000 kVA with 15% reactance and on
B two generators each of 10000 kVA with 8% reactance. Find the steady MVA fed to short circuit
between all phases on B with bus bar reactor in the circuit.

Fig. 1.9.8(a)

Soln. :
Select the base kVA as 12000
% reactance of generator 1 and 2 with respect to base kVA is,
12000
15  = 15%
12000
% X1 = 15% and % X2 = 15%
% reactance of generator 3 and 4 with respect to base kVA is,
12000
8 = 9.6%
10000
 % X3 = 9.6% and % X4 = 9.6%
 % reactance of busbar with respect to base kVA is,
12000
% XBB = 12  = 24%
6000

% XBB = 24% …Ans.

Total reactance from generator neutral upto fault

point ‘F’ from reactance diagram is

% X = (7.5% + 24%) || 4.8%

31.5  6
= = 5.04%
31.5  6

% X = 5.04 % …Ans.
100
Fault MVA = Base MVA  Fig. 1.9.8(b)
% X
100 1
= 12000  
5.04 1000

Fault MVA = 238.09 …Ans.

Ex. 1.9.9 : A generating station has three section bus-bars connected with a tie-bar through 6% reactors rated
at 5000 kVA. Each generator is of 5000 kVA with 12% reactance and in connected to one section
of bus-bar. Find the total steady input to a dead short circuit between the lines on one of the
sections of bus bar (i) with reactors and (ii) without reactors.
Soln. :

Fig. P. 1.9.9(a)
Let 5000 kVA be the base kVA.
As generators and reactors are rated at this kVA, therefore, their percentage reactance
remains the same.
(1) With reactors :

Suppose 3 phase short-circuit fault occurs on section 3 of the busbar (Point ‘F’). The
reactance diagram at the selected base kVA is,
% Total reactance from generator neutral upto fault point F.
% X = (9% + 6%) || 12%
15  12
=
15 + 12
% X = 6.67 %
100
 Short circuit input = 5000 
6.67
= 74,962 kVA
S.C. MVA = 74.962 MVA …Ans.

Fig. P. 1.9.9(b)
(2) Without reactors :
Suppose no reactors are used. Then for a fault on section 3, the total reactance upto the fault
point will be a parallel combination of the reactance of the three generators i.e.
Total reactance upto fault point F
= 12% || 12% || 12 %
12
%X =
3
% X = 4%
100
Short circuit kVA = 5000
4
= 1,25,000 kVA Fig. P. 1.9.9(c)
S.C. MVA = 125 MVA …Ans.

1.10 Current Limiting Reactors :

• Day by day fast expanding power system also causes increase in the fault level.
• The circuit breakers connected in the power system must be capable of handling the
maximum possible short-circuit currents.
• Generally the reactance of the system under fault condition is low and fault currents may
rise to a dangerously high value.
• In order to limit the short circuit currents to a value which the circuit breakers can handle,
additional reactances known as reactors are connected in series with the system at suitable
points.
• A reactor is a coil of number of turns designed to have a large inductance as compared to its
ohmic resistance. Due to small resistance of reactors there is very little change in efficiency
of the system.
Location of reactors :
Basically there are three locations of connecting the reactors :
1. In series with the generator.
2. In series with the each feeder.
3. In busbar.
1.10.1 Generator Reactors :

• When the reactors are connected in series with the

generator are known as generator reactors.
• The function of generator reactor is to protect the
generator incase of any short circuit occurs beyond
the reactors.

Fig. 1.10.1 : Generator reactor

• Generator reactors suffers from the following disadvantages.
• Since the reactances are all the time in the circuit, there is considerable voltage drop
and power loss in the reactors even during normal operation.
• If the fault occurs close to bus bar the voltage of bus bar reduces to a great value which
may cause the generators to falls out of step.
• If fault occurs on bus bar or feed or then continuity of supply is affected.
Due to be above disadvantages, it is not feasible to provide a separate reactors for the
generators.

1.10.2 Feeder Reactors :

Fig. 1.10.2 : Feeder reactors

• When the reactors are connected in series with each feeder, they are known as feeder
reactors.
• Feeder reactor possesses following advantages :
(i) Occurance of fault on any feeder, do not disturb the bus bar voltage. So that the
tendency of generator to falls out of step is reduced considerably.
(ii) Fault on any one feeder does not affect the other feeders thus the continuity of supply
is maintained.
• But feeder reactors possesses following disadvantages :
(i) If any fault occurs on the bus bar then there is no protection provided for the
generators.
(ii) Since the reactors are all the time in circuit, there is constant power loss and voltage
drop in reactors even during normal condition.
(iii) The size of feeder reactors is directly dependent on number of generators connected to
the bus bar. Increase in the number of generators, size of feeder reactors has to be
increased to limit the short circuit currents within the feeder circuit breakers rating.
1.10.3 Bus Bar Reactors :
• In above two methods, there is considerable voltage drop and power loss even in normal
operating conditions. Thus to over come this disadvantage, reactors are connected with bus
bar. There are two methods of connecting reactors with bus bar :
(a) Ring system and
(b) Tie bar system.
(a) Ring system :
• In this system, sections are made of
generators and feeders and these
sections are connected to each other at a
common bus bar as shown in
Fig. 1.10.3(a).
• In this system normally one feeder is
fed from one generator. Fig. 1.10.3(a) : Ring system bus bar reactor
• Under normal operations, very small amount of current flows through the reactors,
therefore, voltage drop and power loss in the reactors is low.
• Thus reactors can be designed to have high ohemic value of resistance.
• In case of fault on any one feeder, only one generator feeds the fault.
• Thus heavy currents and voltage disturbances caused by a short circuit on a bus section
are reduced.
• However, bus bar reactors do not protect the generators connected to the faulty
sections.
(b) Tie bar system :
• This is the modification of the above
system. By adopting this system, the
voltage regulation between feeder
sections is improved than the above
system.
• This system is mostly suited to
generating stations where, frequently
new generators are being added. Fig. 1.10.3(b) : Tie-bar reactor for busbar
• In this system the generators are connected to the common bus bar through reactors
but the feeders are fed from the generator side of the reactors. Operation of this system
is similar to ring system.
• Additional advantage of this system is that, if the number of sections is increased, the
fault current will not exceed a certain value which is fixed by the size of individual
reactors. Thus switchgear designed to operate successfully on this limiting current will
continue operating without any harm for any increase in number sections. Thus no
modification is required.

Introduction :
An electrical power system is very complex. It needs some form of switchgear to make on and
off operations on generators, transformers, bus bars, Transmission lines etc. This on and off
operations may be manual (in case of normal condition) and automatically (in abnormal
condition). Therefore various types of switching equipments are incorporated in the power system.
These equipments are known as switchgears.
In earlier days a tumbler switch with a fuse unit was being used on large scale for switching
purpose.
 Following are the switching/interrupting devices :
1. Load switches.
2. Fuses
3. Isolators.
4. Circuit breakers.
2.2 Circuit Interrupting Devices :
2.2.1 Fuses :
• Fuse is a simplest device, which breaks the circuit under abnormal condition i.e. it is only a
current interrupting device under fault condition and is not able to make or break the circuit
under normal condition.
• It is used for overload/short circuit protection in medium voltage (up to 33 kV) and low
voltage (up to 400V) installations.
Types of fuses :
Fuses are classified as :
• Semi enclosed or rewirable type.
• Totally enclosed or cartridge type.
• Dropout fuse.
• Expulsion fuse.
• H.R.C. fuse (High rupturing capacity).
• Striker fuse.
• Switch fuse.
2.2.2 Semi Enclosed or Rewirable Fuse :
• This fuse is most commonly used in house wiring and small current circuits.
• The fuse wire is fitted on porcelain ‘carrier’ which is fitted in the porcelain base.
• Whenever the fuse wire blows off due to overload or short circuit, the fuse carrier can be
pulled out, the new wire can be placed and service can be restored.
• The fuse wire may be of lead, tinned copper or an alloy of tin lead.
• The fuse wire should be replaced by a wire of correct size and of correct specifications,
otherwise it may prove dangerous with the possibility of the equipment burning out.
Rewirable fuses suffer from the following disadvantages :
3

Fig. 2.2.1 : Semi- enclosed fuse

1. Unreliable operation :
(a) Since the fuse wire is exposed to the atmosphere, it gets oxidized and
deteriorated, resulting in a reduction of the wire section with the passage
of time. This increases the resistance, causing operation of the fuse at
lower currents.
(b) Local heating caused by loose connection etc.
2. Lack of discrimination :
Proper discrimination cannot be ensured due to unreliable operation.
 (a) Small the lag because of the small the lag, these fuses can blow with large
transient currents encountered during the starting of motors and
switching. On operation of transformers, capacitors and fluorescent lamp,
etc. unless fuses of sufficiently high rating are used.
(b) Risk of external flame and fire.
2.2.3 High Rupturing Capacity (H.R.C.) Fuses :
• Fig. 2.2.2 shows the essential parts of a typical H.R.C.
• H. R. C. fuses mainly consist of a heat resisting ceramic body. Both the ends of ceramic body
consist of metal end caps.
• A silver current carrying element is welded to these metal end caps.
• The current carrying element is completely surrounded by the filling powder.

(a) H.R.C. fuse (b) Fuse element

Fig. 2.2.2

• The filling material may be plaster of parries, chalk, quartz or marble dust.
• Filling material acts as an arc quenching and cooling medium when fuse element blows off
due to excessive heat generated under abnormal condition.
• Under normal conditions, the fuse element is at a temperature below its melting point.
Therefore, it carries the normal current without overheating.
• When a fault occurs, the current increases and the heat produced is sufficient to melt fuse
element. Fuse element melt before the fault current reaches its first peak value.
• Vaporisation of metal silver element chemically reacts with filling powder and results in the
formation of high resistance substance and helps in quenching the arc.
Advantages :
1. Speed of operation is very high.
2. Maintenance cost is practically zero.
3. They are capable of clearing high as well as low fault currents.
4. They do not deteriorate with age.
5. They provide reliable operation.
6. They are cheaper than other circuit interrupting devices of equal breaking capacity.
Disadvantages :
1. Heat produced by the arc may affect the associated switches.
2. They have to be replaced after each operation.

2.3 Characteristics of Fuse Element :

They should have following desirable characteristics.
1. Low melting point.
2. High conductivity.
3. Free from deterioration due to oxidation.
4. Low cost.
2.4 Fuse Characteristics :

Fig. 2.4.1 : Fuse characteristic

• Fig. 2.4.1 shows the typical time - current characteristic of a fuse, the current scale being in
multiples of the rated current and the time scale being logarithm.
• Generally this graph is plotted between prearcing time and prospective current.
• From above characteristic, it is clear that as the prospective current increases, the prearcing
time decreases i.e. fault current and operating is inversely proportional to each other.
• It is also clear that the characteristic becomes asymptotic and there is a minimum current
below which the fuse does not operate. This current is called as minimum fusing current.
• The operating time of the fuse for currents near the minimum fusing current is long.

2.5 Definitions :

2.5.1 Rated Current :

The rated current of a fuse is the current it can carry without fusing.

2.5.2 Minimum Fusing Current :

• It is the minimum current (rms value) at which the fuse element will melt.
• The minimum fusing current depends upon various factors, such as the material length,
shape and area of cross section of the fuse element, size and location of the terminals.
• An approximate value of the minimum fusing current for a round fuse wire is given by,
I = K d3/2
• Where ‘K’ is constant depending upon the material of the fuse wire, ‘d’ is the diameter of the
wire.
2.5.3 Fusing Factor :
It is defined as the ratio of the minimum fusing current to rated current i.e.
Minimum fusing current
Fusing factor =
Rated current
2.5.4 Prospective Current :
• Fig. 2.5.1 shows the first major loop of the fault
current. The prospective current (dotted line) is
the current, which would have flow in the circuit
if the fuse had been absent.
• It is measured in terms of the rms value of the
a.c. (symmetrical) component of the fault current
in the first major loop. ‘Ip’ is the peak value of the
prospective current.

Fig. 2.5.1 : Prospective current

2.5.5 Cut-off Current :

The current at which the fuse element blows off (melts) is called the cut off current
(current ‘ic’) and is measured as an instantaneous value.

2.5.6 Pre-arcing Time or Melting Time :

This is the time taken from the instant of the commencement of the current, which causes
cut-off to the instant of cut off and arc initiation. In above Fig. 2.5.1 (tpa) is the prearcing time.

2.5.7 Arcing Time :

This is the time taken from the instant of cutoff (arc initiation) to the instant of arc being
extinguished or the current finally becoming zero. In above Fig. 2.5.1 period (ta) is arcing time.

2.5.8 Total Operating Time :

It is the sum of the prearcing time and the arcing time. (t = tpa + ta)

2.5.9 Rupturing Capacity (Breaking Capacity) :

It is a MVA rating of the fuse corresponding to the largest prospective current, which the
fuse is capable of breaking or rupturing at the system voltage.

2.6 Isolators :
• Isolator (disconnecting switch) operates under no load condition. It does not have any
specified current breaking capacity or current making capacity. Isolator is not even used for
breaking load currents.
• Isolators are used in addition with circuit breakers, and are provided on each side of every
circuit breaker to provide isolation and enable maintenance.
• Isolators used in power system are of 3-pole type. 3-poles are identical one.
• Each pole consists of two or three insulators posts mounted on a fabricated support.
• The conducting parts are supported on the insulator posts. The conducting parts consist of
conducting copper or aluminium rod, fixed and moving contacts.
• During the opening operation the conducting rods swings apart and isolation is obtained.
• The simultaneous operation of 3-poles is obtained by mechanical interlocking of the three
poles. Further for all the three poles, there is a common operating mechanism.
• Sequence of operation while opening/closing a circuit.
While opening :
• Open the circuit breaker.
• Open isolator.
 • Close earthing switch.
While closing :
• Open earthing switch
• Close isolator
• Close circuit breaker
Types of construction of isolators :
1. Vertical break type :
• These are outdoor air break disconnecting switches of the gang operated vertical break
type with rating of 7 kV and above.
• These isolators are designed for all outdoor applications including isolation of circuit
breakers, transformer banks and surge arresters and line sectioning.

Fig. 2.6.1 : Vertical type break type isolator

2. Horizontal break centre rotating double break isolator :

• It has three stacks of insulators per phase. These insulators are mounted on a
galvanised steel channel or frame.
• Two insulator stacks one at each end are fixed to base where as the central insulator
stack is free to rotate around its own vertical axis.
• It can rotate about its vertical axis through about 90.
• This is used above 245 kV.
3. Pantograph type isolator :
• While closing, the linkages of pantograph are brought hearer by rotating the insulator
column.
• In closed position the upper two arms of the pantograph close on the overhead station
bus bar giving a grip.
• The current is carried by the upper bus bar to the lower bus bar through the conducting
arms of the pantograph.
• While opening, the rotating insulators column is rotated about its axis. There by the
pantograph blades collapse in vertical plane and vertical isolation is obtained between
the line terminal and pantograph upper terminal.
 (b) (c)

Fig. 2.6.2 : Pantograph type isolator

2.7 Earthing Switch :

• Earthing switch is connected between the line conductor and earth. Normally it is open.
• When the line is disconnected, the erathing switch is closed so as to discharge the voltage
trapped on the line.
• Though the line is disconnected, there is some voltage on the line to which the capacitance
between line and earth is charged.
• This voltage is significant in high voltage system.
• Before starting the maintenance work these voltages are discharged to earth by closing the
earthing switch.
• Normally the earthing switches are mounted on the frame of isolator.

2.8 Fault Statistics :

2.8.1 Oscillogram of Current and Voltage During the Fault Clearing :

• In case of any fault on the power system, the circuit breaker gets opened and after the fault
is been cleared. circuit breaker is again closed.
• Let the circuit breaker be closed when the any one ‘B’ terminal of 3 phase system with
respect to neutral be zero. In such case S.C. current in that same phase ‘B’ will have
maximum D.C. components and the waveform of current.
• It will be unsymmetrical about normal zero axis as shown in Fig. 2.8.1.
• This Fig. 2.8.1 shows the typical waveforms of short circuit in a phase having maximum D.C.
component.
• The generator is on no load before t = 0. Hence current is zero before t = 0, at t = 0 the short
circuit is applied and the current increases to a high value during the first quarter cycle.
The peak of the first major loop of current is ‘OM’ and this is the maximum instantaneous
value of current during the short circuit the instantaneous peak value of the first major
current loop is called the making current. In Fig. 2.8.1 the making current is ‘OM’. It is
expressed in kA peak.
• Now it may so happen that circuit breaker may close on existing fault. In such case current
increases to the maximum value at the peak of first current loop.
• The circuit breaker should able to close without hesitation as contacts touch. The circuit
breaker should be able to withstand the high mechanical force during. Such a closure. These
capabilities are provided by carrying out making current of a circuit breaker in the peak
value of first current loop of short circuit current (Ipk) which is the circuit breaker is capable
of making its rated voltage.

Fig. 2.8.1 : Oscillogram of current and voltage during fault

• The rated short circuit making should be least 2.5 times the rms value of A.C. components of
rated breaking current.

Rated making current = 1.8  2  Rated S.C. breaking

= 2.5  Rated S.C. breaking current

In above equation the factor 2 converts the rms value to peak value factor 1.8 takes into
account the doubling effect of short circuit current with consideration to slight drop in current
during the first quarter cycle.
• The circuit breaker contacts separates after few cycles. Since the relay and the operating
mechanism takes at least a couple of cycles.
• Let us assume that circuit breaker contacts separates at t = T1. The rms value of S.C. at the
time of the instant of contact. Separation is termed as breaking current.
• At the separation of contacts of the circuit breaker an arc is drawn between the contacts of
the circuit breaker an arc is drawn between the contacts the arc current varies sinusoidally
for a few cycles. At t = T2 a particular current zero the dielectric strength of the arc space
 builds up sufficiently so as to prevent the continuation of arc. At the current zero this arc is
extinguishes and is been interrupted.
• Mean while what is happening to the voltage between contacts ? This voltage recorded is
shown in Fig. 2.8.1 before t = 0, the contacts are closed and the voltage across contacts
increases. In fact this voltage in the voltage drop across the arc during the arcing period.
• The voltage across arc is in the phase with current since the arc is resistive. The particular
waveform shape is a result of volt-ampere characteristics of arc-discharge to be studied later
during subsequent half cycle, the voltage across contacts increases due to increased arc
resistance.
• Finally at t = T2 when arc gets extinguished a high frequently voltage transient appear
across the contact which is superimposed on power frequency system voltage.
• This high frequency transient voltage tries to restrike the arc. Hence it is called as restriking
voltage and the power frequency system voltage appearing between the poles after arc
extinguish is called as recovery voltage.
• The transient recovery voltage appearing across the circuit breaker pole immediately after
the final arc interruption causes a high dielectric stresses between the circuit breaker
contacts.
• If the dielectric strength of the medium between the contacts does not build up faster than
the rate of rise of the time transient recovery voltage. The break down takes place-causing
reestablishment of the arc.
• If the dielectric strength of the contact builds up very rapidly so that it is more than the rate
of rise of transient recovery voltage. The circuit breaker interrupts the current successfully.
• The rate of rise of T.R.V. generally depends on the circuit parameters and the type of the
switching duty involved. The rate of the building upon dielectric strength depends upon the
effective design of interrupter and circuit breaker.

2.8.2 Arc Formation Process :

• Refer Fig. 2.8.2 (a) circuit breakers contacts are in closed position. And entire cross section of
conductor carries the current. Now when fault occurs on system a heavy current flows
through the contacts of the circuit breaker before they are opened to protect the system.
• Refer Fig. 2.8.2 (b) when the contacts begin to separate the contact area decreases rapidly
and large fault current flows through reduced cross section, which causes increased current
density and hence rise in temperature.
 (a) Contact pressed at high pressure in closed position.
(b) Pressure reduced hence contact are reduced current concentrated on a few spot of
high current density.
(c) Contacts separated, arc formation, arc is surrounded by ionized gas and hot column
of gas.
(d) The voltage gradient = V/L
If V = 1 kV l = 1 mm
Voltage gradient = 1000 V/mm
• Thus the heat produced in between the contacts is sufficient to ionise the medium (usually
the medium is oil or air) between the contacts.
• In circuit breakers the contact space is ionised by the following causes :
1. Thermal ionization of gas.
2. Ionization by collision of particles.
3. Thermal emission from surface of contact.
4. Secondary emission from surface of contact.
5. Field emission from the surface of contact.
• The ionised air or vapour acts as a conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts. The
potential difference between the contacts is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the
arc. The arc provides a low resistance path and consequently the current is the circuit
remains uninterrupted so long as the arc persists.
The volt-ampere characteristic of a steady are is given by an equation.
Bd + C + Dd
Varc = A +
iarc
d = length of arc
Iarc = current in arc
Varc = voltage across arc
A, B, C, D = Constant
The voltage across arc reduces as the current increases
as shown in the following Fig. 2.8.3. Fig. 2.8.3 : Arc characteristic

2.9 Methods of Arc Extinction :

Mainly there are two factors responsible for the maintenance of arc between the contacts.
These are :
1. Potential difference between the contacts.
2. Ionised particles between the contacts.
1. Potential difference between the contacts :
• When the distance between two separated contacts is small, then the potential
difference between them is sufficient to maintain the arc.
• To extinguish the arc between the contacts, the contacts can be separated to such a
distance that potential difference becomes insufficient to maintain the arc.
• But when the system voltage is very high, this method is impracticable as a separation
of many meters may be required.
2. Ionised particles between the contacts :
• When the arc is struck between the contacts it surrounds by the ionized particles. These
particles between tend to maintain the arc.
• One way to extinguish the arc is to deionise the arc path.
 • This may be achieved by cooling the arc or by bodily removing the ionised particles from
the space between the contacts.
• Further there are two methods of extinguishing the arc in circuit breaker.
1. High resistance method.
2. Low resistance or current zero method.

2.9.1 High Resistance Method (Blow out Coils) :

• By increasing the resistance of the arc path the arc interruption can be obtained.
• The resistance of arc is given as :
Varc
rarc =
iarc
Where iarc = current in arc
Varc = voltage across arc
Varc = resistance of arc
• Assuming arc current (iarc) to be constant then the resistance of the arc can be increased by
increasing voltage of the arc (varc). The equation for arc voltage is given by,
Dd
Varc = A + Bd +
iarc
Where A, B and C are constants
‘d’ = length of the arc.
• From the above equation increasing length of the arc can increase the arc voltage hence the
arc resistance.
• The voltage of the arc is increased till it becomes more than the system voltage across the
contacts.
• At this stage the arc gets extinguished.
• The main disadvantage of this method is that huge amount of energy is dissipated in the arc
therefore this method is employed only in D.C. circuit breakers and low capacity A.C. circuit
breakers.
The arc resistance is increased by following methods :
(a) Lengthening the arc by arc runners :
Fig. 2.9.1 shows the arc runners. Where arc gets elongated while traveling from point
1 to 2.

1. Initial position of arc 2. Final position of arc

3. Arc runners 4. Field
5. Force due to electromagnetic forces.
Fig. 2.9.1 : Arc runners
• Arc runners are horn like blades of conducting material, which are connected to arcing
contacts of circuit breakers with their tips radiating upward in ‘V’ shape.
• When the contacts of circuit breaker starts opening, the arc get struck between them and is
transferred to bottom of arc runners.
• The arc blows upwards by electromagnetic force. The tips of the arc move upward along arc
runners or arc horns rapidly.
• The length of the arc increases and the arc gets extinguished.
(b) Splitting of the arc :

Fig. 2.9.2 shows the constructional details of arc splitters.

• Arc splitters are specially made plates of resin-bonded fibreglass.
• Arc splitters are placed in the path perpendicular to the arc and arc is pulled into them
by electromagnetic force.
• Therefore it gets elongated constrained split and cooled.
• By virtue of these effects the arc gets extinguished.

1. Arc runners 4. Arc in process of traveling

2. Arc splitters 5. Blow out coils. (metallic)
3. Elongated arc 6. Origin of arc.
Fig. 2.9.2 : Arc splitters

(c) Cooling of the arc :

• Bringing the arc in contact with cooled air brings about cooling of arc.
• Cooling of arc removes the heat from the arc.
• Cooling of the arc brings about recombination of ionised particles.
• Thus it develops high dielectric strength of medium between the two contacts of circuit
breaker and prevents restriking of arc.

2.9.2 Low Resistance or Zero Point Extinction :

• Low resistance or zero point extinction method is employed in a.c. circuit breakers since the
alternating current passes through zero 100 times per second in 50 cycle current wave.
• When current wave passes through every zero the arc vanishes for a brief moment. However,
the arc restrikes again with the rising current waves.
• In this method, at current zero instant, fresh unionised medium (such as oil or fresh air or
SF6 gas) is introduced between the space of contacts. Due to introduction of unionised
medium deionisation effect takes place.
• The dielectric strength of the contact space increases to such an extent that the arc does not
continue after current zero.
• The high voltage may appear across the contacts. If the dielectric strength of gap is less than
the restriking voltage the voltage may re-establish the arc.
• In that case the arc continues for another half cycle and may get extinguished at next
current zero.
• In various types of circuit breakers the provision is made to remove the hot gases from the
contact space immediately after the arc extinction so as to fill the contact space by fresh
dielectric medium of high dielectric strength.
2.10 Important Terms :
2.10.1 Arc Voltage :

It is the voltage that appears across the contacts of the circuit breaker during the arcing
period.
• As soon as the contacts of the circuit breaker separate an arc is formed. The voltage that
appears across the contact during arcing period is called the arc voltage.
• Magnitude of arc voltage is low except for the period of fault current wave is at or near zero
position.
• At current zero position the arc voltage increase rapidly to peak value.
• This peak voltage causes to maintain the current flow in the form of arc.

2.10.2 Restriking Voltage :

• It is the transient voltage that appears across the
contacts at or near current zero during arcing period.
• The current interruption in the circuit depends upon
the restriking voltage.
• If the restriking voltage rises more rapidly than the
dielectric strength of medium between the contacts
the arc will persist for another half cycle. Fig. 2.10.1 : Restriking voltage

2.10.3 Recovery Voltage :

• It is the normal frequency (50 Hz) r.m.s voltage that appears across the contact of the circuit
breaker after final arc extinction. It is approximately equal to the system voltage.
• Immediately after final current interruption the voltage that appears across the contacts has
a transient part.
• See Fig. 2.10.1 however these transient oscillations subside rapidly due to the damping
effect of system resistance and normal circuit voltage appears across the contacts.
• The voltage across the contact is of normal frequency and is known as recovery voltage.

2.11 Classification of Circuit Breakers :

• Circuit breakers can be classified by various methods however; the most general way of
classification is on the basis of medium used for arc extinction.
• Various arc extinction medium used in circuit breakers is usually oil, air sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) or vacuum.
• According to above mediums, circuit breakers are classified as :
(i) Oil circuit breakers : These circuit breakers employ insulting oil (e.g. transformer oil)
for arc extinction.
(ii) Air blast circuit breakers : These circuit breakers employ high pressure air-blast for
extinguishing the arc.
(ii) Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breakers : These circuit breakers employ sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) gas is for arc extinction.
(iv) Vacuum circuit breakers : These circuit breakers employ vacuum is used for arc
extinction.

2.11.1 Air Break Circuit Breaker :

Construction :
• There are two sets of contacts. Main contacts and arcing contacts.
• Main contacts conduct the current in closed position of the breaker.
• They have low contact resistance and are silver-plated.
• The arcing contacts are hard heat resistant and are usually of copper alloy.
• Arcing horns and arc splitters are used to increase the length of arc.
• Fig. 2.11.1 (a) shows the construction details of air break circuit breaker in closed position
while Fig. 2.11.1 (b) shows the air break circuit breaker in open position.
Operation :
• In air break circuit breaker the contact separation and arc extinction take place in air at
atmospheric pressure.
• As soon as the fault occurs the trip circuit gives command to circuit breaker and the contacts
are opened.
• While opening the contact the main contact dislodge first. The current is shifted to the
arcing contacts.
• The arcing contacts dislodge later and arc is drawn between them.
• The arc core is conducting path of plasma. The surrounding medium contains ionised air.
• This arc is forced upward by the electromagnetic force and thermal action. The arc travels
along the arcing horns.
• The arc moves upwards and is split by arc splitter plates as shown by the arrow.
• By cooling the arc, the diameter of arc core is reduced. The arc is extinguished by
lengthening, cooling and splitting.
• The arc resistance is increased to such an extent that the system voltage cannot maintain
the arc and the arc gets extinguished at current zero of A.C. wave.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.11.1 : Air break circuit breaker

Specifications :
Air break circuit breakers are available in following ratings :
• 460 V, 400 - 3500 A, 40 - 75 kA
• 3.3 kV, 400 - 3500 A, 13.1 - 31.5 – kA
• 6.6 kV, 400 - 2400 A, 13.1 - 20 kA.

2.11.2 Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB), Moulded Case Circuit - Breakers (MCCB) :
• Miniature circuit breaker and moulded case circuit breaker have the features of a good
H.R.C. fuse and a good switch.
• These can be used for switching purpose under normal operating condition and a circuit
breaker under overloading and short circuit conditions.
• These are used extensively in low voltage domestic, commercial and industrial application.
They ensure high mechanical strength, high dielectric strength and virtually no ageing.
• It mainly consists of thermal relay inside it and the current carrying parts are made out of
electrolytic copper or silver alloy depending upon the rating of the breaker.
• All other metal parts are made up of nonferrous, non-rusting type materials.
• The tripping mechanism and the terminal contacts are assembled in a moulded case,
moulded out of the thermosetting powders.
• Magnetic and thermal sensing devices provided within the MCB actuate the tripping
mechanism.
• The arc chute has a special construction which increase the length of the arc by the magnetic
field created by the arc itself and the arc chute is so placed in the breakers that the hot
gases may not come in contact with any of the important part of the breakers.
Specifications :
Miniature circuit breakers are available in following ratings :
• Current rating : 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, Amps
As well as 0.5, 1, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 6, 7.5, 8, 10, 12, 35, 45, 55 Amp.
• Voltage rating : A C Voltage rating - 240 V/415.
D C Voltage rating - 50 V/110.
• Rupturing capacity : 3 kA at 50V (non-inductive) 1 kA at 110 V (non-inductive).

2.11.3 Air Blast Circuit - Breaker :

It is also called compressed air circuit breaker.
Working principle :
• When the contacts get separated; High-pressure air is forced on the arc through a nozzle.
• The ionised medium between the contacts is blown away by the blast of the air, which
prevent restriking of arc.
Construction :
• High-pressure air, (about 20 to 30 atm) is stored in the air reservoir (1). Air is taken from
compressed air system.
• Three hollow insulator columns (2) are mounted on the reservoir with valve (6) at their base.
• The double arc extinguishing chambers (3) are mounted on the top of the hollow insulator
chambers.
• The current carrying parts (9) connect the three arc extinction chambers to each in series
and the pole to the neighbouring equipment.
• Since there exist a very high voltage between the conductor and the air reservoir, the entire
arc extinction chamber assembly is mounted on insulator.
• The details of the double arc extinction chambers (3) are shown in 2.11.2(b).
• Since there are three double arc extinction poles in series there are six breaks per pole. Each
arc extinction chamber consists of one twin fixed contact.
• There are two moving contacts, which are shown in the opening process. The moving,
contacts can move axially so as to open or close.
• Its position open or close depends on air pressure and spring pressure.

Fig. 2.11.2(a) : Air blast circuit breaker

Working :
• When a pneumatic or electrical signal is actuated the operating mechanism operates the rod
and valves are made open to send the high-pressure air in the hollow insulator.
• The high-pressure air rapidly enters the double arc extinction chamber. As the air enters
into the arc extinction chamber the pressure on the moving contact become more than
spring pressure and make the contacts open.
• The contacts travel through a short distance against the spring pressure. At the end of
contact travel the port for outgoing air is closed by the moving contact and the entire arc
extinction chamber is filled with high-pressure air, as the air is not allowed to go out.
• However during the arcing period the air goes out through the opening and takes away the
ionised particles of arc.
Applications :
Since the Air blast circuit breakers are suitable for repeated duty they are preferred for -
• Arc furnace duty
• Traction system.

Fig. 2.11.2(b) : Air blast circuit breaker with internal assembly

2.11.4 Type of Air Blast Circuit Breakers :

According to flow of forced air, air blast circuit breakers are classified as :
(i) Axial blast air circuit breakers.
(ii) Cross blast air breaker.
(i) Axial blast air circuit breakers :

Fig. 2.11.3(a) : Axial blast air circuit breaker

• Fig. 2.11.3(a) shows the essential components of a typical axial blast air circuit breaker.
• The fixed and moving contacts are held in the closed position by spring pressure under
normal conditions.
• The air reservoir is connected to the arcing chamber through an air valve. This valve
remains closed under normal conditions but opens automatically by the tripping
impulse when a fault occurs on the system.
• When a fault occurs, the tripping impulse causes opening of the air valve, which
connects the circuit breaker reservoir to the arcing chamber.
• The high-pressure air entering the arcing chamber pushes away the moving contact
against spring pressure.
• The moving contact is separated and an arc is struck. At the same time, high-pressure
air blast flows along the arc and take away the ionised gases along with it.
• Consequently the arc is extinguished and current flow is interrupted.
(ii) Cross blast air breaker :
• Fig. 2.11.3(b) shows the essential components of a typical cross blast air circuit breaker.
• In this type of circuit breaker an air blast is directed at right angles to the arc.
• The cross blast lengthens and force the arc into a suitable chute for arc extinction.
• When the moving contact is withdrawn, an arc is struck between the fixed and moving
contact. The high-pressure cross blast force the arc into a chute consisting of arc
splitters and baffles.
• The splitters serve to increase the length of arc and baffles give improved cooling. The
result is that arc is extinguished and flow of current is interrupted.
 Fig. 2.11.3(b) : Cross blast air breaker

2.12 Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) Circuit Breaker :

• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) is an inert, heavy gas having good dielectric and arc
extinguishing properties. The dielectric strength of the gas increases with pressure and is
more than that of dielectric of oil having pressure of 3 kgf/cm2.
• The gas is transported in liquid from in cylinder. Before filling the gas, the circuit breaker is
evacuated to the pressure of about 4 mm of mercury so as to remove the moisture and air.
• The gas is then filled in the circuit breaker. The gas can be reclaimed by the gas-handling
unit.

2.12.1 Properties of SF6 Gas :

Physical properties :
• Colourless
• Odourless
• Non-toxic, pure SF6 gas is not harmful to health.
• Non-inflammable. However impure SF6 gas contain toxic impurities.
• State : gas at normal temperature pressure.
• Density : heavy gas density 5 time that of air at 20C atmospheric pressure.
• The gas starts liquefying at certain low temperature. The temperature of liquefication.
depends on pressure at 15 kgf/cm2 the gas starts liquefying at 10C. Hence this gas is not
suitable for pressures above 15 kgf/cm2.
• Heat transferability :
The heat transferability of SF6 gas is 2 to 2.5 times that of air at same pressure. Hence for
the equal conductor size the current carrying capacity is relatively more.
• Enthalpy :
Heat content property at temperature below 6000K is much higher than nitrogen. This
assists cooling of arc space after current zero, due to continuous removal of heat from the contact
space by the surrounding gas.
• Low arc-time constant :
The time constant of the medium is defined, as “the time between current zero and the
instant the conductance of contact space reaches zero value
Chemical properties of SF6 gas :
(i) Stable up to 500C.
(ii) Inert - The chemical inertness of this gas is advantageous in switchgear. The life of
metallic part, a contact is longer in SF6 gas.
• The components do not get oxidised or deteriorated. Hence the maintenance
requirements are reduced.
 • Moisture is very harmful to the properties of the gas. In the presence of moisture
hydrogen fluoride is formed during arcing, which can attack the metallic and
insulating parts in the circuit breaker.
(iii) Electronegative gas.
(iv) Does not react with structural material up to 500C.
(v) Products of decomposition :
• During arc extinction process SF6 is broken down to some extent into SF4 SF2.
The products of decomposition recombine upon cooling to form the original gas.
• The remainder is removed by filters containing activated alumina (AI2 OI3) loss
factor is small.
• The products of decomposition arc toxic attack certain structural material.
Dielectric properties of SF6 :

(i) Dielectric properties dielectric strength of SF4 at atmospheric pressure is 2.35 times that of
air, it is 30% less than that of dielectric oil used in oil circuit breakers.
(ii) At higher pressure the dielectric strength of the gas increases. At pressure about
3 kgf/cm2 the dielectric strength of SF6 gas is more than that of dielectric oil.
The property permits smaller clearances and small size of equipments for the same kV.

Fig. 2.12.1 : Dielectric property of SF6 gas

Arc extinction in SF6 circuit breaker :

• During the arcing period, SF6 gas is blown axially along the arc. The gas removes the heat
from the arc by axial convection and radial dissipation.
• As a result, the arc diameter reduces during the decreasing node of the current wave.
• The diameter becomes small during current zero. Turbulent flow is introduced around
current zero to extinguish the arc.
• Due to its electro negativity and low arc time constant the SF6 gas regains its dielectric
strength rapidly after the final current zero, the rate of rise of dielectric strength is very
high and the time constant is very small.

2.12.2 Single Pressure Puffer Type SF6 Circuit Breaker :

• These circuit breaker employ a novel principle of puffer action.
• The moving cylinder.
1. Is coupled with the movable conductor.
2. Against the fixed piston.
3. During the extinction process.
4. And there is a relative movement between (1) and (5) and the gas is compressed in
the cavity.
5. This trapped gas in released through the nozzle.
• During the travel of the moving contact (2) and movable cylinder (1) the gas puffs over the
arc and reduces the arc diameter by axial convection and radial dissipation.
• At current zero, the arc get extinguished.
• The puffing action continues for sometime even after the arc extinction and the contact space
is filled with cool, fresh gas.
SF6 circuit breaker :

1. Movable cylinder
2. Moving contacts
3. Fixed contacts
4. Nozzle
5. Fixed piston
6. Gas trapped in before compression
7. Compressed gas between (1) and (5)
8. Arc extinction by puffer action.
Fig. 2.12.2(a)

Fig. 2.12.2(b) : Single pressure puffer type SF 6 circuit breaker

2.12.3 Merits and Demerits of SF6 Circuit Breakers :

(a) Merits :
• Outdoor EHV SF6 has less number of interrupts per pole than ABCB and MOCB.
Outdoor SF6 circuit breaker is simple, less costly, maintenance free and compact.
• The gas is non-inflammable and chemically stable. The decomposition products are not
explosive. Hence there is no danger of fire or explosion.
• Same gas is recirculated in the circuit. Hence requirement of SF6 gas is small.
• Ample overload margin. For the same size of conductors, the current carrying ability of
SF6 circuit breaker is about 1.5 times that of air blast circuit breakers because of
superior heat transferability of SF6 gas.
• The breaker is silent and does not make sound like air blast circuit breaker during
operation.
• The sealed construction avoid the contamination by moisture, dust sand etc. No costly
compressed air system like ABCB.
• The maintenance required is minimum. The breaker may need maintenance once in
four to ten years.
 • Ability to interrupt low and high fault current, magnetising current and capacitive
current without excessive over voltage. The SF6 gas circuit breaker can perform the
various duties like clearing short line faults, opening unloaded transmission line,
capacitor switching, transformer reactor switching etc. much smoothly.
• Excellent insulating arc extinguishing physical and chemical properties of SF6 gas is the
greater advantages of SF6 breaker.
• No frequent contact replacement, contact corrosion is very small due to inertness of SF6
gas. Hence contact does not suffer oxidation.
• No over voltage problems.
• Due to particular properties of SF6 gas the arc is extinguished at natural current zero
without current chopping and associated over voltage originating in circuit breakers.
(b) Demerits :
• Sealing problem arise. Imperfect joint lead to leakage of gas.
• Arced SF6 gas is poisonous and should not be in inhaled or let out.
• Influx of moisture in the breaker is very harmful to SF6 gas circuit breaker several
failures are reported due to this cause.
• Mechanism of higher energy level is necessary for puffer type SF6 breakers lower speed
due to friction, misalignment can cause failure of breaker.
• The internal part should be cleaned thoroughly during periodic maintenance under
clean, dry environment. Dust to Teflon and sulphides should be removed.
• Special facilities are needed for transporting the gas, transferring the gas and
maintaining the quality of gas. The deterioration of quality of the gas effects the
reliability of the SF6 circuit breaker.

2.12.4 Typical Rating of SF6 Insulated Switchgear (G/S) :

Rated voltage kV 36 72 145 245 400 500

1200 1200 2000 2000 2000 2000
to to to to to to
2000 2000 3000 4000 4000 4000
Rated breaking current kA 32 32 32 50 50 50
Breaking capacity MVA 1800 3500 7500 10,000 35,000 50,000
Operating time cycles 3 3 3 2, 3 2 2
Power frequency voltage 75 160 275 460 680 840
withstand kVrms
Impulse voltage withstand 170 400 550 1050 1425 1800
kVp peak

2.13 Oil Circuit Breakers :

Working principle :
• In case of oil circuit breakers, medium used for arc quenching is some insulating oil.
• In this case the contacts of circuit breakers are opened under oil and an arc is struck
between them.
• The heat developed due the arc evaporates the surrounding oil and dissociates it into a
substantial volume of gaseous hydrogen at high pressure.
• Due to this the oil is pushed away from the arc and an expanding hydrogen gas bubble
surrounds the arc region and adjacent portion of the contact.
• The arc extinction is facilitated mainly by two processes
 • Firstly the hydrogen gas has high heat conductivity and cools the arc thus aiding the de-
ionisation of the medium between the contacts.
• Secondly the gas set up turbulence in the oil and forces it into the space between
contacts, thus it eliminates the arcing products from the arc path. The result is that arc
is extinguished and circuit current interrupted.

Fig. 2.13.1 : Arc quenching in oil circuit breaker

There are two types of oil circuit breakers such as :

1) Plain break oil circuit breakers.
2) Low (minimum) oil circuit breakers.

2.13.1 Plain Break Oil Circuit Breakers :

Construction :
• Fig. 2.13.2 shows the construction of plain break oil circuit breaker.
• It consists of a strong weather tight-earthed tank containing oil up to certain level in which
fixed contact and moving contacts are separated. Air cushion is provided above the oil level.
• The air cushion provides sufficient room to allow for the reception of the arc gases without
the generation of unsafe pressure in the dome of the circuit breaker.
• It also absorbs the mechanical shock of the upward oil movement. Double break plain oil
circuit breaker is called a double break because it provides two breaks in series
Working :
• Under normal operating conditions the fixed and moving contacts remains closed and
breaker carries the normal circuit current.
• When a fault occurs, the moving contacts are pulled
down by the protective system and an arc is struck
which vaporises the oil mainly into hydrogen gas.
• In plain break oil circuit breaker contacts are
separated under the whole of the oil in tank.
• The arc extinction process occurs when a certain
critical gap between the contacts is reached.
• There is no special arrangement for arc control other
than the increase in length caused by the separation
of contacts. Fig. 2.13.2 : Plain break oil circuit breaker
The arc quenching process occurs by the following ways :
1. The hydrogen gas bubble generated around the arc cools the arc and aids the deionisation of
the medium between the contacts.
2. The gas sets up turbulence in the oil and help in eliminating the arcing products from the
arc path.
3. As the arc lengthens due to the separating contacts the dielectric strength of the medium is
increased.
Disadvantages :
1. These breakers do not permit high-speed interruption.
2. There is no special arrangement for arc control other than the increase in length by
separating the moving contacts. Therefore, for successful interruption, long arc length is
necessary.
3. Quantity of oil required is large and needs frequent replacement since for every operation of
circuit breaker the quality of oil deteriorates.
4. Arcing time is large.

2.13.2 Low Oil Circuit Breakers (MOCB) :

• In case of bulk oil circuit breaker oil is used for two functions.
• Firstly it acts as an arc-quenching medium and
• Secondly it insulates the live parts from earth.

Fig. 2.13.3 : Minimum oil circuit breaker

• But for arc extinction purpose a very small amount of oil is sufficient while the major part is
utilised for insulation purposes.
• Thus the oil required in case of bulk oil circuit breaker is large and need frequent
replacement.
• This increases the overall cost; tank size and weight of the breaker as well as it also
increases the fire risk and maintenance problems.
• Above drawbacks of bulk oil circuit breakers are removed in minimum oil circuit (also known
as MOCB) breaker in which a small quantity of oil is used for arc extinction and for
insulation purpose a solid material is used.
Construction of MOCB :
• Fig. 2.13.3 shows the cross section of a single-phase minimum oil circuit breaker. The
construction is divided into two compartments. Both the compartments are separated from
each other but both are filled with oil.
• The upper compartment is mainly a circuit-breaking compartment while the lower one is the
supporting compartment.
• The arrangement is made in such that two compartments are separated by a partition and
oil from one chamber is prevented from mixing with the other chamber.
• This arrangement permits two advantages.
• Firstly, the circuit breaking chambers requires a small volume of oil which is just
enough for arc extinction.
• Secondly the amount of oil to be replaced is reduced, as the oil in the supporting
chamber does not get contaminated by the arc.
(i) Supporting chamber :
• Supporting chamber is made up of insulating material such as porcelain and is mounted
on a metal chamber.
• It is filled with oil and care is taken such that oil in the circuit-breaking compartment
does not get mixed with it.
• The oil inside the supporting chamber and the annular space formed between the
porcelain insulation and Bakelite paper is employed for insulation purpose only.
(ii) Circuit-breaking chambers :
• It is also made up of porcelain enclosure and is mounted on the top of the supporting
compartment.
• Circuit breaking chamber is filled with oil and has the following parts :
(a) Upper and lower fixed contacts.
(b) Moving contacts
(c) Turbulator.
• The moving contact is hollow and includes a cylinder, which moves down over a fixed
piston.
• The function of turbulator is to control the arc device. It has both axial and radial vents.
The axial venting ensures the interruption of low currents whereas radial venting helps
in the interruption of heavy currents.

(iii) Top chamber :

• Top chamber is made up of metal and is mounted on the circuit-breaking chamber.
• The function of top chamber is that it provides expansion space for the oil in the circuit-
breaking compartment.
• The top chamber is also provided with a separator, which prevents any loss of oil, by
centrifugal action caused by circuit breaker operation during fault conditions.
Working :
• Under normal operating conditions, the moving contact remains engaged with the upper
fixed contact.
• As soon as fault occurs on the system, the moving contact is pulled down by the tripping
springs and arc is struck between the two contacts.
• The heat of arc causes vaporisation of the oil and produces gases under high pressure.
• Due to this action oil is pass through a central hole in the moving contact and forcing a
series of oil through the respective passage of the turbulators.
• This causes successively quenching of arc by the effect of separate stream of oil moving
across each section in turn and bearing away its gases.
Advantages of MOCB :
A Minimum oil circuit breaker has the following advantage over a bulk oil circuit breaker -
1. It requires small quantity of oil (only for arc quenching purpose since for the insulation
purpose solid materials are used).
2. It requires small space, since the quantity of oil required is less and a small separation of
contact is sufficient to quench the arc.
3. There is less risk of fire.
4. Maintenance problem are reduced.
Disadvantages :
A low oil circuit breaker has the following disadvantage as compared to a bulk oil circuit
breaker.
1. There is a difficulty of removing the gases from the contact space in time.
2. Due to smaller quantity of oil, the degree of carbonization is increased.
3. The dielectric strength of the oil deteriorates rapidly due to high degree of carbonization.

2.14 Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB) :

• Since vacuum offers the highest insulating strength it can be used as arc quenching medium.
• It posses far superior arc quenching properties than any other medium.
• Thus the vacuum of the range of 10–7to 10–5 bar is used as the arc-quenching medium in
vacuum circuit breakers.
Construction :
• Fig. 2.14.1 shows the cross section of the vacuum circuit breaker.
• It consists of fixed contact, moving contact and arc shield mounted inside a vacuum
chamber.
• The movable member is connected to the control mechanism by stainless steel bellows. This
enables the permanent sealing of the vacuum chamber so as to eliminate the possibility of
leak.
• A glass vessel or ceramic vessel is used as the outer insulating body.
• The arc shield prevent the deterioration of the internal dielectric strength by preventing
metallic vapours falling on the inside surface of the insulating cover.
Working :
• When the fault occurs on the system breaker operates and the moving contact separates
from the fixed contact.
• While separating the contacts an arc is struck between them.
• The arc is produced due to the ionisation of metal ions, which depends upon the materials of
contacts.
• The arc is quickly extinguished because the metallic vapour electrons and ions produced
during arc are diffused in a short time and seized by the surface of moving and fixed
members and shields.
• Since vacuum has very fast rate of recovery of dielectric strength, the arc extinction in a
vacuum occurs with a short contact separation (say 0.625 cm).
 Fig. 2.14.1 : Vacuum circuit breaker

Advantages :
Vacuum circuit breaker have the following advantages :
(i) There are on file hazards.
(ii) They are compact in size.
(iii) They are reliable and have longer life
(iv) There is no generation of any type of gas during and after operation.
(v) They can interrupt any fault current. The outstanding feature of a VCB is that it can
break any heavy fault current perfectly just before the contacts reach the definite open
position.
(vi) Maintenance required is less.
(vii) Operation is quiet.
(viii) They can successfully withstand lightning surges.
(viv) They have low inertia and hence require smaller power for control mechanism.
Applications :
Vacuum circuit breakers are used where maintenance free circuit breakers should prove a
definite advantage like a remote area. These circuit breakers are being employed for outdoor
applications ranging from 22kV to 66kV and even for limited rating of say 60 to 100 MVA

2.15 Selection of Circuit Breaker :

Table 2.15.1 : Comparison of circuit breakers

Sr. Type Medium Voltage Design features Remarks

No. breaking
capacity
1. Air break Air at 430-600 V, 5- Incorporates : Arc Used for medium low
circuit atmospheric 15-35 MVA runners arc splitters voltages A.C. D.C.
breaker pressure recently 3.6- magnetic coils, Industrial circuit
12 kV, 500 breakers, have
MVA current limiting
features.
Miniature Air at 430-600 V Small size, current Used for low and
C.B. atmospheric limiting feature medium voltages
pressure
Sr. Type Medium Voltage Design features Remarks
No. breaking
capacity
2. Bulk-oil Dielectric oil 12 kV, 3.6 kV One tank up to Getting absolute
circuit 36 kV, fitted with used up to 12 kV, 500
breaker arc control devices MVA.

3. Minimum oil Dielectric oil Preferred for The circuit breaking Used for metal
circuit 3.6 kV to 145 chamber is separate enclosed switchgear
breaker kV from supporting up to
chamber, small size, 36 kV, outdoors type
arc control device between
used. 36 and 245 kV. Now
supersede by SF6
circuit breaker.
4. Air blast Compressed 245 kV, Unit type Suitable for all EHV
circuit air (20-30) 35,000 MVA construction several applications, fast
breaker kg/cm2 up to 1100 units per pole, opening closing. Also
kV, 50,000 auxiliary for arc furnace duty.
MVA compressed air Now superseded by
system required SF6 C.B. for 145 kV,
and above.
5. SF6 circuit SF6 gas 145 kV, One interrupter pole Suitable for SF6
breaker 2 7500 MVA up to 245 kV switchgear and
single (5 kg/cm )
SF6 gas 245 kV, medium voltage
pressure
10,000 MVA, switchgear. EHV
puffer type (3 kg/cm2)
12 kV, 1000 circuit breaker.
SF6 GIS
MVA, Maintenance free
36 kV, 2000
MVA
420 kV, 40 kA
6. Vacuum Vacuum Preferred for Variety of designs, Suitable for a variety
circuit indoor long life, modest of application from
breaker switchgear maintenance 3.6 kV to 36 kV
rated up to 36
kV, 750 MVA
7. H.V.D.C. Oil or air 33 kV, 2 kA Artificial current Used for metallic
circuit blast zero by switching in return transfer
breaker capacitors breaker.
• Table 2.15.1 shows the summary of various types of circuit breakers, their voltage range,
quenching medium and design features.
• Table 2.15.2 shows the choice of circuit breakers for various voltage ranges.
Table 2.15.2 : Selection of circuit breakers

Rated voltage Choice of circuit breakers Remark

Below 1 kV Air break circuit breaker –
3.3 kV - 33 kV Vacuum circuit breaker SF6 circuit breaker, MOCB Vacuum preferred
132 kV - 220 kV SF6 circuit breaker Air blast circuit breaker, SF6 circuit breaker is
Minimum oil circuit breaker, preferred
 400 kV - 760 kV SF6 circuit breaker, air blast circuit breaker SF6 is preferred.

• Earlier oil circuit breakers were preferred in the voltage range of 3.3 kV-66 kV.
• Between 132 kV and 220 kV, either oil circuit breakers or air blast circuit breakers were
recommended.
• For voltages 400 kV and above, air blast circuit breakers were preferred.
• The present trend is to recommended vacuum or SF6 circuit breakers in the voltage range
3.3 kV-33 kV
• For 132 kV and above SF6 circuit breakers are preferred.
• Up to 1 kV air break circuit breakers are used.
• Air blast circuit breakers are becoming obsolets and oil circuit breakers are being
superseded by SF6 and vacuum circuit breakers.

2.16 Rating of Circuit Breakers :

The major duties under fault conditions, a circuit breakers is required to perform are :
1. It must be capable of opening the faulty circuit and breaking the fault current.
2. It must be capable of being closed on to a fault.
3. It must be capable of carrying fault current for a short time while another circuit breaker
( in series) is clearing the fault.
Corresponding to above-mentioned duties, the circuit breaker has three rating viz.
(1) Breaking capacity (2) Making capacity (3) Short time capacity.

2.16.1 Breaking Capacity :

• It is the r.m.s. current that a circuit breaker is capable of breaking at given recovery voltage
and under specified conditions (e.g power factor, rate of rise of restriking voltage).
• It is a common practice to express the breaking capacity in MVA by taking into account the
rated breaking current and rated service voltage.
• Thus, if I is the rated breaking current in amperes and V is rated service line voltage in
volts, then for a three phase-circuits.
Breaking capacity = 3  V  I  10–6 MVA

2.16.2 Making Capacity :

• The peak value of the current (including D.C. component) during the first cycle of current
wave after the closer of circuit breaker is known as making capacity.
• There is always a possibility of closing or making circuits under short circuit conditions due
to auto recloser. The capacity of a breaker to “make” current depends upon its ability to
withstand and close successfully against the effect of electromagnetic forces.
• These forces are proportional to the square of maximum instantaneous current on closing.
Therefore making capacity is stated in terms of peak value of current instead of r.m.s. value.
• Making current is equal to the maximum value of a symmetrical current.
• To find this value we must multiply symmetrical breaking current by 2 to convert this
from r.m.s. to peak and then by 1.8 to include the “doubling effect” of maximum asymmetry.
Total multiplication factor becomes 2  1.8 = 2.55
• Therefore making capacity = 2.55  symmetrical breaking capacity.

2.16.3 Short Time Rating :

• It is the period for which the circuit breaker is able to carry fault current while remaining
closed.
• Some time a fault on the system is very temporary in nature and persists for 1 or 2 seconds
after the fault is automatically cleared.
• In the interest of continuity of supply, the breaker should not trip in such situations.
• This means that circuit breakers should be able to carry high current safely for some
specified period while remaining closed.

2.16.4 Normal Current Rating :

It is the r.m.s. value of the current which the circuit breaker is capable of carrying
continuously at its rated frequency under specified conditions. The only limitation in this case is
the temperature rise of current carrying parts.

2.17 Problems of Circuit Interruption :

2.17.1 Rate of Rise of Restriking Voltage :

• It is defined as the rate of increase of restriking voltage
and is abbreviated by R.R.R.V. usually; the restriking
voltage is in kV and time in microseconds so that R.R.
R.V. is in kV/sec.
Fig. 2.17.1 : R. R. R.V.

• Refer Fig. 2.17.1 in which circuit breaker is opened under fault condition.
Where, L = Inductance of system
C = System capacitance formed by cable insulation line separation etc.
• When the fault occurs circuit breaker contacts starts separating. Within this period i.e
before current interruption, the capacitance C is short circuited by the fault.
• Inductance L of the system is the only parameter by which the short circuit current through
the breaker is limited.
• Therefore the short circuit current will lag the voltage by 90 as shown in Fig. 2.17.2.
• Under this condition, the entire generator voltage appears across inductance L.
• When the contacts are opened and the arc finally extinguishes at some current zero, the
generator voltage e is suddenly applied to the inductance and capacitance in series.
• This L-C combination forms an oscillatory circuit and produces a transient of frequency.
1
fn =
2 LC
Which appears across the capacitor C and hence across the contacts of the circuit breaker.
• This transient voltage is known as restriking voltage and may reach an instantaneous peak
value twice the peak phase neutral voltage i.e. 2 Em.

i = Short circuit current

ea = Arc voltage

Fig. 2.17.2 : R.R.R.V. waveform

• It is the rate of rise of restriking voltage (R.R.R.V.) which decides whether the arc will
restrike or not.
• If R.R.R.V. is greater than that of rise of dielectric strength between the contacts, the arc
will restrike.
• If R.R.R.V. is less than rate of increase of dielectric strength between the contacts of the
breaker the arc will fail to restrike.

2.17.2 Current Chopping :

• It is the phenomenon of current interruption before the natural current zero occurs.
• Since the air blast circuit breakers have the tendency of same extinguishing power for all
type of fault current irrespective of its magnitude, current chopping mainly observed in air
blast circuit breakers.
• When the fault current is low and is break with such
breakers the powerful deionising effect of air blast
causes the current to fall abruptly to zero well before
the natural current zero is reached.
• This phenomenon is known as current chopping.
• Current chopping results in the production of high
voltage transient across the contacts of the circuit
breaker. Fig. 2.17.3 : Current chopping
• Suppose the arc current is ‘i’ when it is chopped down to zero value.
1
• As the chop occurs at current ‘i’ therefore, the energy stored in inductance ‘L’ is Li2.
2
• This energy will be transferred to the capacitance ‘c’, charging it to voltage ‘e’.
Ce2
L i2 =
2
L
 e = i volts.
C
For example L = 4 mH
C = 0.001 F
Current chopped at 50A,
40  10–3
 e = 50
0.001  10–6
= 100 kV
• The prospective voltage e is very high as compared to the dielectric strength gained by the
gap so that the breaker restrikes.
• As the deionising force is still in action, therefore, chop occurs again but the arc current this
time is smaller than the previous case.

Fig. 2.17.4 : Current and voltage wave form during current chopping
• This induces a lower prospective voltage to reignite the arc.
• Infact several chops may occur until a low enough current is interrupted which produces
insufficient voltage to restrike across the breaker gap. Consequently, the final interruption
of current takes place.

2.17.3 Resistance Switching :

• As explained above that current chopping give rise to severe voltage oscillations.
• These expensive voltage surges during low circuit current interruption can be prevented by
the use of shunt resistance ‘R’ connected in parallel with the circuit breaker contacts as
shown in Fig.2.17.5 in equivalent circuit. This is known as resistance switching.

(a) Resistance switching

b) Voltage waveform of resistance switching

Fig. 2.17.5

• When the fault occurs, the contacts of the circuit breaker are opened and an arc is struck
between the contacts.
• Since the contacts are shunted by resistance ‘R’, a part of the current flows through this
resistance.
• This results in decrease of arc current and an increase in the rate of deionisation of the arc
path.
• Consequently, the arc resistance is increased, this increase in arc resistance leads to a
further, increase in current through shunt resistance.
• This process continues until the arc current becomes so small that it fails to maintain the
arc. Now the arc is extinguished and circuit current is interrupted.
• The effect of shunt resistance R is to prevent the oscillatory growth of restriking voltage and
cause it to grow exponentially up to recovery voltage.
• This is being most effective when the value of R is so chosen (R = 0.5 L/C ) that the circuit
is critically damped.

2.18 Difference between Fuse and Circuit Breaker :

It is worthwhile to indicate the salient difference between a fuse and a circuit breaker in the
tabular form.
Sr. Particular Fuse Circuit breaker
No.
1. Function It performs both detection It performs interruption function
and interruption function only. The detection of fault is made by
relay system.
2. Operation Inherently completely Requires elaborate equipment for
automatic. automatic action very large.
3. Breaking capacity Small Very large
4. Operating time Very small (0.002 sec. or Comparatively large (0.1 to 0.2 sec.)
so)
5. Replacement Requires replacement No replacement after operation.
after every operation