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O SCILLOSCOPES
The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device that allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether
they are voltage, current power, etc., to be displayed primarily as a function of time. The CROs are often
use in laboratory to display measure and analyze various waveform of various electrical and electronic
circuits. Actually cathode ray oscilloscope is very fast X-Y plotters that can display an input signal versus
time or other signal. The oscilloscope depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is then made
visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor surface, which produces a visible spot. It uses
luminous spot which is produced by striking the beam of electrons and this luminous spot moves in
response variation in the input quantity. The genera block diagram of CRO is shown in figure below.

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General oscilloscope consists of the following parts:
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1. Cathode ray tube (CRT)
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2. Vertical deflection stage

3. Horizontal deflection stage
4. Power supply
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1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): Cathode ray tube is the heart of oscilloscope which generates the electron
beam, accelerates the beam to high velocity, deflects the beam to create the image, and contains the
phosphor screen where the electron beam eventually become visible. There are two standard type of
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CRT Electromagnetic and Electrostatic. Each type of CRT contains:

(a) One or more Electron Guns
(b) Electrostatic Deflection Plates
(c) Phosphoresce Screen

(a) An Electron Gun consists of a heated cathode, control grid, and three anodes as shown in figure
below. A heated cathode emits electrons, which are accelerated to the first accelerating anode through

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a small hole in the control grid. The amount of cathode current, which governs the intensity of the
spot, can be controlled with the control grid. The preaccelerating anode is a hollow cylinder that is at
potential a few hundred volts more positive than the cathode so that the electron beam will be accelerated
in the electric field. A focusing anode is mounted just a head of the preaccelerating anode and is also
a cylinder. Following the focusing anode is the accelerating anode, which gives the electron beam its
last addition of energy before its journey to the deflecting plates. The focusing and accelerating anodes
form an electrostatic lens which bring the electron beam into spot focus on the screen. Three controls
are associated with the operating voltages of the CRT;
→ Intensity: The intensity control varies the potential between the cathode and the control grid and
simply adjusts the beam current in the tube.
→ Focus: The focus control adjusts the focal length of the electrostatic lens.
→ Astigmatism: The astigmatism control adjusts the potential between the deflection plates and the first
accelerating electrode and is used to produce a round spot.

(b) Electrostatic Deflection Plates: The electrostatic deflection system consists of two sets of plates
for each electron gun. The vertical plates move the beam up and down, while horizontal plates move
it right and left. The two sets of plates are physically separated to prevent interaction of the field. The

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position of the spot at any instant is a resultant of potentials on the two set of plates at that instant.

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(c) Phosphoresce Screen: The property of some crystalline materials such as phosphor or zinc oxide
to emit light when stimulates by radiation is called fluorescence. Phosphorescence refers to the property
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of material to continue light emission even after the source of excitation is cut off. The viewing screen
is created by phosphor coating inside front of the tube. When electron beam strikes the screen of CRT
with considerable energy, the phosphor absorbs the kinetic energy of bombarding electrons and reemits
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energy at a lower frequency range in visible spectrum. Thus a spot of light is produced in outside front
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of the screen. In addition to light, heat as well as secondary electrons of low energy is generating.
Aquadag coating of graphite material is cover the inside surface of CRT nearly up the screen to remove
these secondary electrons. The amount of light given off by the phosphor depends on the amount of
energy that is transferred to the phosphor by the electron beam. For fast oscilloscope (of high frequency
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response greater than 100MHz), the velocity of electron beam must be great to respond to fast occurring
events; otherwise, the light output will be drop off. This is done by increasing the acceleration potential
but it will be difficult to deflected the fast electron beam by the deflection plates because this would
required a higher deflection voltage and a higher deflection current to charge the capacitance of the plates.
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2. Vertical Deflection System: The vertical deflection system provides an amplified signal of the proper
level to derivethe vertical deflection plates with out introducing any appreciable distortion into the system.
This system is consists of the following elements: (a) Input coupling selector, (b) Input attenuator and
amplifier, (c) Delay line
(a) Input Coupling Selector: Its purpose is to allow the oscilloscope more flexibility in the display of
certain types of signals. For example, an input signal may be a d.c signal, an a.c signal, or a.c component
superimposed on a d.c component. There are three positions switch in the coupling selector (d.c, a.c, and
GND). If an a.c position is chosen, the capacitor appears as an open circuit to the d.c components and
hence block them from entering. While the GND position ground the internal circuitry of the amplifier
to remove any stored charge and recenter the electron beam.
(b) Input Attenuators And Amplifiers:The combine operation of the attenuator, preamplifier and main
amplifier together make up the amplifying portion of the system. The function of the attenuator is to
reduce the amplitude of the input signal by a selected factor and verse varies amplifier function.
(c) Delay Line: Since part of the input signal is picked off and fed to the horizontal deflection system to
initiate a sweep waveform that is synchronized with the leading edge of the input signal. So the purpose
of delay is to delay the vertical amplified signal from reaching the vertical plates until the horizontal
signal reach the horizontal plates to begin together at the same time on CRT screen.

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3. Horizontal Deflection System: The horizontal deflection system of OSC consist of: (a) Trigger circuit
and Time base generator (b) Horizontal amplifier.
(a) Trigger and Time Base Generator: The most common application of an oscilloscope is the display
of voltage variation versus time. To generate this type of display a saw tooth waveform is applied to
horizontal plates. The electron beam being bent towards the more positive plate and deflected the luminous
spot from left to right of the screen at constant velocity whilst the return or fly back is at a speed in
excess of the maximum writing speed and hence invisible. The saw tooth or time base signal must be
repetitively applied to the horizontal plates so that; the beam can retrace the same path rapidly enough to
make the moving spot of light appear to be a solid line. To synchronous the time base signal applied to
(X-plates) with input voltage to be measured which applied to vertical or (Y-plates) a triggering circuit
is used. This circuit is sensitive to the level of voltage applied to it, so that when a predetermined level
of voltage is reached a pulse is passed from the trigger circuit to initiate one sweep of the time base. In
a practical oscilloscope the time base will be adjustable from the front panel control of scope.
(b) Horizontal Amplifier: The horizontal amplifier is used to amplify the sweep waveform to the required
level of horizontal plates operation
Finally, the working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a high vacuum glass envelope to permit the electron
beam moves freely from one end to other with out collision Graticules is a set of horizontal and vertical

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lines permanently scribed on CRT face to allow easily measured the waveform values.

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Electrostatic Deflection Equations: s te
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Where, e is the charge on electron, Ed is the potential difference between the two plates, m is the mass
of electron.
Parameters involved in defining deflection equations of CRO:
Vin - Input voltage to channel A or B of CRO
Ed - deflection voltage (potential) in Y-direction where Ex = Ez = 0

Ey - electrical field in Y-direction where Ex = Ez = 0

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d - displacement between two vertical plates
−Ed
Ey = (1)
d
fy - force generate by electrical field effect where fx = fz = 0
e - electron charge e = 1.6 × 1019 C
me - electron mass e = 9.1 × 1031 Kg
fy = −eEy (2)
ay - acceleration in Y-direction where ax = az = 0
fy
ay = (3)
me
Vy - velocity in Y-direction at any time
V0y - initial velocity in Y-direction where V0y = 0 (assuming)
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fy −eEy
Vy = V0y + ay t = ay t = t = t (4)
me me

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Y - displacement in Y-direction at any time

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Y0 - initial displacement in Y-direction where Y0 = 0 (assuming)
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h 1 i 1 1 −eEy 2 −eEy 2
Y = Y0 + V0y t + ay t2 = ay t2 = t = t (5)
2 2 2 me
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2me
Ea - acceleration voltage (potential) in X-direction Vx - velocity in X-direction X0 - initial displacement
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in X-direction where X0 = 0 (assuming) V0x - initial velocity in X-direction (depends on acceleration
voltage Ea ) ax - acceleration in X-direction where ax = 0 (assuming)
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Vx = V0x + ax t = V0X (6)

h 1 i
X = X0 + V0x t + ay t2 (7)
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2
X
t = (8)
V0x
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X
Therefore, substituting t = V0x
, The parabolic equation of electron beam is defined as
!2
−eEy X
Y = (9)
2me V0x
Also, acceleration in X-direction due accelerating voltage (potential)
1 2
eEa = me V0x (10)
2
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2eEa
V0x = (11)
me
Finally, Y-X relation is defined as
−eEy X 2 me
! !
1 Ed
Y = = X2 (12)
2me 2eEa 4d Ea
where −Ey = Ed /d
When the electrons leaves the region of deflecting plates, the deflecting force no longer exist, and the
electrons travels in a straight line toward point P . The slope of parabolic curve at distance x = l
!
dy −elEy 1 Ed
tan θ = = 2
= l (13)
dx me V0x 2d Ea
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The deflection on the screen D is
!
1 Ed lL Ed
D = L tan θ = L l= (14)
2d Ea 2d Ea

The deflection sensitivity (S) of CRT is:

D lL
S = = (15)
Ed 2dEa
The deflection factor (G) of CRT is:
1 Ed 2dEa

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G = = = (16)
S D lL

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Problem: What is the minimum distance (L) that will allow full deflection of 4 cm at the oscilloscope
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screen with a deflection factor of 100 V /cm and with an accelerating potential of 2000 V ? [Hint: Here
(see the figure), maximum deflection is limited by y = d/2 at x = l/2 from centre point (0, 0)].
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Soln: G = 100 V /cm, D = 4 cm, Ea = 2000 V

D y d/2
tan θ = = = (17)
L x l/2
2dEa
Therefroe, l = dL/D. Substituding l value in G = lL
, we have
2DEa
L2 =
sG
2DEa
L = = 12.6 cm (18)
G
Problem: Calculate the maximum velocity of the beam of electrons in a CRT having a cathode voltage
of 800 V. Assume that the electrons to leave the cathode with zero velocity, charge of electron e =
1.6 × 10−19 C, mass of electron me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg.
Soln: Ea = 800 V , me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg and e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
1 2
eEa = me V0x
2
s
2eEa
V0x = = 16.8 × 106 m/s (19)
me
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Problem: A CRT has an anode voltage of 2000 V and parallel deflection plates 2 cm long and 5 mm
apart. The screen is 30 cm from the centre of the plates. Find the input voltage required to deflect the
beam through 3 cm.
Soln: d = 5 mm, Ea = 2000 V , L = 30 cm, l = 2 cm
lL Ed
D =
2d Ea
2dDEa
Ed = = 100 V (20)
lL
Problem: An electronically deflected CRT has a final anode voltage of 2000 V and parallel deflecting
plate 1.5 cm long and 5 mm apart. If the screen is 50 cm from center of deflection plates, find
(i) Beam speed
(ii) Deflection sensitivity of the tube
(iii) Deflection factor of the tube
Soln: d = 5 mm, Ea = 2000 V , L = 50 cm, l = 1.5 cm, me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg and e = 1.6 × 10−19 C
(i)
1 2
eEa = me V0x

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2
s s

m
2eEa 2 × (1.6 × 10−19 ) × 2000
V0x = = = 26.5 × 106 m/s (21)
me 9.1 × 10−31
(ii) The deflection sensitivity (S) of CRT is
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Ll (50 × 10−2 ) × (1.5 × 10−2 )
S = = = 0.375 mm/V (22)
s
2dEa 2 × (5 × 10−3 ) × 2000
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(iii) The deflection factor (G) of CRT is

1 1
G = = = 2.66 V /mm (23)
S 0.375
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