WASTEWATER ENGINEERING

Principles and Design of Sewerage Systems

Ajey Kumar Patel

Assistant Professor
NIT Warangal
 SANITATION SYSTEM
For safe disposal of the sewage generated from a locality efficient collection, conveyance, adequate treatment
and proper disposal of treated sewage is necessary. To achieve this, following conditions should be satisfied:
1. Sewage should not pollute the drinking water source, either surface or groundwater, or water bodies that
are used for bathing or recreational purposes.
2. The untreated sewage during conveyance should not be exposed so as to have access to human being or
animals and should not give unsightly appearances or odour nuisance, and should not become a place for
breeding flies.
3. It should not cause harm to public health and adversely affect the receiving environment.

The collection system is meant for collection of the sewage generated from individual houses and transporting
it to a common point where it can be treated as per the needs before disposal.
TYPES OF SEWERAGE SYSTEM
The sewerage system can be of following three types:
Combined system: In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-off resulting from storms is
carried through the same conduit of sewerage system. In countries like India where actual rainy days are very
few, this system will face the problem of maintaining self cleansing velocity in the sewers during dry season, as
the sewage discharge may be far lower as compared to the design discharge after including stormwater.

Separate System: In separate system, separate conduits are used; one carrying sewage and other carrying
storm water run-off. The storm water collected can be directly discharged into the water body since the run-off is
not as foul as sewage and no treatment is generally provided. Whereas, the sewage collected from the city is
treated adequately before it is discharged into the water body or used for irrigation to meet desired standards.
Separate system is advantageous and economical for big towns.

Partially separate system: In this system part of the storm water especially collected from roofs and
paved courtyards of the buildings is admitted in the same drain along with sewage from residences and
institutions, etc. The storm water from the other places is collected separately using separate stormwater
conduits.
PATTERNS OF COLLECTION SYSTEM
The network of sewers consists of house sewers discharging the sewage to laterals. The lateral discharges the
sewage into branch sewers or sub-mains and sub-mains discharge it into main sewer or trunk sewer. The trunk
sewer carries sewage to the common point where adequate treatment is given to the sewage and then it is
discharged. The patterns of collection system depend upon:
1. The topographical and hydrological features of the area.
2. The location and methods of treatment and disposal works.
3. The type of sewerage system employed, and
4. Extent of area to be served.
Following patterns can be adopted for collection systems as per the suitability (Birdie, 1990).
(A) Perpendicular pattern
(B) Interceptor pattern
(C) Radial Pattern
(D) Fan Pattern
(E) Zone Pattern
 Sewer Material
Important Factors Considered for Selecting Material for Sewer

a. Resistance to corrosion

b. Resistance to abrasion

c. Strength and durability

d. Weight of the material

e. Imperviousness

f. Economy and cost

g. Hydraulically efficient
Materials for Sewers

Asbestos Cement Sewers

Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete

Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers

Brick Sewers

Cast Iron Sewers

Steel Pipes

Ductile Iron Pipes

Plastic sewers (PVC pipes)

High Density Polythylene (HDPE) Pipes

Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pipes

Lead Sewers
Shapes of Sewer Pipes
Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, slopping continuously towards the outfall. These are
designed to flow under gravity. Shapes other than circular are also used. Other shapes used for sewers are :

a. Standard Egg-shaped sewer

b. New egg-shaped sewer
c. Horse shoe shaped sewer
d. Parabolic shaped sewer
e. Semi-elliptical section
f. Rectangular shape section
g. U-shaped section
h. Semi-circular shaped sewer
i. Basket handled shape sewer
 Horse shoe sewer section
Standard Egg Shaped Sewer New/ Modified Egg shaped Sewer

Rectangular Sewer
Semi-elliptical section
Parabolic section
U-shaped section Semi-circular Section
Basket-Handle Section
The factors affecting the quantity of stormwater flow are as below:
i. Area of the catchment
ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.
vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
viii. Number and size of ditches present in the area
Time of Concentration: The period after which the entire catchment area will start contributing to the runoff
is called as the time of concentration.
The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration will not produce maximum discharge.
The runoff may not be maximum even when the duration of the rain is more than the time of
concentration. This is because in such cases the intensity of rain reduces with the increase in its duration.
The runoff will be maximum when the duration of rainfall is equal to the time of concentration and is called
as critical rainfall duration. The time of concentration is equal to sum of inlet time and time of travel.

Time of concentration = Inlet time + time of travel

Inlet Time: The time required for the rain in falling on the most remote point of the tributary area to flow across
the ground surface along the natural drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer is called inlet time (Figure 6.1). The
inlet time ‘Ti’ can be estimated using relationships similar to following. These coefficients will have different
values for different catchments.
Ti = [0.885 L3/H]0.385
Where,
Ti = Time of inlet, minute
L = Length of overland flow in Kilometer from critical point to mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to mouth of drain, meter

Time of Travel: The time required by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to the point under
consideration or the point of concentration is called as time of travel.
Time of Travel (Tt) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain
Runoff Coefficient: The runoff coefficient can be defined as a fraction, which is multiplied with the quantity of
total rainfall to determine the quantity of rain water, which will reach the sewers. The runoff coefficient depends
upon the porosity of soil cover, wetness and ground cover. The overall runoff coefficient for the catchment area
can be worked out as follows:
C= ∑(AiCi)/∑Ai,
where, Ai are types of area with Ci as their coefficient of runoff, respectively.
Table 6.1 Runoff coefficient for different type of cover in catchment
Rational method
Storm water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360
Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) for the duration equal to time of concentration, and
A = Drainage area in hectares
Empirical formulae for rainfall intensities
These relationships between rainfall intensity and duration are developed based on long term experience in
field (Figure 6.2). Under Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall in design is usually in the range 12 mm/h to 20
mm/h. In general, the empirical relationship has the following forms:
I = a/ (t + b) OR I = b / tn
Where, a, b, and n are constants.
Example1.
Determine designed discharge for a combined system serving population of 50000 with rate of water supply of
135 LPCD. The catchment area is 100 hectares and the average coefficient of runoff is 0.60. The time of
concentration for the design rainfall is 30 min and the relation between intensity of rainfall and duration is I =
1000/(t + 20).

Solution
Estimation of sewage quantity
Considering 80% of the water supplied will result in wastewater generation,
The quantity of sanitary sewage = 50000 x 135 x 0.80 = 5400 m3/day = 0.0625 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2.5, the design discharge for sanitary sewage = 0.0625 x 2.5 = 0.156 m3/sec

Estimation of storm water discharge

Intensity of rainfall, I = 1000/(t + 20)
Therefore, I = 1000/(30 + 20) = 20 mm/h
Hence, storm water runoff, Q = C.I.A/360 = 0.6 x 20 x 100/(360) = 3.33 m3/sec

Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 3.33 + 0.156 = 3.49 m3/sec
Example 2:
The catchment area is of 300 hectares. The surface cover in the catchment can be classified as given below:

Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm water runoff, if intensity of rainfall is 30 mm/h for rain with
duration equal to time of concentration. If population density in the area is 350 persons per hectare and rate of
water supply is 200 LPCD, calculate design discharge for separate system, partially separate system, and
combined system.
Estimation of storm water discharge for storm water drain of separate system
Overall runoff coefficient C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + ….+ An.Cn] / [ A1 + A2 + …+ An]
= (0.15 x 0.90 + 0.15 x 0.80 + 0.25 x 0.15 + 0.20 x 0.4 + 0.15 x 0.1 + 0.10 x 0.5)/
0.15 + 0.15 + 0.25 + 0.20 + 0.15 + 0.10 = 0.44
Therefore quantity of storm water, Q = C.I.A/360 = 0.44 x 30 x 300/360 = 11 m3/sec

Estimation of sewage discharge for sanitary sewer of separate system

Quantity of sanitary sewage = 300 x 350 x 200 x 0.80 = 16800 m3/day = 0.194 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2, the design discharge for sanitary sewers = 0.194 x 2 = 0.389 m3/sec

Estimation of discharge for partially separate system

Storm water discharge falling on roofs and paved courtyards will be added to the sanitary
sewer. This quantity can be estimated as:
Average coefficient of runoff = (0.90 x 45 + 0.80 x 45) / 90 = 0.85
Discharge = 0.85 x 30 x 90 / 360 = 6.375 m3/sec
Therefore total discharge in the sanitary sewer of partially separate system = 6.375 + 0.389 = 6.764 m3/sec,
and the discharge in storm water drains = 11 – 6.375 = 4.625 m3/sec
When a master plan containing land use pattern and zoning regulations is available for the town, the
anticipated population can be based on the ultimate densities and permitted floor space index provided for in
the master plan.
Table 3.1 Densities of Population vs. Populated areas
In cities where Floor Space Index (FSI) or Floor Area Ratio (FAR) limits are fixed by the local authority this
approach may be used for working out the population density. The FSI or FAR is the ratio of total floor area (of all
the floors) to the plot area.
The densities of population on this concept may be worked out as in the following example for an area of one
hectare (ha)
Roads 20%
Gardens 15%
Schools (including playgrounds) 5%
Markets 2%
Hospital and Dispensary 2%
Total 44%
Area available for Residential Development = 100 - 44 = 56% or 0.56
Actual total floor area = Area for residential development x FSI
Assuming an FSI of 0.5 and floor area of 9 m2/person

Number of persons or density per hectare =

 TRIBUTARY AREA

PER CAPITA SEWAGE FLOW

The flow in sewers varies from hour to hour and seasonally. However, for the purpose of hydraulic design
estimated peak flows are adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of maximum to average flows depends upon
contributory population as given in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Peak factor for Contributory Population
INFILTRATION
Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of groundwater through joints.
Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowances for groundwater infiltration for the worst condition
in the area should be made as in Table 3.3
Table 3.3 Ground water infiltration

Once the flow is estimated as per Table 3.3, the design infiltration value shall be limited to a maximum of
10% of the design value of sewage flow.
SEWAGE FROM COMMERCIAL INSTITUTIONS
The industries and commercial buildings often use water other than the municipal supply and may discharge
their liquid wastes into the sanitary sewers. Estimates of such flows have to be made separately as in Table 3.4
(overleaf) for their potable water supply.
Table 3.4 Institutional needs for potable water
INDUSTRIAL EFFLUENTS TO BE DISCOURAGED
The mixing of industrial effluents through discharge into public sewers is undesirable due to the possible
detrimental effects of such effluent on the operation of biological sewage treatment process. This aspect has
been well recognized in recent times and industrial areas having polluting industries are generally located such
as to avoid mixing with sewage.
STORM RUNOFF
The sanitary sewers are not expected to receive storm water. Strict inspection, vigilance, and proper design
and construction of sewers and manholes should eliminate this flow or bring it down to a very insignificant
quantity.
However, in small habitations where rainfall is almost a continuous affair, it may be necessary to include storm
water in the design of sewers.
Estimation of Storm Runoff
The storm runoff is that portion of the precipitation, which drains over the ground. Estimation of such runoff
reaching the storm sewers therefore is dependent on the intensity, duration of precipitation, characteristics of
the tributary area, and the time required for such flow to reach the sewer.

The time-period after which the entire area begins contributing to the total runoff, at a given monitoring
point, is known as the time of concentration. It is also defined as the time it takes for a drop of water to flow
from the most distant point to the outlet of the basin. The duration of rainfall that is equal to the time of
concentration is known as the critical rainfall duration. The rational formula for the relationship between
peak runoff and the rainfall is given below.

where,
Q : Runoff in m3/hr, C : Dimensionless runoff coefficient, i : Intensity of rainfall in mm/hr
A : Area of drainage district in hectares
The storm water flow for this purpose may be determined by using the rational method, hydrograph method,
rainfall-runoff correlation studies, digital computer models, inlet method or empirical formulae. The empirical
formulae that are available for estimating the storm water runoff can be used only when comparable conditions
to those for which the equations were derived initially exist.
Table 3.5 Percentage of Imperviousness of Areas

When several different surface types or land use comprise the drainage area, a composite or weighted
average value of the imperviousness runoff coefficient can be computed, such as:

where,
I : Weighted average imperviousness of the total drainage basin
A1, A2, An : Sub drainage areas
I1,I2,In : Imperviousness of the respective sub-areas.
The weighted average runoff coefficients for rectangular areas, of length four times the width as well as for
sector shaped areas with varying percentages of impervious surface for different time of concentration are
given in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6 Runoff Coefficients for Times of Concentration
Storm Frequency
The frequency of storm for which the sewers are to be designed depends on the importance of the area to be
drained. Commercial and industrial areas have to be subjected to less frequent flooding. The suggested
frequency of flooding in the different areas is as follows -:
a) Residential areas
i) Peripheral areas twice a year
ii) Central and comparatively high priced areas once a year
b) Commercial and high priced areas once in 2 years

Intensity of Precipitation
The intensity of rainfall decreases with duration. Analysis of the observed data on intensity and duration of
rainfall of past records over a period of years in the area is necessary to arrive at a fair estimate of
intensity-duration for given frequencies. The longer the record available, the more dependable is the forecast.
In Indian conditions, intensity of rainfall adopted in design is usually in the range of 12 mm/hr to 20 mm/hr or
based on the actual record.
Table 3.7 gives the analysis of the frequency of storms of stated intensities and durations during 26 years for
which rainfall data were available for a given town.
Table 3-7 Duration vs. intensity of storms

The stepped line indicates the location of the storm occurring once in 2 years, i.e., 13 times in 26 years.
The time-intensity values for this frequency are obtained by interpolation from Table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Time intensity values of storms

The relationship may be expressed by a suitable mathematical formula, several forms of which are available.
The following two equations are commonly used:

where,
i : Intensity of rainfall (mm/hr)
t : Duration of storm (minutes)
a, b and n : Constants
Time of Concentration
It is the time required for the rain-water to flow over the ground surface from the extreme point of the drainage
basin and reach the point under consideration. It is equal to inlet time (t) plus the time of flow in the sewer (tf).
The inlet time is dependent on the distance of the farthest point in the drainage basin to the inlet manhole, the
shape, characteristics and topography of the basin and may generally vary from 5 to 30 minutes. In highly
developed sections, the inlet time may be as low as 3 minutes. The time of flow is determined by the length of
the sewer and the velocity of flow in the sewer. It is to be computed for each length of sewer to be designed.
a) Tributary Area
For each length of storm sewer, the drainage area should be indicated clearly on the map and
measured. The boundaries of each tributary are dependent on topography, land use, nature of
development and shape of the drainage basins. The incremental area may be indicated separately on the
compilation sheet and the total area computed.
b) Duration of Storm
Continuously long, light rain saturates the soil and produces higher coefficient than that due to,
heavy but intermittent, rain in the same area because of the lesser saturation in the latter case.
The runoff from an area is significantly influenced by the saturation of the surface to nearest the
point of concentration, rather than the flow from the distant area. The runoff coefficient of a larger area has to
be adjusted by dividing the area into zones of concentration and by suitably decreasing the coefficient with the
distance of the zones.
PROBLEM
Design a system of storm sewers for the area shown in Figure A3.1-1 based on the Rational Formula for the
estimation of peak runoff.
Basic Data and Assumptions imperviousness
Built up and paved area - 0.7
Open space, lawns, etc. - 0.2
Inlet time
Built up and paved area (tb) - 8 minutes.
Open space, lawns (t1) - 15 minutes.
Minimum velocity in sewer - 0.8 mps
Minimum depth of cover above crown - 0.5 metres.
Rainfall intensity = consider one year storm as the area is central and high priced. (Use Table 3.7 for the record of
rainfall intensity and frequency of rainfall). Use Manning’s chart for sewer design.
1 SOLUTION
Quantity of storm water runoff is calculated using the Rational Formula i.e.
Q = 10 C i A
Where,
Q : Runoff in m3/hr, C : Coefficient of runoff, i : Intensity of rainfall in mm/hr and A : Area of drainage district in
hectares
Storm water runoff is determined in the following manner.
I) From the rainfall records for the last 26 years (Table 3.7), the storm occurring once in a year, i.e. 26 times in 26
years, the time-intensity values for this frequency are obtained by interpolation and are as follows;
Intensity, i mm/hr 30 35 40 45 50 60
Duration, t minute 44 36 28.5 22.5 13.5 9.75
II) The generalised formula adopted for intensity and duration is