Him VI

5
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M a g z i n e
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Contents
Surinder Kaul
From editor’s desk: - 2
Chief Administrative Officer
Project news: - 3-10
Editor in Chief
T e c h n i c a l
Mohit Sinha Employees of the month: -11

Financial Advisor & Chief Officers joined the project:-12
Accounts Officer/USBRL
Technical section
Editorial Board
 Indian Railways Vision: 2030 Some Suggestions :- 13-20
R.K.Choudhary  Indian Railways Vision: 2030 Some Suggestions Supplementing
Data/Explanatory Notes :- 21-43
Chief Electrical  Tunneling Through Water Bearing Strata :- 44-51
Engineer/USBRL  Steel Fiber Reinforced Shotcrete and its Comparison with Wire Mesh :-
52-53
B.B.S.Tomar
 Solar/Wind Hybrid Power Plan :- 54-55
Chief Engineer/North  Indian Railways : Vision for Solar Energy The Way Forward :- 56-59
 Implication of Himalayan Geology in TBM Working :- 60-64
U S B R L
Sandeep Gupta  Design and Proof Checking of Steel Mega Bridges – Part 1 :- 65-72
 Stability Considerations in Rock Slopes :- 73-74
Chief Engineer/South
HIM PRABHAT
 Estimation of Rock Load for the Design of Tunnel Lining :- 75-80

Vol.I issue VI, February 2016
Associate Editors  Quality Control of Steel :- 81-84

 Introduction to Arc Welding Process :- 85-97
Mudit Bhatnagar  Solar Energy: Theoretical Perspectives :- 98-99
.
Chief Engineer Bridge/KRCL
General section
Rajesh Agarwal
 Town Along USBRL project Gool :- 100-101
Executive Director/IRCON
 Probiotics and Prebiotics as Functional Food :- 102-104
 Children’s Art :- 105-106
Project Alignment
1
From the Desk of Editor-in-Chief
As we all know, the project is passing through the most difficult geology. Surprises and challenges abound. So does the human ingenuity and
the undying spirit of engineers, geologists, and other experts in the field. They work out solutions and move ahead. Their experiences are once
again chronicled and recorded in this issue of Him Prabhat.
The project is not isolated to the Indian Railways, rather a part of it. Mr V.K.Agarwal, former Chairman Railway Board, in his article
on Indian Railways Vision 2030: Some Suggestions has given a guiding note arising out of his experience on Indian Railways from his
association of around four decades. The vision is a remarkable piece which spans the entire gamut of working of Indian Railways inter alia
covering operations, maintenance, human and other resources, customer aspirations, management, industrial relations etc. hardly having left
any significant aspect unattended. The article is accompanied by certain supplementary data and explanatory notes without which the vision
statement would not have been complete
Water, is a necessity for life. But when engineers encounter water while tunnelling it is a challenge that can test the nerve and the
skills of engineers. Mr. Ram Pal, XEN / Sangaldan / USBRL is a young engineer and he deftly handles the serious subject of water in
tunnelling in his article, Tunnelling Through Water Bearing Strata. He has discussed different approaches for handling this commonly
encountered but difficult problem.
Another brilliant engineer of this project Mr Sumit Khajuria, XEN / USBRL posted in Udhampur has in his article titled Steel Fibre
Reinforced Shotcrete And Its Comparison With Wire Mesh has taken up for discussion this technique that adds to strength on one hand while
being easy and cost effective on the other.
Global warming and other green issues recently attracted leaders from all over the world to aim at a 2 degree Centigrade reduction in
global temperatures. This is possible by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and gradually moving to alternate sources of energy. Solar and wind
are one of the prominent and most visible and viable alternatives in hands of mankind. Mr Nitin Verma, a promising engineer posted as
Deputy Chief Engineer in the Electrical Engineering Department of this project has taken up the excitement of solar and wind energy in his
article Solar / Wind Hybrid Power Plan.
Mr R. K.Choudhury, Chief Electrical Engineer / Con / USBRL Project has shared his experiences on installation of a 1 Mega Watt
Photovoltaic Cell Solar Power electricity generation plant installed on the roof of Shri Mata Vaishno Devi Katra Railway Station. Mr
Chaudhary outlines the technical parameter, technical issues that were encountered and how were they were met in his article.
The project of Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL) is chiefly a tunnelling project. One of the frequently asked
questions on the project is use of Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs). The TBMs in this project encounter one of the youngest mountains and
young as they are – they are still rising and not unexpectedly, they in their youthful step they are unpredictable and spring surprises without
any notice. Mr B.B.S.Tomar, Chief Engineer on USBRL Project as a senior contributor and his younger colleague Mr Amit Kumar, Deputy
Chief Engineer / Chenab / USBRL have discussed these and other aspects in their article Implication of Himalayan Geology in TBM Working.
This project has attracted best of expertise available in different fields. Mr R.K.Singh, Deputy Chief Engineer / KRCL is one such
repository of Bridge Design and the design and building of mega structures like that of Bridge on River Chanab has him working there. This
bridge has experts from all over the globe in collaborating. The experience of this kind needs to be recorded and shared. Mr R.K.Singh,
comes out with his first instalment of experience from this and other bridges on the project and his past experience in this field in his article
Design and Proof Checking of Steel Mega Bridges – Part 1.
The natural slopes have fascinated not only the poets and artists. They are a matter of keen interest and serious concern for
geologists and engineers and Dr. T.Ramamurthy, former Professor in Indian Institute of Technology, New Delhi with his years of experience
brings forth for the readers the issues related to slope stability in Stability Considerations in Rock Slopes. He has dealt with the failure of
natural slopes and has given insights into rock falls, slides etc with a view to steps required for enhancing stability.
Mr Rashmi Ranjan Mallick, Deputy Chief Engineer / Design in Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd. has contributed his article on
Estimation of Rock Load For The Design of Tunnel Lining where he takes the readers through rigorous methods of estimation of tunnel rock
loads – imperative in NATM.
Bridge on River Chenab has bought to fore the best among all those who are involved in building it. Mr Kishan Rawat is a young
engineer posted as XEN/Chenab. He shares his experience in his article Quality Control of Steel (Mechanical, Micro and Chemical Tests) and
Mr Vinay Mani Tiwari posted as AXEN/Chenab has prepared an Introduction to Arc Welding Process.
While the USBRL project has done a major first by installing a 1 MW Solar Power Plant, an article Solar Energy : Theoretical
Perspective touches upon the potential, issues and difficulties to be overcome in a fully solar energy dependent future.
Mr Deepak Singh, Executive Engineer posted at Sangaldan on USBRL Project takes forward the series Towns Along USBRL Project
where he walks the readers through the geography, climate and other economic aspects of town of Gool.
Bacteria necessarily are not always harmful. Mr Mohini Prabha Singh, daughter of Mr M.B. Azad, Assistant Engineer at Jammu
Tawi brilliantly introduces the readers to the importance of certain micro-organisms whose presence in gastrointestinal tract is not only healthy
but necessary. This makes her article Probiotics and Prebiotics as Functional Foods is a must read for everyone.
The section belonging to children brings freshness and happy sparkle to this bouquet of serious articles on engineering. The art of
Miss Poorva Gupta student of Class II, daughter of Mr Neeraj Kumar, brings the marvels of nature in bright colour with soaring birds and
bright sun in her contribution. Miss Ashmia Jahangir student of Class VII and Master Adil Jahangir of Class VI, niece and nephew
respectively of Mr Jameel Ahmed bring to the readers the fascination of a huge load of tongue twisters. Try reading them aloud with your
family and I can guarantee hours of fun and laughter. Hope this issue shall make the compilation extremely interesting for readers.
Mohit Sinha
EDITOR - IN -CHIEF
2
P R O J E C T N E W S
MEETING WITH THE CONSULTANTS AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 13TH

OF APRIL 2015
3
GM VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 22ND OF JUNE 2015
AMBERG TEAM AT T-45/P2 SANGALDAN ON 6th OF NOVEMBER 2015
4
MOSR VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 24th OF JUNE 2015
5
CONSULATIVE COMMITTEE AT SRINAGAR ON 9th OF JULY 2015
6
INDEPENDENCE DAY CELEBRATIONS AT HEAD OFFICE SATYAM

COMPLEX JAMMU
7
ED RDSO VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 15th OF SEPTEMBER 2015
8
DESIGNERS REVIEW MEETING HELD ON 17th OF SEPTEMBER 2015
9
CRB VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 16 & 17th OF OCTOBER 2015
10
Employees of the Month
Sh. Ashwani K. Bhardwaj
Sh. Ashwani Kumar Bhardwaj, CA, is an obedient, sincere, hard working and intelligent worker. At
present, he is working as CA with CE/South of USBRL Project. He joined Railways as English
Stenographer on 10th April, 1996 and worked in Hd. Qrs. Office at Baroda House, New Delhi in
Confidential Cell of Personnel Branch. After that, he got transferred to USBRL Project in
September, 1997 and was posted under Dy.CE/S&C-II/UHP. He has done commendable job in
office work for the opening of UHP-Katra section of USBRL Project. He has also rendered his best
services under deputation with KRCL from 2006 to 2010. Thereafter, he joined back to USBRL
Project in 2010 at Udhampur & later on at Jammu HQ Office of USBRL Project in April, 2012. He
is doing his assigned duties very efficiently. He likes simply cooked food. He likes decent clothing
and a great love for music. He loves the nature and is regular in yoga.
Best moment of life: To find a son of soil from J&K in Railway’s highest officer.
Sh. Santosh Kumar
Sh. Santosh Kumar is working as PA to Chief Engineer/North/USBRL. He is sincere, hard working

and intelligent worker. He had joined JURL Project in Jan., 1995 under Dy.CE/Const/Udhampur as
CA. Since inception of office of Dy.CE/C/Udhampur there was no typist available. He has handled all
the typing works very efficiently. After the opening of JURL Project he joined USBRL Project in
Jan., 2005. He has done commendable work for typing of estimates of Banihal-Qazigund section &
Tunnel T-80. He also assisted in typing work of book published on Tunnel T-80. He has also done a
commendable work during the time of opening of Qazigund-Baramulla section in inclement weather
conditions and typing of CRS papers. After the opening of Qazigund-Baramulla section, he joined
under CAO/USBRL/Jammu. He is doing his assigned duties very efficiently. He has also done a good
job in control room during the opening of Udhampur-Katra section in July, 2014.
Favourite Food: All foods simply cooked.
Favourite Colour: All light colours
Best Moments: Opening of Jammu-Udhampur section
11
Officers Joined the Project
S.No. Name Service & Previous Posting Educational

Batch Qualification
IRSE - 2003 Sr. DEN/3/Ferozpur B-Tech (Civil)

1. NIT Kurekshetra
Sh. Amit Kumar Dy.CE/Chenab
M-Tech (Geo-
IRSE - 2001 Sr. DEN –II/Ferozpur Technical
2. Engineering)
IISC, Bangalore
B-Tech, BIT Sindri
Sh. Niraj Kumar Dy.CE/Reasi
IRSE - 2001 Sr. DEN-I Moradabad AMIE (Civil)

3.
Sh. Mohit Kumar Dy.CE/Banihal
Induction in Dy.CE/BD/Baroda M.E (Structure)

Group A-2001 House (DCE Delhi),
4. DITS AMIE (Civil
12.06.2003 Engineering)
Sh. B.K. Sharma Dy.CE/Anji
IRSE - 1998 Dy.CE/Br./Lucknow/ M-TECH (IIT

5. Northern Railway Kharagpur)
B-Tech MIT
Muzaffarpur
Sh. Radha Mohan Singh Dy.CE/HQ/JAT
IRSE - 2001 Deputation RLDA AMIE(Civil Engg),

6. 2013-15 (SG) as Real MBA
Estate AND Urban
Planner
Sh. R.K. Sood Dy.CE/JAT
7.
Induction in Track Supply Officer Diploma in
Group A-2004 Baroda House Mechanical
DITS Engineering
19.06.2006
Sh. K.S. Baweja Dy.CE/Sangaldan
12
Indian Railways Vision 2030: Some Suggestions
By
V. K. Agarwal
 Indian Railways is the Lifeline of the Nation. The Honourable MR Shri Suresh Prabhu during his
 Indian Railways has a glorious past, a turbulent Budget Speech (26th Feb. 2015) has announced several
present and a bright future. measures to mitigate the problems and outlined the need
 Honourable PM Shri Narendra Modi wants to see for developing a Vision 2030 document.
Railways as the backbone of India’s economic 1.4 Developing a long term Vision (Vision 2030) for such a
development. gigantic and complex organisation is not an easy task.
 Source: White Paper on IR (Feb. 2015). The problem gets further compounded by the fact that
IR’s development at an accelerated pace is not only
1.0 Introduction needed for the Transport sector per se but also for the
larger canvas of Environment (Reducing GHG
emissions) as also to give a Kick-Start / Boost to the
1.1 Indian Railways (IR) is not only an organization Economy. Further, while several New Technologies are
but an institution in itself, and while external evolving fast but these have to be suitably selected /
factors may affect it, it also has a profound effect modulated also to address concerns of Climate Change,
on them. A holistic approach in problem solving Inclusive Growth, and Sustainable Development. The
and future planning is required for improving the problem solving approach has not only to be based on
efficiency and effectiveness of the system, thereby the popular commercial dictum where More is produced
restoring public confidence. In the present from Less for More profit but where More is produced
environment when commercial focus has assumed from Less for More people (not just More profit).
predominance, the Indian Railways has also to
keep the interests of the lower strata of the society 1.5 The following, inter alia, highlight the direction in
in mind, especially those below the poverty line. which IR has to move:
1.2 A system of I.R’s size and complexity is difficult 1.5.1 The National Transport Development Policy Committee
to examine holistically, while isolated examination (NTDPC) in its recent Report (2014) envisages growth
of specified areas will not give optimum solutions. of Rail’s market share in freight traffic to 50% (from
This is a dilemma which a railway manager has to existing 30%) by the end of 15th Plan (2032). It has
face. May be, this is the reason why it is said that accordingly proposed an increase in the investment in
the Indian Railways is the most studied Railways from about 0.4% of GDP in the last two
organization, but the implementation of the Study decades to around 0.8% in the 12th Plan (2012-17) and
Reports is lacking. Action in one area may have then rising to around 1.1 to 1.2 percent of GDP in the
adverse repercussions/problems for other areas and following three Plans (2017-2032).
unless the total package is decided, part
implementation will not be fully effective. 1.5.2 A recent Report on “Low Carbon strategies for
Inclusive Growth – Report of the Expert Group (April
1.3 The present situation on IR and the various
2014)” of the Planning Commission, Government of
challenges it is facing have been outlined in the
India highlights the need for completion of Dedicated
White Paper (Indian Railways – Lifeline of the
Freight Corridors (DFCs) on the Golden Quadrilateral
Nation – Feb. 2015). It has been highlighted that
connecting Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata and its
IR has suffered considerable under-investment
two Diagonals by the year 2030 for improving the
during the last several years and as a consequence
market share of Rail to 50%. This will reduce GHG
capacity augmentation as also the quality of
emissions as Rail is 4-6 times fuel efficient vis-a-vis
service have suffered.
Road.
1.5.3 Economic Survey 2014-15 placed before the Parliament

on 27th February 2015 (one day after the Rail Budget)
forsees fast development of Rail Infrastructure as a
means to ‘Kick-Start’ the Economy as was done earlier
during the NDA Regime through Road projects viz.
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojna (PMGSY) and
National Highways Development Programme (NHDP).
V. K. AGARWAL Supplementing Data / Explanatory Notes are attached.

These have been referred in this Note wherever
Former Chairman Railway considered necessary.
Board &
Ex-Officio Principal Secretary
to Govt. of India
13
1.5.4 It may not be out of place to mention that a study by 2.7 Construction of these DFCs which are being built more
Balance Research Institute, Melbourne regarding Changing or less parallel to the existing double line tracks will
Relativities between the Road and the Rail (1999) had also release the congestion on the existing tracks as these
predicted growth on Rail Traffic at a much faster pace vis-a- will then be carrying only the Passenger traffic as the
vis Road traffic (Refer Para S.4.10). Freight traffic will shift to the newly constructed DFCs.
Average speeds of travel both for passenger & freight
2.0 Brief Overview trains will also improve. This opportunity can be
taken to provide better safety for passenger trains on
the existing routes by suitably upgrading them
2.1 Transport is an essential pre-requisite for development /
through signalling and track inputs and speeds
growth. In addition, transport by itself also accelerates
increased to 160 kmph, and for some trains the
growth. Integrated development of various transport modes is
speeds can also be enhanced to 200 kmph.
essential for optimum utilization of the resources. One major
factor which has come to fore in recent years is the need for
2.8 It may not be out of place to mention that International
making the transport ‘greener’ that is basically reducing the
Union of Railways (UIC) defines a speed of 200
Green House Gas (GHG) emissions. The transport mode
kmph or more when obtained on an existing track as
selection has to keep this vital aspect also in view.
High Speed. However, for the newly constructed track
speeds beyond 250 kmph are defined as High Speeds
2.2 About 90% of the traffic in our Country is carried by Rail /
but in such cases (where the new tracks are constructed
Road modes. Rail is 4-6 times fuel-efficient vis-à-vis Road
for the purpose of achieving High Speeds) generally
and therefore reduction in the market share of Rail vis-à-vis
speeds of 300-350 kmph are targeted. So broadly we
Road is a serious concern for environment too. It may not be
can have two types of High Speed Rail Systems namely:
out of place to mention that the market share of Rail in
freight traffic has gone down from 89% to 30% and for
1. Trains running at 200 kmph on the existing tracks.
the passenger traffic from 69% to 15%, since 1950-51.
(We can term these as Common Man’s High Speed
trains.)
2.3 Planning Commission and other recommendatory bodies like
2. Trains running at 300-350 kmph on newly constructed
the recent National Transport Development Policy
tracks. (We can term these as Conventional High Speed
Committee (NTDPC) have all been proposing a growth in the
trains.)
market share of Rail to a value of around 50%.
2.9 One more issue which is intimately related to
2.4 Growth of rail traffic, and that too at an accelerated pace
environment is to provide a mechanism so that some
to make up for the lost market share, is not possible only
Road traffic could shift on to Rail and for that
by doing some system improvements. The rail
construction of New Railway lines in the areas where
infrastructure needs major capacity expansion inputs.
such traffic is available is essential. In addition, some
The capacity expansion on Indian Railways (IR) has lagged
new Railway lines are also needed from Social /
behind due to paucity of resources. To give example, the rate
Economic considerations. As has already been
of construction of New Railway lines in the pre-
mentioned in para 2.4 our New Line construction has
independence era was roughly 3 times faster than that after
been very slow and there is an urgent need to boost it.
the Independence. The rail network has grown by about 23%
While the Railway Vision document of 2009 indicated
while the traffic has grown by more than 1400 per cent, since
construction of New Railway lines at the rate of 2500
1950-51. (Refer Para S.4.11)
km per year but at least 1000 to 1500 km per year
appears essential.
2.5 The Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals connecting
the metro cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata
2.10 Appreciating the need for faster growth of Rail
(Delhi-Kolkata; Delhi-Mumbai; Delhi-Chennai; Mumbai-
Infrastructure, the National Transport Development
Kolkata; Mumbai-Chennai; Chennai-Kolkata) constitute
Policy Committee (NTDPC) headed by Dr. Rakesh
about 16% of the Route kms of IR but carry around 60% of
Mohan in its recent Report (2014) has proposed an
traffic and are having severe capacity constraints.
increase in investment in Railways from about 0.4% of
GDP in the last two decades to around 0.8% in the 12th
2.6 To relieve the traffic congestion, Dedicated Freight Corridors Plan (2012-2017) and then rising to around 1.1 to 1.2
(DFCs) are planned for the Golden Quadrilateral and its two per cent of GDP in the following three Plans (2017 to
Diagonals. Work on Delhi-Kolkata and Delhi-Mumbai 2032). It will be seen that proposed increase is more
Corridors is already in progress and is likely to be completed than 2 to 3 times the present levels.
by 2017-18. However, the speed at which the work is being
done needs special inputs and efforts so that all the six DFCs
are available for use, say in a period of next 10 years
14
2.11 The Railway’s Vision Document of 2009 had also 3.4 Conventional High Speeds of 300-350 kmph
suggested an investment of Rs. 14 lac crore on the IR in
a ten year period i.e. about Rs. 1.4 lac crore per year. Financial / economic justification for these lines may be
For an organisation having an yearly revenue earning of difficult for our Country but their provision is essential for
Rs. 1.4 lac crore (year 2013-14) it is a tall order. In his the image of IR as well as for gaining knowledge / access to
Budget Speech (26th Feb. 2015) Honourable MR has modern technologies which will also benefit the existing IR
indicated an investment of Rs. 8.5 crore in the next five system. These lines may cost around Rs 100 crore per km to
years on the IR i.e. an average of Rs. 1.7 crore / year. construct and the following three lines could be planned for
For this level of funding innovative financing models / completion in the next ten years. The work can be planned
strategies will be required coupled with a significant through PPP mode / Foreign Assistance.
support from Government of India.
1. Mumbai-Ahmedabad
3.0 Needed Interventions by Government of India for 2. Delhi-Chandigarh-Amritsar
Accelerated Development of Rail Infrastructure 3. Chennai-Bangalore
Government of India (GOI) could support the following 4.0 Expansion of Rail Network – Action Plan by
four projects by declaring them as National Projects: IR
3.1 New Railway Lines
4.1 For any Transport organisation basically three broad areas
Construction of New Railway Lines at the rate of 1000 viz. Maintenance of assets, Operations, and Expansion of
km/year according to a ten year blue print made for the capacity are very relevant. On the IR all the three areas have
purpose. This can be done on the same pattern as the suffered, primarily due to paucity of resources, but the major
Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY) for casualty has been the expansion of network / capacity. This
Road projects and full funding provided for the purpose has caused severe traffic congestion especially on the busy
by the GOI. routes. The average point to point speeds of trains which
should be 70-75% of maximum speeds are much lower
3.2 Dedicated Freight Corridor (DFCs) being about 33% for Goods / Freight trains and less than
50% for most of the Passenger trains. Expansion of network
All the six legs of Golden Quadrilateral connecting (New Lines / Doublings) will greatly reduce traffic
Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata and its two congestion, permit much higher point to point speeds, and
Diagonals should be provided with Dedicated Freight enhance capacity of the System.
Corridors (DFCs) wherein 40% grant could come from
Government of India as a Viability Gap cum 4.2 With the suggested interventions by the GOI in four
Accelerated Development Fund. This will be more or National Projects outlined in Para 3.0, the Indian Railways
less on the pattern of National Highways Development can now concentrate on Doubling of other busy routes, and
Program (NHDP) for the Road sector. on financially viable / strategic New Line Projects. Presently
IR undertakes construction of about 700 km of Doublings
3.3 Common Man’s High speed – 200 kmph on Existing and about 500 km of New Lines every year. This pace of
Tracks construction can be continued in a planned manner, based on
a ten year blue print made for the purpose with defined
The Common Man’s High Speed (200 kmph on the priorities, completion schedules, and assured funds.
existing tracks) should be planned on the existing lines
of the Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals 5.0 Making Loss Making Passenger Traffic Self
simultaneously with the shift of freight traffic to the Sustaining
DFCs.
5.1 Indian Railways earn about Rs. 1,40,000 crore in a year out
Provision of such High Speed trains will necessitate of which contribution by the Goods / Freight traffic is 67%
removal of level crossings (which in any case is being and by the Passenger traffic 26%. The IR bears Social
done because of parallel running DFCs), fencing of Service Obligations of about Rs. 25,000 crore per year by
tracks and signalling inputs for providing ‘cab carrying Passenger services below cost – making the
signalling’. These measures will also improve the safety Passenger traffic a loss making segment and needing
of travel for other passenger trains running upto speeds subsidisation from the Goods segment. If this money was
of 160 kmph. It is expected that this work will cost on available to the System it could have been gainfully utilised
an average of around Rs. 15 crore per km. for network expansion and capacity augmentation.
This will put IR on the World High Speed Rail Map

with about 16% of its Route length being classified
as High Speed Rail Network. This will also full fill
the Vision of the Honourable PM in regard to
running of Bullet trains on the Golden Quadrilateral
and its two Diagonals.
15
5.2 It may not be out of place to mention that loss making 6.2 Growth / Development
Passenger traffic occupies more than 60% of IR’s Capacity
while generating less than 30% of IR’s Revenue. The 6.2.1 Financial performance alone cannot be taken as a
growing needs of having more and more Passenger trains measure of Growth / Development for a major
compels IR to increase their numbers with consequent organisation like the Indian Railways. Organisation’s
increase in traffic congestion and also in revenue loss. impact on issues / areas like Sustainable Development,
Climate Change (Mitigation / Adaptation) and Inclusive
5.3 Passenger fares on IR were deliberately kept low since Growth have also to be considered (Refer Paras S.4.1 &
inception and in the year 1950-51 the value of Traffic S.4.2).
Ratio (Ratio between the average passenger fare per km to
the average freight rate per tonne km) was 0.5 (Financially 6.2.2 Sustainable Development / Sustainable Performance need
desirable value for the Tariff Ratio is around 1.0; on that all the actions / activities are guided by Five Es
(Efficiency, Effectiveness, Ethics, Environment, and
Chinese Railways its value is 1.2). However, over the years
Evolution). This is equally true for Individuals, Group of
the Tariff Ratio has further declined to 0.3 resulting in loss Individuals (Teams), Systems, and Organisations. (Refer
in the Passenger segment of traffic. If the Tariff Ratio is Para S.3.12)
restored to its original value of 0.5, the Passenger traffic
will no more remain a loss making segment (Refer Para 6.3 Management Ethos
S.5.4).
6.3.1 Indian Railways has a large customer base and not
5.4 The argument that subsidised passenger fares benefit the counting other rail uses, about 2.3 crore passengers travel
‘poor’ is also not entirely true. The Economic Survey by it every day (1 out of 50 in our country). With 13 lac
2014-15 (Feb. 27th, 2015) clearly highlights that the employees (13x4 = 52 lac including family members), 1
out of 250 in our country is a Railwayman or his family
subsidised fares on IR benefit the wealthy Households member. This number will further increase if about 10 lac
more as in non-suburban passenger segment only 28.1% railway retirees are also counted. Railwaymen by and
are from the bottom 80% of the Households. (From this it large have an inherent loyalty to the Organisation and this
can be inferred that this percentage from “below the trend can be seen in several other world railway systems
poverty line” Households will even be lower.) It may be too. The Organisation is under single management. The
desirable to enhance the passenger fares gradually to make System has the support of Staff Unions who have shown
signs of maturity and by and large good Industrial
the Passenger segment financially self sustaining. Further,
Relations have been maintained over the years.
in consonance with the DBT (Direct Benefit Transfer)
approach, subsidy could be targeted to the ‘poor’ through 6.3.2 It is, therefore, essential that the System is handled with
the Concession route (say 30-50% concession on the extreme care and efforts made to improve the matters
tickets purchased) to cover all those “below the poverty even further. This will not only benefit the IR but will
line”. have a favourable impact at the National level too.
‘Participative / Democratic styles of Management’ to
5.5 To make the system of fare fixation more rational, ensure willing and deeper involvement of employees
transparent, and acceptable to general public it may be (Refer Para S.3.4), attention to ‘Employee Contact Areas’
to check employees falling prey to corruption (Refer Para
desirable to link it to some national index like the
S.3.8), and use of ‘Thought Dynamics’ to improve the
Consumer Price Index (CPI). Changes can then be done bond between the Management and the Employees (Refer
automatically say once or twice a year. Para S.3.9) are some of the styles / systems which can be
consciously used / followed. Further, use could also be
6.0 Some Broad Policy Directions made of Ancient Indian Philosophy e.g. for making
‘Ethical Values’ sustainable and for a deeper
6.1 Problem Solving Approach understanding of Sustainable Development / Holistic
Development. (Refer Paras S.5.13 & S.5.14)
6.1.1 Every problem has several angles / dimensions and all of
them have to be dealt with holistically. Further, depending 6.3.3 The effort should not only be confined to improving the
upon what weightage is given to each one of them a bond / faith between the Management and the Employees
but also between IR (through its Management /
suitable solution has to be evolved. This is not an easy
Employees) and the Rail Passengers / Users (Refer Para
task. (Refer Para S.3.1). S.3.2). For the purpose, Value inputs to all Railwaymen
and Fair and Transparent Systems will greatly help.
6.1.2 Indian Railways is a gigantic and complex Organisation Systematic use of ‘yoga’ to train railwaymen and their
and the problem solving approach has to keep in focus its families will be an added assistance.
“Special Features” for optimal results. (Refer Paras S. 2.1
to S.2.10)
16
7.0 Technology / Engineering 7.5 Common Man’s High Speed – 200 kmph on Existing
Tracks : The proposal is to cover the entire Golden
7.1 To make the boundaries between Science, Technology, and Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals with some trains
Engineering more explicit the recent UNESCO Report running at 200 kmph with very small inputs as mentioned
(2010) can be a good guide. This relationship has been in Para 3.3. This will be a low cost solution and the length
indicated in sketch shown below : (Also Refer Paras S.4.3, covered will also be large (more than 10,000 km of
S.4.4 and S.4.5)
double line). The work will also get completed early say
in a period of about 10 years i.e. along with the
completion of DFCs. It will benefit large number of
passengers by providing High Sped Trains to them at
affordable cost.
7.5.1 Indian Railways are already working to enhance speeds

to 160 kmph on some selected stretches on these routes.
R&D efforts will have to be directed to find solutions for
enhancing speeds to 200 kmph by suitable inputs to
existing tracks and / or providing special types of coaches
for the purpose. International experience which is
It will be observed that ‘Engineering’ using ‘Theories’
from ‘Science’ and ‘Tools’ provided by ‘Technology’ available for Standard Gauge (SG) High speed Systems
provides ‘Products and Benefits’ to ‘Society and Nature’ will need examination / modulation for our Broad Gauge
keeping in view the ‘Resources and Needs’. (BG) network.
Role of ‘Engineering’ is becoming more and more difficult

and complex because ‘Needs’ are increasing, ‘Resources’ are
becoming scarce, ‘Nature’ e.g. Environmental considerations 7.6 Conventional High Speeds of 300-350 kmph: For the
are dangerously close to being breached and ‘Society’ needs purpose new tracks will have to be constructed which may
Inclusive Growth. All these requirements need newer and cost around Rs. 100 crore per km as mentioned in Para
different types of ‘Technologies’ and applications of
3.4.
‘Science’.
7.2 Dr. R. A. Mashelkar has suggested MLM approach, also

termed as Gandhian Engineering, wherein More
7.6.1 In this case technical support and other assistance from
(performance) is obtained from Less (Resources) for More
(People), not just for More (Profit). This MLM way of pioneering countries like Japan, France, and China could
innovation takes into account the aspects of affordability be sought in the initial stages. The track gauge could be
and sustainability. (Refer Para S.3.11). Standard Gauge (SG) as is available on these High Speed
Systems. Efforts made to develop a ‘fixed infrastructure’
7.3 Technology Foresight in this complex environment, needs which can take the ‘rolling stock’ from these three
people with T-shaped skill profiles viz. People with an open
countries. Finally through the TOT (Transfer of
mind and having in depth knowledge of their own domain as
well as competence in a much broader spectrum of Technology) route the manufacture of rolling stock for
managerial, interpersonal and other skills. (Refer Para S.4.7). High Speed Trains can be started in our Country also with
a view to export them at a later stage.
7.4 Regulated use of Natural assets / Resources (Nature) and of
the Technology (also includes using the right type of
Technology) is essential for Propserity. Collier (2010) has
summarised this Challenge as under : (Refer Para S.4.6-B) 7.7 Electric Traction vs Diesel Traction: Basically from
fuel economy and traffic output considerations boost to
(a) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION ‘electrification’ is proposed. If we examine the issue from
= PROSPERITY ‘environmental’ considerations this approach will have
(b) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY - REGULATION
merit provided the used electric power is from cleaner
= PLUNDER
(c) NATURE - TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION sources. Power from Coal may be 2-3 times more
= POVERTY polluting than the Power from Diesel. (Refer Para S.4.6-
C)
Regulation requires Good Governance.
17
7.7.1 Efforts are on in our country to significantly increase the 8.2 Any small wrong act damages the image of the whole
share of Clean ‘Solar’ and ‘Wind’ powers in the total Organisation. On major organisations like the IR its impact
energy-mix. However, this will pose problems of Energy is proportionately much greater and so concerted efforts and
Storage as extra Solar / Wind power will have to be stored surveillance are needed to avoid such situations. This is
for use in other periods to balance the Grid. If suitable essential for developing a bond of faith between the Rail
Energy Storage Systems (ESS) are not in place than Passengers / Users and Rail Management / Employees.
precious Clean Solar / Wind power will be wasted. (Refer Para S.3.2)
Capacity of Energy Storage Systems (like Pumped
Hydraulic system, Batteries) is rather limited. To avoid 8.3 While higher levels of Service Quality / Facilities are
wastage of Clean Solar / Wind power, one approach could welcome but it is essential to ensure that at least the
also be to use it during the period it is available for Minimum specified levels of Service Quality / Facilities are
activities like (i) Conversion of Captured CO2 from Coal provided to the Rail Passengers / Users all the time. (Refer
Plants into Fuel (ii) Generation of Hydrogen for use in Paras S.3.6 & S.3.7)
Transport (iii) Its use on the IR’s Electrified Routes during 10
periods of availability. 8.4 An Organisation seeking to improve its market share of
Freight traffic to 50% (from existing levels of 30%) and to
7.7.2 Diesel Locos can be of two types viz. Diesel-Electric cater to the full demand of Passenger traffic will need
Locos and Diesel-Hydraulic Locos. On IR, mostly Diesel- several innovative measures and efforts towards Customer
Electric Locos are used. In these Locos electricity generated Focus / Business Development. Advise / Support of
through the use of Diesel, powers the propulsion motors. external experts will help.
The Electric Locos on the other hand collect electric power
through the overhead ‘Catenary’ from the ‘Grid’ which 8.5 One suggestion is to capture piecemeal Freight traffic, when
after stepping down the ‘Voltage’ through ‘Transformers in the capacity becomes available after the construction of
the Locos’ is used for propulsion. Efforts can be made to DFCs, through Roll-on Roll-off (Ro-Ro) service where road
develop a ‘hybrid’ Loco which can use both Diesel and trucks are carried on rail wagons. These trains can be run
the Electric power. Even though more expensive, such a regularly to a fixed time schedule. This will be a win-win
‘Hybrid Loco’ will provide the flexibility to use Electric situation both for the Truckers and the Rail as explained in
power when Clean (e.g. Solar power when in excess in the detail. (Refer Para S.5.10)
Grid during day hours) and use Diesel during other periods
when supply is primarily coal based. Further, it is also 8.6 As the capacity becomes available, especially after the
suggested that IR can also attempt to develop Locos completion of DFCs, the System could be suitably
which can use ‘Hydrogen’ as fuel. deregulated wherein ‘private players’ could run selected
specified Freight and Passenger trains on the IR. (Refer
7.8 Making Power from Coal Plants ‘Cleaner’ : It has been Para S.5.9)
brought out in the Report of the Expert Group on “Low
Carbon strategies for Inclusive Growth”, Planning 9.0 Project Management
Commission, Government of India (April 2014) that even
in the year 2030 about 63% of the power will be coal 9.1 For speedy development of IR Network and Capacity,
based. To make the power from the coal cleaner, the CO2 timely execution of large number of Projects will be an
emissions from the coal plants could be captured and the inescapable need. Project Management is a complex and
captured CO2 then converted into fuel using extra solar involved activity. (Refer Para S.4.8)
power from the grid during the period it is available. This
will permit continued use of coal for power generation from 9.2 Effective systems for Dispute Resolution like Dispute
environmental considerations and the extra solar power Review Boards, Integrity Pacts overseen by Independent
could also be used (sort of storage of solar power) to External Monitors, Conciliation and Arbitration methods
convert CO2 into useful fuel. etc. would have to be in place.
7.8.1 Indian Railways should support the R&D efforts in this 9.3 It is good that IR has appointed a Committee (Dr. E.
regard not only from environmental considerations but also Sreedharan Committee) for the purpose and action could be
from their larger business interests as the coal traffic is planned based on the recommendations of this Committee.
major component of their freight traffic.
10.0 Cleanliness
8.0 Customer Focus / Business Development
10.1 This is an area which is not only vital but also needs
8.1 Strengths and Weakness of the Indian Railways should continuous activity / monitoring. Indian Railways is
always be kept in focus while making changes / actively participating in Government’s flagship programme
improvements. (Refer Para S.5.1) ‘Swachh Bharat Abhiyan’ and Honourable MR in his
Budget speech (26th Feb. 2015) has also announced
formation of a new Department for keeping the Stations
and Trains clean. Railways also plan to set up ‘waste
energy’ conversion plants near major washing terminals to
dispose waste in an environment-friendly manner.
18
10.2 Toilet facilities of stations and in Trains are being improved. 12.4 Merger of Departmental Cadres is not desirable as has
Bio-toilets are being fitted in more coaches. The RDSO has been explained in detail. (Refer Para S.5.7)
been tasked with making available within a period of six
months a design for vacuum toilets. 13.0 Project Financing
10.3 Efforts will have to continued relentlessly to achieve world 13.1 For faster growth of Rail Infrastructure sizeable
class ‘cleanliness’ norms. increase in investments on Railways is needed. Brief
details in this regard can be seen in Paras 2.10 & 2.11.
11.0 Human Resource Development / Training
13.2 Mr. A. V. Poulose, Former Financial Commissioner,
11.1 Management Ethos as discussed in Para 6.3 with Ministry of Railways in his Article titled “Evolving
‘Participating / Democratic’ styles of management and other Methods of Funding Projects” – RITES Journal
inputs will improve the bond / faith between the Management (January 2009) discuss the issues at length. He
and the Employees. Active participation of Employees in the observes as under:
organisational working with ensue and several new
innovative suggestions would follow. Relationship between “Given the massive requirement of resources for
Rail Passengers / Users and the IR Organisation will also development projects across the world, and the
improve. inability of any sector by itself to raise the resources,
there is no escape from joint efforts by all the sectors.
11.2 Indian Railways have an elaborate system of Training which In this background, no method of funding can be
is imparted to railway officials at various stages covering rejected out of hand. All the methods would need to be
initial recruitment training, periodical refresher training, adopted, by the Public and Private sectors pulling
promotional training and training in special areas as required. together, for implementing projects for the benefit of
Besides the aspects of ‘Skills’ suitable inputs in ‘Values’ society.”
should also be given to them during such courses to ensure
their holistic development. 13.3 The Report of the High Level Committee (D. K. Mittal
Committee) for ‘Improving the Financial Health of
12.0 Organisational Structure Indian Railways” (Dec. 26th, 2014) could also provide
some inputs.
12.1 The existing structure of I.R. is intrinsically sound and is still
perfectly capable of delivering the goods. What is exactly 13.4 For making arrangements for Funds on such a large
required is to allow the LR. to run on commercial principles scale for Infrastructure Projects. several innovative
(subsidies to be duly compensated), provide a level playing systems / methods will be needed. It will be desirable
field to it vis-a~vis other transport modes for free and fair to get advice of external experts for the purpose.
competition, duly compensate I.R. for correcting the capacity
constraints and asset rehabilitation arrears which are basically 14.0 Need for an Expert Group cum Think
the outcome of heavy social service obligations which the
Tank
system has carried over the years, and lastly relax excessive
Government controls allowing it to fix tariffs on Commercial
(rather than Political/Social) considerations. (Refer Para Indian Railways on its fast growth path and for
S.5.5) effectively achieving the Vision 2030 will need
assistance in three broad areas :
12.2 Organisational reforms on IR as suggested by the National
Transport Development Policy Committee (NTDPC) – 2014) (i) Technology / Engineering
are difficult to implement and may take upto 5 years for (ii) Customer Focus / Business Development
implementation as per their own assessment. For this (iii) Project Financing
period, some interim recommendations have been made
by the Committee. Such an approach cannot be allowed It may be desirable to have a Group comprising of
on IR where war like activities go on 24 hours a day, 365 suitable experts from these areas who meet jointly say
days a year. (Refer Para S.5.5) once a month to address the issues, suggest innovative
solutions and also act as a ‘Think-Tank’ for the IR.
12.3 Railway Board is responsible for the policy laying Joint meetings are being suggested for ensuring
(Ministerial functions) and its implementation (Operational integrated / optimal solutions to issues / problems
functions), and this is a good system. This ensures better
accountability and avoids any conflict between the Ministry 15.0 Indian Railways – Vision 2030
and its Operational arm, both being the same. (Refer Para
S.5.5) • Indian Railways should be a financially viable system
and carry more than 50% of Country’s Freight traffic
12.3.1 “The distinctive character of combining both policy and and also meet fully the demands of Passenger traffic,
operational responsibilities and the flexibility and control that with least cost to the Society / Nature.
this offers” has been seen as a positive ‘Strength’ of IR in a
Study by M/s A. F. Ferguson & Co. (Refer Para S.5.1)
19
• Rail network should reach all parts of the Country having at
least a total Route Km of 80,000 km (65,000 km existing +
15,000 km to be added).
• Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals connecting metro

cities of Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata should have
Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) for running Freight trains
at speeds of 100 kmph / 160 kmph.
• With the shift of Freight traffic to DFCs, the existing network

on the Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals should be
exclusively used for Passenger traffic and with suitable inputs
like elimination of Level Crossings, provision of Fencing,
Cab-Signalling, etc. ‘safety of travel’ improved on the System
and speeds of Passenger trains enhanced to 160 kmph, with
some Special Trains achieving speeds of 200 kmph (Common
Man’s High speed – 200 kmph on existing track).
• Conventional High Speed Trains at 300-350 kmph should be

running on the following routes :
- Mumbai – Ahmedabad
- Delhi – Chandigarh – Amritsar
- Chennai – Bangalore
• System being a major provider of Transport and also being

under Single Management should closely interact with other
Transport modes for achieving optimal transport output.
• Indian railways should not only be a part of larger Transport

System (both National & International) but should consciously
play its role as a part of larger Environmental system (Climate
Change; Swachh Bharat Abhiyan; Waste Management) and of
the Economic system (Boost to Economy; Job creation,
Inclusive Growth) for Sustainable Development.
• Safety of travel should be accorded the highest priority and

zero failures of Men, Materials, Machines and Systems
ensured in all areas of IR’s working.
• The System should manufacture Locos, Coaches, Wagons and

other materials / equipments in its own Production Units or
through other India based Units. ‘Zero Defect Zero Effect’ and
‘Make in India’ should be the guiding dictums of manufacture
/ production.
• Railway Management / Employees should not only be Fully

Skilled in their respective areas of working but should also
possess High Value Norms, a Deep Loyalty to the
Organisation and Extreme Concern for the Rail Passengers /
Users.
• By precisely assessing the needs of the Rail Passengers / Users
and accordingly providing high quality service to them, the
Organisation should not only have a satisfied Rail Passenger /
User base but also a Segment which has complete faith in the
IR.
• The image of the Organisation should be that of an Efficient
and Modern Rail System comparable to any other Advanced
World Rail System.
20
Indian Railways Vision 2030: Some Suggestions
Supplementing Data / Explanatory Notes
By Sh. V.K. Agarwal
S.1.0 Select Data about Indian Railways (IR) • Indian Railways has :
 Bridge Important 741
• Indian Railways (IR) is one of the world’s largest Major 10,944
rail networks with 65,808 Kms of Route length. The Minor 1,25,035
size of the network – gauge-wise as on March 2014 Total 1,36,720
is as follows :
 Level Crossings Manned 18,785
Gauge Route Running Total Unmanned 13,563
Kms track track kms Total 30,348
kms
 Locomotives Steam 43
Broad Gauge 58,177 81,914 107,513 Diesel 5,633
(1676 mm) Electric 4,823
Total 10,499
Metre Gauge 5,334 5,708 6,688
 Conventional Coaches 51,288
(1000 mm)
 EMU Coaches 8,337
Narrow Gauge 2,297 2,297 2,564
(762 mm and  Wagons 2,45,267
610 mm)
 Number of Passenger Trains run daily
About 12,000
Total 65,808 89,919 1,16,765  Number of Goods Trains run daily
About 7,000
• With its more than 150 year old history, IR is a state-
owned public utility of the Government of India Total Staff 13.05 Lakh
under the Ministry of Railways.
• The IR Organisation is very vast and intimately
• Indian Railways carried during the year 2013-14, connected to several actions / organizations :
8397 million passengers (about 2.3 crore
passengers per day) and 1051 million tonnes of  About 2.3 crore passengers use the IR system daily
freight traffic (about 3 million tonnes per day). i.e. one out of every 50 in our Country.
 IR has about 13 lac employee (13x4 = 52 lac family
• The Golden Quadrilateral (connecting four metro members) meaning thereby that 1 out of every 250
cities of Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai) and in our Country is a Railwayman or his family
its two diagonals, which constitutes about 16% of member.
Route Kms or 25% of Running Track Kms  Carries about 30% of freight traffic and is
carries around 60% of the traffic of the Indian associated with several related organizations.
Railways (IR).  About 19,000 trains (12,000 Passengers + 7,000
Freight) run on the system daily i.e. about 70 lac
• Due to Severe Capacity Constraints market share of trains per year.
Rail in Freight traffic has gone down from 89% to  Close association and interaction with Public /
30% and for the Passenger traffic from 69% to 15% Politicians – MPs – MLAs / Press / Media.
since 1950-51. This is a major concern for  Interacts with practically all the Departments of
Environment too as Rail is 4-6 times fuel efficient GOI and the State Governments.
vis-à-vis Road.  Works round the Clock – IR never sleeps.
 Has separate Rail Budget since 1924 and so its
financial performance is explicitly measurable. The
Budget is discussed with keen interest in the
Parliament.
V. K. Agarwal
Former Chairman
Railway Board &
Ex-Officio Principal
Secretary to Govt. of
India
21
• Indian Railways, functioning as Ministry of Railways, is S.2.2 Delays Affect Very Large Numbers
headed by the Minister of Railways. The apex body entrusted
with the management of this mega enterprise is led by the All activities on the railways affect very large number
Chairman Railway Board (CRB). Members of the Railway of persons and can be termed as ‘high leverage
Board include Financial Commissioner, Member Traffic, activities’, Railways carry 2.3 crore passengers and 3
Member Engineering, Member Mechanical, Member million tonnes of freight every day. Passenger trains
Electrical and Member Staff who represent their respective having 24/26 coaches carry about 1500 to 2000
functional domains. For administrative purposes, Indian passengers. Any delay in train running, decision
Railways is divided into 17 Zones, each headed by a General making, any ‘bandh’ disrupting traffic etc. affects a very
Manager. Zonal Railways are further divided into smaller large number of people as not only the concerned train
operating units called Divisions. There are 68 operating is affected but the trains which are following also get
Divisions in Indian Railways at present, each under a delayed. Punctual running of trains is normally upper
Divisional Railway Manager. In addition, there are a number most in the minds of all railwaymen. A conscious
of Production Units, Training Establishments, Public Sector feeling that this is an activity with such a high leverage
Enterprises and other Offices working under the control of will further enhance their commitment to the cause and
Railway Board. they may also be able to convince other citizens to avoid
actions resulting in delays.
S.2.0 Special Features of Indian Railways (IR) S.2.3 Optimisation an Inescapable Need
Management
The Railway organisation is divided geographically into
S.2.1 Controlled De-centralisation Essential seventeen Zones and further into 68 Divisions. Several
Departments also exist on 'Functional' lines in each
Indian Railways cover a large part of the country carrying Division/Zone. In addition, there are several Production
heavy traffic, both passenger and freight, with the assistance units/PSUs. For achieving best results, co-operation /
of about 13 lakh employees. For promoting uniformity of co-ordination amongst various Units/Functions is not
action (non-uniformity can affect safety or invite public/staff enough and planned efforts have to be made to
reactions), provide integration of the total operations achieve the best possible optimization. The
(essential for effective optimization), as also to handle Units/Functions cannot be allowed to maximize their
emergencies, it is essential that a centralized approach is used outputs at the cost of the overall optimization process.
for managing/administering the system. On the other hand, a In view of enormous size of I.R. even a small
fair degree of de-centralization is also required so that improvement in the optimization process can result in
effective and speedy decision making is possible at the lower significant gains and managers have to be conscious of
levels including the grass root levels. We, therefore, need this fact all the time. This puts a great strain on them in
controlled de-centralization which has a judicious mix of view of a large number of Units/Functions.
both centralization and de-centralization.
S.2.4 Round the Clock Working – IR never sleeps
Centralisation and de-centralization are the opposite ends of
an organisation continuum. In practice, there can be neither The operational working on the Indian Railways is such
complete centralization nor complete de-centralization, both that work goes on, round the clock, 365 days in a year.
being relative concepts. Further, any de-centralization is Workers at lower levels work in shift duties. However,
possible only when a fair degree of centralization has been most of the Supervisors and Managers working during
achieved. Railway managers have to ensure a dynamic specified duty hours have to be responsible for round
balance between these two requirements for different issues, the clock functioning too. During emergencies or
situations, problems etc. abnormal working, the stress on the system increases
manifold, as the total output has to be generally
maintained. Supervisors and Managers have to be
Need for uniformity, coupled with efficient and effective conscious of these special requirements and act
decision making down the line, requires that a broad accordingly.
framework of rules and regulations should be centrally issued S.2.5 Management of Change Difficult
and then the field staff should have the necessary freedom to
take decisions keeping this broad framework in mind. The Change is the law of nature and the system design has
centralized issue of rules and regulations is thus essential to be such so as to accept it with ease. On railways this
for the system. The 'Core' could be issued centrally (By poses special problems because of several reasons
Railway Board/Ministry) and details issued by Zonal which, interalia, include the following:-
Railways/ Production Units/Divisions within the frame
work of the rules and regulations prescribed through the (i) Any change has to be done in a manner so as not to
'Core'. In many situations this approach is being followed on affect the running of trains and the work has to be
LR. in letter and spirit but needs further inputs. managed either by suitable line blocks or diversion of
traffic to other available routes. Making a temporary
diversion on the existing route is generally very difficult
and costly.
22
(ii) Induction of any modern equipment, e.g. long welded
rails/ concrete sleepers will give full benefit only . This has special significance in the present environment
when full sectional lengths are completed. This takes when value erosion is being observed in all walks of life.
considerable period of time as generally premature Further, it is observed that a skilled employee may be
renewals are not resorted to keeping the scarce efficient in his work, but need not be a good citizen. While
financial resources in view. on the other hand, a value oriented employee will not only
be a good citizen, but will also be an efficient worker, Value
(iii) The new movable stock e.g. modern diesel and inputs help in all round development.
electric locos, coaches etc. when introduced cannot be
restricted to specified areas from operational The advantages of these value inputs will not only be limited
considerations and have to ply on long stretches of the in the concerned employee but will favourably affect his
system needing maintenance facilities. The existing family and in turn affect him. Further, the people including
movable assets have a life span of 25-30 years. The the rail users who come in his contact, will also benefit from
maintenance facilities are thus required, both for the it.
existing and the modern stock. The facilities, S.2.8 Excellent Industrial Relations a Must
therefore, have to be provided for the new stock and
the existing facilities have to continue, till the old The Organisation is highly labour intensive. Stoppage of
stock remains in use. work and train running affect very large number of people.
The I.R. is rightly considered a Strategic Department by the
From this it will be clear the any change has to be Government of India. It is said that war like activities go on
planned with care and must be monitored with precision in the Indian Railways, 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. The
to ensure that both the new and the old systems work need for excellent relations between the Management and
safely and efficiently. An incremental model may be the Workers and ensuring that I.R. have well satisfied and
more useful than a radial approach. Further, change may loyal staff is thus a prime need. Excellent Industrial
start yielding financial returns late, i.e., only after work Relations are a must and in this direction railways have
associated the change is completed and so the change taken several measures which have to be regularly
should be planned when absolutely necessary and after monitored and further fine tuned.
due technical / financial analysis.
S.2.9 Safe Operations – Need Zero Failures of Men,
S.2.6 Customer Focus Extremely Important Materials, Machines and Systems
The system has a large number of customers and has a Safety of train running is extremely important and in an
large area of activity and even a small slip by I.R. is organization having a huge volume of activity (19,000 trains
bound the effect the customer interface. Large being run daily; 12,000 Passenger + 7,000 Freight) this is
organizations always have more of this problem as possible only if Zero failures of Men, Materials, Machines
any wrongful act on the part of their employees and Systems are ensured. This is an extremely difficult task
affects the image of the whole organization. This and a major challenge to all railwaymen. Public have a lot
highlights the need for much greater precision on the of faith in the safety of the railway system and most
part of railwaymen in their activities and to take special probably, this is the reason because of which even a small
care to ensure that the customer needs are met. accident on the I.R. attracts much wider publicity and
criticism.
S.2.7 Inputs in Ethics and Values Extremely Beneficial
Railwaymen should not be guided by the accident statistics
We have 13 lakh employees and if an average family of rail vis-s-vis road and also that about 0.32 accident occurs
size of 4 is considered, the railwaymen and their on I.R. in a day (117 in a year) inspite of 19,000 trains being
families will account for 52 lakh out of a population of run but should respect public sentiments by making their
about 125 crore i.e. one out of every 250 persons in the travel absolutely safe. This will need a complete change in
country is a railwaymen or his family member. This attitude in addition to several technical and training
does not include the rail users and people dependant on inputs on the journey towards ‘zero failures’ of Men,
railway activities, whose number is much larger. Any Materials, Machines and Systems.
positive inputs to railwaymen will not only benefit them
and their families but also a large number of citizens S.2.10 Indian Railways have an All India Character
who come in contact with the I.R. system.
Indian Railways is a department of the Central Government,
Railways have an elaborate system of staff training. and State Governments do not have any direct role in its
This is essential because railway working is very management. On the other hand, most of the other activities
complex and specialized, and staff have to not only be in the domain of Central Government have corresponding
trained at the time of recruitment but suitable inputs set-ups at State levels also. To give an example, the Ministry
of Transport of the Government of India directly controls the
have to be given to them at periodical intervals by way
'National Highways' and the State Governments control the
of refresher courses, promotional courses, and courses State roads / District roads, through their State Transport
designed for specialized areas. While aspects of ‘skills’ Departments.
are largely covered in these training courses, it would be
extremely useful to include, in a planned way, major
inputs for the aspects of ‘values’ also.
23
Management of I.R. is more akin to Defence S.3.2 Need for Mutual Faith
Organisation, where the Chief Executive is responsible
for the functioning of the entire network in the country. Confucius when asked about the greatest necessities in a
Management of I.R. system is difficult due. to its vast good Government, replied that the ruler should be able to
expanse and need for coordination with a large number of provide enough food to its subjects, should have enough
People / Organisations / State Governments which, weapons for their protection and people should have faith
interalia, include Members of Parliament and Members of in the ruler. When further asked about the priorities of
Legislative Assemblies. these necessities, he mentioned, “Weapons are the last
priority. If we choose between the remaining two, food
S.3.0 Some Broad Concepts can be dispensed with for one must die one day. But if
the people do not have faith in their ruler, they cannot
S.3.1 A Problem has several Dimensions exist”. What is true of Rulers/Administrators is equally
true for Leaders and Managers.
Jhuggis (Slums), alongside railway tracks in the
metropolitan areas, are a common sight. These are Faith primarily relates to the
constructed by poor people needing shelter, sometimes emotional/intellectual/spiritual planes and not to the
with the tacit approval of the concerned government physical plane. One develops faith in an
officials. As the density and numbers of dwellers increase, individual/organization based on his personal contact as
they become a problem for the safety of Railway track, also the image or the reputation of the concerned
thereby requiring speed restrictions for the trains. In some individual/organization. Any act resulting in breach of
cases, train speeds have also to be checked further, to faith results in a situation where its restoration becomes
safeguard the Juggi dwellers and their families including extremely difficult and invariably takes a long period of
the children, who roam about freely in the Railway track time. If one wants to enjoy the reputation of being a
area. Eviction of these dwellers is extremely difficult due ‘gentleman’ he has to be continuously considerate to
to socio-political considerations and in many situation others.
mafia groups also take charge of such areas. State
Governments see the problem mainly from the angle of This poses special problems for organizations as any
rehabilitation of slum dwellers and want Railways to wrong act on the part of any of their employees not only
bear/share cost of such rehabilitation programmes. On the damages the image of the concerned individual but of the
other side, the Courts issue directions for their removal as organizations as a whole. Bigger organizations,
the land belongs to Railway and Jhuggi dwellers are un- therefore, need much greater surveillance on their part to
authorised encroachers. Eviction drives usually fail due to ensure that their employees act ethically and the faith of
stiff resistance from the dwellers, mafia groups and their clients/customers is not breached by any one of
politicians. If strong action for eviction is taken, it can them.
result in a law and order problem. Social organizations
feel that it is a human problem. Railways find that they are S.3.3 Human, Technical, and Conceptual Aspects in
not able to get back their own land and train safety is Management
jeopardized.
At the time of my joining Indian Railways (I.R.) in the
If we examine this problem critically, we find that it has year 1962, Management as a subject was not very
several angles namely:- popular. However, inputs in various forms through
articles, lectures, experiences of the seniors etc. were
i) Human angle (Need for shelter/shelter after passed on to the junior officers. One such article
eviction) influenced me the most and was a guiding factor
ii) Corruption angle throughout my career.
iii) Financial angle
iv) Legal angle It was brought out in this article that for every manager,
v) Law & Order angle the job entails three broad aspects/areas of management,
vi) Political angle viz. (i) Human aspects (ii) Technical aspects and (iii)
vii) Social angle Conceptual aspects. As a manager progresses from the
viii) Safety angle lower to the higher level, the ‘Human aspect’ broadly
remains constant at around 50% while the ‘Technical
To find a solution to this apparently small problem, one aspect’ reduces from 40% to 10% and the ‘Conceptual
aspect’ increases from 10% to 40% of the total
will agree that all these angles/dimensions have to be dealt
managerial activity. This clearly highlighted two things
with holistically and depending upon what weightage is to me. Firstly, the ‘Human aspect’ is extremely
given to each one of these, a suitable solution has to be important and will be required throughout the service
evolved. This is not a simple task as different groups have period and secondly as one progresses in the hierarchy
conflicting claims and the solution may need negation of there is a great need to develop conceptually, i.e. to
some of these understand and feel the System as a whole.
24
Management Styles Manager’s confidence Subordinates’ feeling Manager’s seeking
and trust in of freedom. involvement of
subordinates. subordinates.
I Exploitive Autocratic No confidence or trust. Do not feel at all free. Seldom get ideas and
opinions.
II Benevolent Autocratic Condescending Do not feel very free. Sometimes get ideas and
confidence and opinions.
trust (Master Vs
Servant)
III Participative Substantial but not Feel rather free. Usually gets ideas and
complete opinions.
confidence and
trust.
IV Democratic Complete confidence and Feel completely free. Always gets ideas and
trust. opinions.
Table : Four Management Styles
My choice to work as Senior Divisional Personnel Officer Under normal working conditions managers will generally
(and not as Divisional Superintending Engineer) of a major follow the management styles matching their own
Division (Lucknow Division of Northern Railway) and later temperament/nature. However, the style is sometimes
my posting as Member Staff in the Railway Board were to a consciously modified to suit some special situation e.g. in
very large extent an outcome of this perception. Working as an emergency one may resort to style I (Exploitive
Advisor (Vigilance) in the Railway Board also helped in Autocratic) to achieve immediate results. Better and
understanding the ‘Human aspect’ better and even while sustainable performance with reduced stress levels will be
working as Chief Engineer (Construction), the Personnel and possible with Styles III & IV and, therefore, managers
H.R.D. functions were under my charge. following styles I and II should try to gradually transform
themselves towards styles III & IV.
My scientific temper coupled with a holistic approach to
management and interest in Yoga philosophy and ancient We were advised by our Seniors to develop a favorable
Indian wisdom further helped. Logic and intuition were both ‘emotional bank balance’ with Junior officials. This
used in problem solving and also to get a better ‘conceptual’ needed a management approach more akin to styles III &
feel of the I.R. system and its various sub-systems. IV. Such an approach helped in better relations with the
junior officials, made them motivated and loyal to the
S.3.4 Four Management Styles management, and reduced the stress levels. Mutual faith
between the Seniors and the Juniors also improved. In
The management styles followed by managers can be such a situation even some annoying act on the part of the
broadly classified into four groups as under: Senior, was not taken amiss by the Junior, unless it
surpassed the levels of existing ‘emotional bank balance’.
I. Exploitive Autocratic.
II. Benevolent Autocratic. S.3.5 Four Management styles – Time Lag Effect
III. Participative
IV. Democratic. It will be interesting to study the time lag effect as
suggested by Likert.
Table below indicates the Manager’s confidence and trust in
subordinates, subordinates’ feeling of freedom, and Style I manager takes over an operation and may have
involvement of subordinates, for the four types of good performance results. (In the mean time, however,
management styles. Surveys have clearly indicated that high the Intervening variables are declining). As a result style
producing units followed styles III & IV irrespective of I manager is promoted.
manger’s field of experience or whether the manager was in
‘line’ or ‘staff’ position. Intervening variables basically reflect the internal climate
of the organisation like performance goals, loyalties,
attitudes, perceptions, motivation etc. These affect inter-
personal relations, communication and decision making in
the organization.
25
A style IV manager now takes over the operation (Because It was, therefore, considered appropriate to group the
of the time lag, the Intervening variables, which were facilities, to be provided for each category of Stations, by
adversely affected by the style I manager, now start to dividing them into three broad levels viz. (i) Minimum
adversely affect the performance). Under the style IV Essential Facilities, (ii) Recommended Facilities and (iii)
manager, performance starts to decline, but the Intervening Additional Facilities. It was stipulated that Minimum
variables start to improve. However, top management sees Essential Facilities must be available at all stations in
that since the style IV manager took over, performance perfect working condition. Divisions or Zones were not to
started to decline. The style IV manager is replaced by style consider provision of Recommended or Additional
I manager to tighten up the operation. The Intervening Facilities unless the Minimum Essential Facilities were
variables favourably affected by the style IV manager now available. This greatly helped, as the effort to gain mileage
start to affect performance favourably and the cycle repeats by providing the most modern facilities at some isolated
itself. locations, at the cost of Minimum Essential Facilities got
checked, Minimum Essential Facilities were ensured in
In other words, the cause and effect relationships that working order at all Stations and the phase anomaly
appear on the surface, may be very misleading because of 10 between minimum level service and higher level service
the time lag impact of the Intervening variable. Top reduced considerably.
management may give credit to a wrong manager.
S.3.7 Service Quality – User Capacity Levels
Ref.: AIMA (All India Management Association ) –
“Managing Change Through Organisational development” The capacity levels of the Users have also to be kept in the
– HR series No. 30 (2002). mind by the organizations. Higher level service, even
though excellent, may not be of any use to a User if he does
S.3.6 Service Quality not possess the necessary capacity for its use. Travel in
‘upper class’ even though more comfortable may not be
The capability of any organization to provide service to possible for a poor man as he can barely afford ‘second
its users can be broadly grouped into five levels:- class’ rail travel. Railway notifications, e-mail, internet
may not be of any use to an illiterate/semi-literate person
Level I Even Basic requirements not provided. who may have to be guided by signages or announcements
Level II Basic requirements just managed. in local language.
Level III Basic requirements are maintained and
continuously improved. S.3.8 Employee Contact Areas
Level IV Break throughs are made in new areas.
Level V Services could be Benchmarked vis-à- In early 1980s (when working with the Government of Iraq)
vis World standards. I had come on a short leave to India and by chance
accompanied a friend who was going to attend a ‘lecture’ in
Some users may be satisfied with Level II Services while the Baroda House (Headquarters of Northern Railway). In
large numbers will be satisfied when Level III is ensured. this ‘lecture’, a Security Expert from U.K. gave the details
Levels IV and V will give them higher levels of of various ‘gadgets’ which were used in the Departmental
satisfaction (Delight – Ecstasy). stores to check thefts. The Expert started his lecture by
mentioning that design of ‘gadgets’ is made on the premise
For any organization, it is necessary that in its various that 10% people will be honest under all circumstances and
wings, there should be a broad similarity and the so will not steal things, 80% are those who may steal
differences in service levels should not be high. To give provided they know that they are not being observed, and
an example, Level V in some areas will not be providing balance 10% are people who will always find some ways
a high level of satisfaction if it is present along with and means to steal. The gadgets were thus targeted against
Level I in some other areas. For satisfaction levels to be that majority 80% who were ‘fence sitters’ and once they
maintained in a uniform manner on a longer time frame, knew that they are being observed, will not steal.
it is essential that the differences in service levels (or
phase differences between them) should be low. To This concept I thought could be made use of in
elucidate the point further, if an organisation has most of management too. The percentages may vary but it
its Service Quality falling in Level III, some in Level II or highlighted that majority of the employees will be ‘fence
some in Level IV may be acceptable but not in Level I sitters’ and in case they know that the Management (which
(which may create negative impact) or in Level V (which is personified in the form of Managers, Supervisors,
may not create desired favourable impact). Employees and Systems) is vigilant and alert they may not
fall prey to temptations and may maintain better levels of
A case history will further elucidate the point. On I.R., integrity. The items like overcharging in Over Time and
Stations have been classified into A,B,C,D,E and F Travelling Allowances, Non-payment of Electric bills and
categories according to their commercial House rents, Misuse of Passes and other such activities
earnings/functioning. Stations in A & B categories are which were not given major Managerial thrust earlier were
major stations of the I.R. system. Details of ‘Passenger seen as areas where financial returns may be small but
amenities anf facilities’ for all the six categories of monitoring of which will definitely improve the value
stations have been notified. On many Stations however, structure of the employees. Such areas were termed as
these could not be provided fully due to financial or other ‘Employee Contact Areas’ and greater importance and
constraints. It was seen that while at one Station the most thrust was given to them.
modern announcing system has been provided, on the
other Station (In similar Category) an outdated system
exists which does not even function, most of the time.
26
S.3.9 Thought Dynamics The Division had eight Assistant Engineers (AENs)
each incharge of a sub-division, eight Traffic
As Senior Divisional Personnel Officer (Sr. DPO) on Inspectors (TIs), eight Welfare Inspectors (WLIs),
Lucknow Division of Northern Railway ( Joined in the year eight Personnel Inspectors (PIs) and seven Electrical
1976) a close inter-action with the Union Officials and the Chargemen (ELCs). Their beats (i.e. jurisdictions)
Staff was involved. The Division had an employee strength were not matching and, therefore, co-ordination was
of about 30,000 including the casual workers and as Head of difficult. One AEN may have to deal with three WLIS
the Personnel Branch, the job, in addition to involving for non-payment cases and vice versa. It was thought
Human Resource Development (HRD) functions, also needed proper to match the beats of the various Departmental
lot of inputs for maintaining good Industrial Relations with Officials even though it resulted in some mis-match in
the two recognized and several un-recognised unions. the work load of the Supervisor of a particular
Department. The mis-match of work load was taken
The Division was known for its poor Industrial Relations. care of by suitable adjustments in the grades of the
The situation at the time of my taking over the charge was concerned Supervisors who had 3 to 4 grades available
especially bad as my predecessor had been on sick-list for (Higher grade – More workload). The Division had
about four months and a lot of arrears and problems had now eight Sub-divisions and they were taken as
accumulated. Tempers were running high. In some cases ‘Modules’ for the beats of the various officials. As far
rightly so, because of the delays in decision making, and as AENs, TIs, WLIs, PIs and ELCs were concerned,
many a times the situation was also being exploited by the each was incharge of a Sub-division (this needed
Union officials and the Staff for their selfish ends. Both the creation of one post of Electrical Chargeman to
recognized Unions had differences among themselves and increase their number from seven to eight). The Signal
opposed each other, putting the Management in difficulty. Inspectors (SIs) and Commercial Inspectors (CMIs)
were lesser in number and each was given one or two
I was advised by a ‘spiritual man’ to make effective use of Sub-divisions are required. This greatly enhanced the
the concept of Thought Dynamics where purer thoughts are efficiency and effectiveness as co-ordination became
generated to make the situation less troublesome. It was easier and responsibility became more pin-pointed.
explained to me that a person can hurt the other person at
three levels, i.e. (i) by physically assaulting him, (ii) by Later, as General Manager (G.M.), Northern Railway,
hurting him through words and (iii) by having hostile the ‘Modular Matching’ of beats was extended to the
thoughts about him and thus hurting him through these entire Northern Railway and as Chairman, Railway
thought waves unconsciously. The ‘spiritual man’ further Board to whole of the Indian Railways, duly reflecting
mentioned that in the present day environment the managers them in the concerned Working Time Tables.
generally do not indulge in the first two but the thoughts
which are not visible are kept hostile towards others. I was Modular matching of the Organisational set up at the
advised to make my thoughts purer to the extent possible by Board’s level, Zonal level and the Divisional level was
auto-suggestions to Self, before discussing problems/issues also attempted to a fair degree of success. Later a
with Union officials/Staff and see its favourable impact. suggestion was also made through the All India
Only one rider was mentioned that such an action should not Management Association (AIMA) to adopt it in
be for a selfish end but should only be for the Organizational various activities of the Central Government, State
good and for the benefit of the Staff. Government and District Administration. The benefits
which can accrue due to ‘Modular Matching’ are
While dealing with the Staff and the Union office bearers, immense, and the bigger the Organisation the greater
this aspect was given due importance and hostility through will be the advantage. Further, changes are easy to
thought waves was reduced to the extent possible by giving effect in organizations which have ‘Modular
auto-suggestions to the Self. The results were rather dramatic Matching’.
and in a period of about six months both the recognized
Unions developed complete faith in the Senior DPO, which S.3.11 Gandhian Engineering: More from Less for
was an unheard of situation. Industrial peace and co- More (MLM)
operation naturally ensued and remained so during my three
year stay. Of course, there were minor problems, off and on, • Dr. R. A. Mashelkar in his Lifetime Contribution
as will always be the case in a major Division having a staff Award Lecture 2012 (INAE – April 2013) mentions
strength of 30,000. two tenets propounded by Mahatma Gandhi :
S.3.10 Modular Matching (i) ‘I would prize every invention of science made
for the benefit of all’.
Big Organizations and Systems will have enhanced efficiency (ii) ‘Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s
if ‘Modular Matching’ is ensured at various Organizational need but not every man’s greed’.
levels and in various Systems/Activities. The first
experiment in this regard was made by me in the year 1988 He further elaborates that the first tenet refers to
when working as Divisional Railway Manager (DRM), affordability and the second tenet to sustainability.
Northern Railway, Lucknow.
27
• He explains that industrial enterprises strive for getting Ethics is essential for sustainable development and
more (performance) from less (resource) for more performance. It also helps in arriving at solutions,
(profit) but the Gandhian Engineering has a different which are more equitable (concern for Equity).
message. It means getting more (performance) from less It reduces stress levels, as ethical paths can be very
(resource) for more (people), not just for more clearly charted as against the paths which are
(profit). followed for achieving the goals through unethical
means.
• Getting More from Less for More (MLM) strategy
forces us to measure an opportunity by the ends of Environment has to be seen in a broader context
innovation – what people actually get to enjoy – as and may include physical environment, working
opposed to just an increase in their means. In important environment, political environment, financial
ways, this rationale invokes a return to the traditional environment and the like. Activities have to be
case for innovation – its ability to produce breakthrough performed keeping these in mind, lest they trigger
improvements in the quality of life – alongside the usual reactions which may be difficult to control.
objective of competitiveness. Further, actions should not damage the
Environment rather, improve it to the extent
• The objectives of MLM type of innovations would not possible.
be just to produce low performance, cheap, knock-off
versions of rich country technologies so that they can be Actions must support the process of Evolution and
marketed to poor people. Rather, the objective is to Development in the positive direction for all those
harness sophisticated science and technology know-how connected with the activities. Decline in human
to invent, design, produce and distribute high values can be detrimental to society.
performance technologies at prices that can be afforded
by majority of people. For better performance on a sustainable basis these
parameters, i.e., the Five ‘Es’ are equally relevant to
• Gandhian Engineering is all about getting more from a Group of Individuals (Teams), Activities, Systems,
less for more people – this MLM way of innovations is Organizations and even the Nations. Efforts should
anchored on the solid foundation of affordability and be directed to continuously improve upon them.
sustainability. It will create a more equitable society and
will also help us in designing a sustainable future. S.4.0 Explanatory Notes
S.3.12 Five E’s of Sustainable Development S.4.1 Growth / Progress / Development
If one is asked to choose parameters which can help an Most countries use Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
individual to perform all his actions/activities, on a to measure the standard of living. Economists,
sustainable basis, in the best possible manner, the policymakers, international development agencies
following Five E’s could be listed : and even the media use it as an indicator of the
economic health of a nation. The advantages offered
i) Efficiency by GDP are that it is widely and frequently used and
ii) Effectiveness its data requirements are readily available. Since the
iii) Ethics: Essential for sustainable definition is common among countries, consistent
performance. comparisons can be made between and among them.
iv) Environment: Be in tune; Don’t damage;
• The countries at the top of the GDP list take the lead
Improve, if possible.
in terms of total economic activity taking place within
v) Evolution: Create positive impact on the
their boundaries. However, it does not necessarily
value structure.
mean that their citizens are better off than the rest of
the world in terms of overall well being. For example,
Efficiency covers all activities, which make actions
a high level of manufacturing and industry related
efficient and will, interalia, include efficient time
activities (with consequent high toxic emissions) may
management, good physical and mental health,
contribute to a higher GDP but the people will suffer
possession of adequate knowledge and skills, will to do
living and working in a polluted environment.
the job, positive attitude, doing things right the first
Further, certain activities that have a negative impact
time, low stress levels, etc.
on the people’s well being could end up being
recorded as positive contributions to GDP. Take for
Effectiveness will mean that the actions result in
instance, Crime. Rising criminal activities can
achieving useful goals for which it will be essential to
increase the country’s GDP through greater
have necessary vision, broad idea of goals to be
expenditures towards maintaining law and order (e.g.
achieved, systems to be followed to reach the goals,
hiring of additional police force, purchase of guns,
necessary co-ordination/co-operation with other
prisons, etc.). The GDP is also criticized because it
individuals/organizations, conscious realization of one’s
does not take into consideration other aspects that
capacity/capability levels etc.
define human well being like life expectancy and
educational attainment.
28
• It is for these reasons that alternative ways of - Sustainable Development
measuring standard of living have emerged. One of - Climate Change: Mitigation and adaptation
these is the Human Development Index (HDI) - Poverty reduction / Inclusive Growth
developed by the United Nations. The HDI takes into
account the GDP and adds more factors to measure S.4.2 Sustainable Development
other aspects of human development: knowledge,
longevity, and decent standard of living. HDI values The Brundtland Commission (UN) in their Report (1987)
range from 0 to 1. The HDI, however, has its own defined sustainable development as “development that
share of critics. Some point out that it is difficult to meets the needs of the present, without compromising the
chart a country’s growth using HDI. There are also ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
others who say that HDI does not capture the moral This broad definition however needs further elaboration as
and spiritual aspects of human development. World detailed below:
rankings in GDP and HDI of some selected countries
can be seen in Table below. • A triple bottom line perspective, that considers
environmental, economic and social aspects.
Table: GDP & HDI – World Ranking
• A time dimension, which incorporates short term
Country GDP Rank to long term, and considers impacts
along the lifecycle, including impact on future
USA 1 generations.
China 2
Japan 3 • A resource context with respect to scarcity, over-
Germany 4 abundance, or potential to disrupt resource
France 5 availability in the future.
Brazil 6
UK 7 Sustainable development will be possible only when it is
Russia 9 recognized that economic growth, social welfare and
India 10 environmental issues are linked and have to be addressed
Norway 24 together, rather than in a fragmented way as practiced
South Africa 29 currently. The figure below indicates the relationship
Bhutan 165 among the three pillars of sustainability viz., economic,
environmental, and social aspects.
Source: IMF (2011) for GDP & UNDP Site for HDI.
• Bhutan has begun to use Gross National Happiness

(GNH) as a broader and more nuanced measure of
national progress than GDP. Bhutan’s audacious Social
solution is to build its society from the ground up
using what it calls the “four pillars” of GNH :
Bearable Equitable
sustainable economic development, conservation of
environment, preservation of culture, and good
governance. Bhutan’s happiness experiment has
Sustainable
captured the fancy of economist and politicians from
Brazil to Britain, Tokyo to Taiwan, who are looking
for a new path to free-market prosperity – one that
Environment Viable Economic
doesn’t do so much damage to the environment,
social equity and family life. Joseph Stiglitz, a Nobel
Prize-winning economist has become world’s leading
advocate for developing better measures of national
well being and he leads an influential Commission Three Pillars of Sustainability
funded by the French Government for the purpose.
Canadian researchers have created a composite of 64 S.4.3 Science
existing statistics, including work hours and incidence
of violent crime, that are considered proxies for • Science covers the broad field of knowledge that
various components of well being. (Ref.: Time deals with observed facts and the relationships among
Magazine – 22nd Oct. 2012) those facts.
• The above discussion clearly highlights that even • Science also differs from other types of knowledge in
though adequate tools to measure that scientific progress depends on new ideas
growth/progress/development may not be available but expanding or replacing old ones.
economic growth alone is not enough. Indian
planners are emphasizing ‘inclusive growth’ which
broadly takes into account the aspects of poverty
reduction and also of reducing disparities. Our
growth/progress/development model has to necessarily
take into account the following three issues/areas
besides the economic growth :
29
• Science has enormous influence on our lives. It provides • It has been mentioned by Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam
the basis of much of modern technology – the tools, (2001) that technology includes techniques as well
materials, techniques and sources of power that make our as the machines that may or may not be necessary to
lives and work easier. The term applied science is apply them. It includes ways to make chemical
sometimes used to refer to scientific research that reactions occur, ways to breed fish, eradicate weeds,
concentrates on the development of technology. light theaters, treat patients, teach history, fight wars
or even prevent them.
• Scientific study can be divided into four major groups:
S.4.5 Engineering
(i) Mathematics and logic are not based on
experimental testing but they can be considered part • Engineering is the profession that puts scientific
of science because they are essential tools in almost knowledge to practical use. The word engineering
all scientific study. comes from the Latin word ingeniare, which means
to design or to create.
(ii) Physical sciences examine the nature of the universe
and include physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy • Engineers use principles of science to design
and meteorology. structures, machines, and products of all kinds.
They look for better ways to use existing resources
(iii) Life sciences also called the biological sciences or and often develop new materials. Engineers have
biology, involve the study of livings organisms. The had a direct role in the creation of most of
two main fields of life sciences are botany which modern technology – the tools, materials,
deals with plants, and zoology which deals with techniques, and power sources that make our
animals. lives easier.
(iv) Social sciences deal with individuals, groups, and
institutions that make up human society. The main
• The field of engineering includes a wide variety of
activities. For example, engineering projects range
branches of social sciences include anthropology,
from the construction of huge dams to the design of
economics, political science, psychology and
tiny electronic circuits. Engineers may help produce
sociology.
guided missiles, industrial robots, or artificial limbs
for the physically handicapped. They develop
• As scientific knowledge has grown and become complex scientific equipments to explore the
increasingly complicated, many new fields of study have reaches of outer space and the depths of the oceans.
emerged, boundaries between scientific fields have Engineers also plan our electric power and water
become less and less clear cut, and today numerous areas supply systems, and do research to improve
of science overlap. For instance, both chemistry and automobiles, television sets, and other consumer
physics deal with atomic structure, and both paleontology products. They work to reduce environmental
and geology study the age of rocks in the earth. pollution, increase the world’s food supply, and
make transportation faster and safer.
• In some cases, sciences have come to overlap so much
that interdisciplinary fields have been established. For • Tony Marjoram and Yixin Zhong (UNESCO Report
example, biochemistry combines areas of biology and – 2010) diagrammatically depict the role
chemistry in studying chemical processes that occur in Engineering plays (using ‘Theories’ from
living plants and animals. ‘Science’ and ‘Tools’ provided by ‘Technology’)
S.4.4 Technology to provide ‘Products and Benefits’ to ‘Society
and Nature’ keeping in view the ‘Resources and
• Technology refers to all the ways people use their Needs’.
inventions and discoveries to satisfy their needs and
desires.
• Technology involves the use of tools, machines, materials,

techniques and sources of power to make work easier and
more productive.
• Science has contributed much to modern technology.

But not all technology is based on science, nor is
science necessary to all technology.
• The word technology is sometimes used to describe a

particular application of industrial technology, such as
medical technology or military technology. The
engineering profession is responsible for much of
today’s industrial technology.
30
• Tony Marjoram and Yixin Zhong (UNESCO Report S.4.6 Role of Technology
– 2010) further elaborate that almost every area of
human interest, activity and endeavour has a A. It has been mentioned by Collier (2010) in his Book
branch of engineering associated with it. They also “The Plundered Planet” that Technology can turn
provide an illustrative list of engineering branches Nature into an asset by giving these natural assets the
mentioning various disciplines / sub disciplines. potential to become valuable to the society. However,
for natural assets to be valuable instead of being
• Unlike earlier periods when resources were in dissipated in competitive struggle, their ownership and
abundance and societal needs low, the current use must be regulated. Regulation requires good
situation is altogether different. The current needs are governance. Unregulated use of Technology can turn
of a much greater order of magnitude; environmental Nature nasty; the Technology that has given us cheap
constraints are dangerously close to being breached; energy has also given us carbon-dioxide that will over-
worldwide competition for scarce resources could heat the Planet. The challenge of harnessing Nature has
create international tensions; and the freedom to been summarised by him as under:
power our way into the future by burning fossil fuels
is denied.
(a) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION
Resolving these issues requires tremendous = PROSPERITY
innovation and ingenuity by Engineers, working (b) NATURE + TECHNOLOGY - REGULATION
alongside other technical and non-technical = PLUNDER
disciplines. It requires the engineer’s ability to (c) NATURE - TECHNOLOGY + REGULATION
synthesize solutions and not simply their ability to = POVERTY
analyze problems. Further, engineers need the
ability to take a systems view at a range of scales, B. In his Book “Ten Technologies to Save the Planet”,
from devices and products through to the large-scale Goodall (2008) shows considerable optimism and
delivery of infrastructure services. mentions that each of the ten Chapters of the Book
looks at a technology or technique that could reduce
• Society today is making ever-greater demands on carbondioxide emissions by atleast 10 per cent of the
Engineering, ranging from those caused by exploding annual world total. All these technologies are
urbanization and by the endemic poverty of a quarter comfortably within our scientific and technological
of world’s population in the face of overall global reach and so the Author argues that we should be
affluence, to the mounting concerns about availability able to ‘decarbonise the economy’ at an affordable
of critical resources, the consequences of climate price. The Ten Technologies mentioned are :
change and increasing natural and man-made
disasters. This confronts Engineering and Society not • Capturing the Wind
only with unprecedented technical challenges, but • Solar Energy : The sunlight hitting the earth’s
also with a host of new ethical problems that demand surface every day contains around 7,000 times more
the development of Global Engineering Ethics. How energy than the fossil fuels that humanity consumes.
far should Engineering pursue the modifications of • Electricity from the Oceans : Tapping tides, waves
Nature? What are Engineering’s’ roles and and currents.
responsibilities in Society? How should Engineering • Combined Heat and Power (CHP) : (i) Use of fuel
address problems of equity in terms of the availability cells powered by hydrogen created from renewable
of resources and services of and between current and sources for individual buildings, and (ii) Use of small
future generations? Should concerns about global power stations close to homes or offices fired by
warming take precedence over the urgent problem of wood or other biomass and piping the ‘waste’ heat to
poverty, or how can they be addressed together? where it is needed.
• Super-efficient Homes
• It is unfortunate that, under these circumstances
• Electric Cars
of growing need for multi-talented Engineers, the
• Motor Fuels from Cellulose : Second-generation
interest in Engineering among young people is
biofuels.
waning in so many countries. Awareness of the
importance and the changing nature of • Capturing Carbon : Clean coal, algae and scrubbing
Engineering needs to be raised in circles of the air.
Government as well as amongst the general public. • Biochar : Sequestering carbon as charcoal.
• Soil and Forests : Improving the planet’s carbon
sinks.
C. While discussing “smart energy” Piccioni (2010) in his

Book “Einstein for Everyone” cites Einstein’s most
famous equation E=mc2 and its implications for
generating energy, namely that all useful energy
ultimately comes from the conversion of mass into
various forms of energy. If we convert 1 ton of mass
into suitable energy and define it as ‘1 ton of energy’
then Table below will indicate the current huge resource
use (and consequent pollution) vis-à-vis the position if
we are able to use hydrogen fusion.
31
Process Tons of Fuel Needed to Clean S.4.8 Project Management
Supply “1 ton of
Energy” S.4.8.1 While we can boast of our ‘Planning’ abilities but our
Burn Coal 5,000,000,000 No ‘Execution’ record on most fronts has been below par
and Project execution is no exception. Project
Burn 2,000,000,000 No
Management today is no longer an issue concerned
Gasoline
only with Planning, Scheduling, Estimating and Cost
Uranium 50,000 No
Control but several other issues and processes have
Fission
got integrated with it like Total Quality Management,
Hydrogen 133 Yes
Concurrent Engineering, Risk Management, etc.(See
Fusion
Box on the next page.)
Table
Box: Project Management
Sun uses hydrogen fusion to generate energy. Our
research activities must be directed with a much greater
(A) In his Book titled “Project Management”, Dr. Harold
vigour to use the energy from the Sun and also towards
Kerzner addresses the various issues / problems
generating energy from ‘hydrogen fusion’.
concerning the Project Management in detail. Dr.
Harold Kerzner is an eminent engineer / manager and
S.4.7 Technology Foresight needs People with T-Shaped
has very wide experience. He is / was President of the
Skill Profiles
International Project Management Association
(IPMA) and the Book under reference is in its Eight
• Futures studies have been with us for a long time, Edition and thus clearly testifies the experiential
but the term ‘foresight’ has only come into wide use learning on which it is based. Some of the
in recent years. A striking development in the last observations of Dr. Kerzner are mentioned below
decade of the twentieth century was the growing which indicate the changing trends and the increasing
prominence of large scale foresight exercises conducted need of integration with other related disciplines in
at national and international levels. This trend was this vital area of Project Management :
amplified in the new millennium. These exercises,
usually funded by governments and intended to provide 1. In the 1980s, we believed that the failure of the
insights for innovation policy, priorities for research and project was largely a quantitative failure due to :
development funding, and the like, frequently went by
the name ‘Technology Foresight’.
• Ineffective planning
• Ineffective scheduling
• Several factors converged to foreground foresight. First
was the need to prioritize research budgets – choices • Ineffective estimating
needed to be made as to where to invest, as governments • Ineffective cost control
were not able to continue funding across the whole • Project objectives being ‘Moving
spectrum. Second, there were growing concerns about Targets’
the implications of science and technology and how to
shape development so that new technologies could 2. During the 1990s, we changed our views of
prove more socially and environmentally beneficial. failure from being quantitatively oriented to
A third set of factors concern innovation. Innovation qualitatively oriented. A failure in the 1990s was
has come to be recognized as a key element in largely attributed to :
competitiveness, national performance and achieving
socio-economic objectives. • Poor morale
• Poor motivation
• One lesson learned early on during Foresight • Poor human relations
exercises was that it was important to bring together • Poor productivity
expertise in social affairs, business management, • No employee commitment
financial issues and policy together with expertise
• No functional commitment
possessed by scientists and engineers.
• Delays in problem solving
• What was proved to be at a premium is the capability to • Too many unresolved policy issues
possess (and share) highly specialized knowledge but • Conflicting priorities between
also to be able to relate this understanding to the issues executives, line managers and project
raised in a wide range of other fields : people with T- managers
shaped profiles (people with in depth knowledge of
their own domain as well as competence in a much
broader spectrum of managerial, interpersonal and other
skills). Additionally, foresight required open minded
people.
32
3. During the 1990s, the following processes were  Dry patches in rivers following a hydropower
integrated into a single methodology : project.
• Project Management This is an area which is mostly neglected resulting in

• Total Quality Management below par performance of the executed projects, needing
additional inputs to correct the matters.
• Concurrent Engineering : The process of
performing work in parallel rather than in series
S.4.8.3 Further, so long as there will be persons who have
in order to compress the schedule without
authority but little responsibility and persons who have
incurring serious risks
responsibility with little authority, development will be
• Scope Change Control either distorted or stunted. We must envision a
• Risk Management governance in which authority and responsibility are
commensurate with each other. This highlights the
4. In coming years, companies can be expected to need for having competent Engineer-Managers for
integrate more of their business processes in the successful execution of Projects from conception to
Project Management methodology like : completion.
• Supply Chain Management S.4.9 Improving the ‘Image’ and ‘Role’ of Engineering
• Business Processes
• Feasibility Studies The Government/Society must recognize the Role
• Cost Benefit Analysis (ROI) which Engineering/Engineers are playing in
Development and should take adequate steps to suitably
• Capital Budgeting
empower them. In this direction, following are
suggested:
(A) In any Project organisation there are ‘class or
prestige’ gaps between various levels of management.
(i) Boundaries between Science, Technology and
There are also functional gaps between working units
Engineering have to be made more explicit.
(Departments) of the organisation. If we superimpose
Engineering should no longer be the ‘Unsung
the management gaps on top of the functional gaps
Partner of Science’.
we will find that the Project organisations are made
(ii) The scope of the present ‘Science and Technology
up of small operational islands. For effective and
Policy’ of the Government of India (currently there
purposeful communication between these operational
is no Engineering Policy) has to expand to include
island systems are necessary (see figure – Why
‘Engineering’ also or else a separate ‘Engineering
systems are necessary?)
Policy’ needs to be developed.
A more holistic view of science and technology

needs to be taken, better integrating engineering
into the rather narrow linear model focusing on
basic sciences, research and development. To do
this, we need to emphasise the way engineering,
science, and technology contribute to social and
economic development, promote sustainable
livelihoods, and help mitigate and adapt to climate
change. We also need a better integration of
engineering issues into science and technology
policy and planning, and of engineering, science,
and technology considerations into development
policy and planning, in order to reflect a more
useful, beneficial and accurate position of reality.
This apparently difficult task might best be
Fig.: Why are Systems necessary?
achieved by taking a more cross-cutting and
holistic approach, with greater reference to the
Ref.: Kerzner, Harold: “Project Management – A Systems
important role of engineering, science, technology,
Approach” – John Wiley (2003).
and innovation in economic and social
development, poverty reduction and climate
S.4.8.2 Design and implementation of engineering projects takes
change mitigation and adaptation.
care of the objectives but not of the consequences. To
give examples:
(iii) There is a need to have an ‘Engineering Advisor’ to
the Govt. of India on the lines of the present
 Water-logging following irrigation as well as
‘Scientific Advisor’.
depletion of ground water.
 Insanitation following water supply.
 Traffic jams following boost to automobile

industry.
33
(iv) To have Engineers in Government who have direct • Including all known costs and revenues perhaps
contact with the ground realities in the States and who rail freight is 80% commercial at present,
come to the Centre for short stints to get an overall whereas road freight is perhaps 50%. If they
National View and also share their Field experience both had to pay 100% of the economical and
from their respective States, there is need to have an societal costs then the modal split would change
‘Indian Engineering Service’ which should be an towards rail.
All-India Service on the patterns of IAS, IPS & IFS.
Formation of such a Service will not only send a signal • With rising energy costs rail will have an
about the importance of the role of advantage vis-a-vis road as it consumes less fuel
Engineering/Engineers which the Government per unit of task. Further, rail can use electrical
acknowledges but will also enhance Inter-State energy also, unlike road vehicles which basically
cooperation in this vital field of Engineering. More use petroleum fuels.
talented Engineers from diverse States joining the
proposed “Indian Engineering Service” will also help
• In the medium to long distance corridors rail may
in National/Technological integration.
run freight services at 100/160 kmph and passenger
services upto 200 kmph (excluding high speed
(v) Various Institutions and others should project the
passenger trains).
important role which Engineering/Engineers are
playing/have to play in Development to educate the
Public. This will enhance the Public image of • For rail traffic from a major terminal, port or depot
Engineering and will also result in better public an automated central transfer or sorting facility for
support for related Projects in addition to attracting containers would eventually be developed in each
better talent to the Profession. metropolis. Trains would unload their containers
automatically (self strip) on to a conveyor system.
S.4.10 Changing Relativities between the Road and the Rail : Each container would then be directed
Study by Balance Research Institute, Melbourne automatically to its destined train which would then
self-load.
With the relentless growth of the world economy it is quite
probable that in next 100 years the total transport would be • In metropolitan areas where several freight stations
about four times today’s levels according to the studies have been closed for many years, changes will even
made at the Balance Research Institute, Melbourne. These be greater. If container technology had come to
estimates appear rather conservative and traffic growth may local transport a couple of decades earlier, the
be faster. However, future is difficult to predict on such a freight service would have become more efficient
long time horizon; and changes in the patterns of and some of these stations would have remained.
production and consumption, more intense use of IT,
improved logistics, etc., may contain the growth to the • A new kind of intermodal service may evolve
levels as indicated. wherein direct freight services will feed small
intermodal stations which will have short road legs
The Study further mentions that the growth of road traffic typically upto five km.
by four times will not be a practical reality with
congestions already visible with the existing levels of • Economically sound ways will be found for rail
traffic, cost of road service growing faster than the cost of to play a vital role in limiting road traffic
rail especially because of sharply rising fuel costs, concerns
growth. To achieve a ‘four times traffic growth’
for environment (road being much more polluting than
rail), etc. The governments with the support of industry will the rail will have to grow not four times, but to
have to find ways to keep highways available for tasks that eight, ten or twenty times its present level of
rail cannot perform. The governments will be led to passenger and freight traffic.
reinforce this with deliberate policies leading to more and
better rail services. For the transport and logistics industry, (Ref.: Changing Relativities Between Road and Rail -
this will mean opportunities to offer better services at lower www.balanceresearch.com subs / conf1999 / paper.htm.)
costs than they otherwise would, with continuation of
present policies.
S.4.11 Indian Railways: An Efficient System but with
The Balance Research Institute Study highlights the following : Severe Capacity Constraints
• Governments will always need to subsidise transport in S.4.11.1 Indian Railways have done reasonably well within
some way, but the investments they make will have to the constraint of resources. The Input vs Output
support the mode which uses less resources. If this is indices shown in Table No. 1 and Select Data shown
the policy direction, highways will increase greatly in in Table No. 2 are ample testimony to this fact. The
quality and safety but not so much in capacity. The rail elaborate further, while the Route Kms have
will absorb the transport needs with innovations in increased by 23%, the Traffic Volume has increased
technology and management, much of which will be by more than 1400%; Numbers of Rail Accidents
undertaken by the private sector responding to signals have come down; and Wagon Turnaround has
from governments. improved.
34
Table No. 1: Input vs Output – Indian Railways
• In early 1980s, problem of lack of capacity was
1950-51 2013-14 solved in an adhoc manner by permitting running of
Input Indices only “rake loads” of traffic thereby making
• Route Kms 100 123 movements faster but in the process loosing high
rated piecemeal traffic. Planned inputs for ‘capacity
• Running Track Kms 100 152
generation’ and ‘containerisation’ in time could have
• Wagon capacity 100 330 avoided such a situation.
• Coaches - Passengers 100 383
Output Indices • Asset rehabilitation arrears had to be wiped out
• Freight Traffic – NT Kms 100 1511 through a Special Railway Safety Fund of Rs. 17,000
(Rev. + Non Rev.) crore (year 2001-02 onwards) indicating inadequate
investments in maintenance and upkeep of the
• Passenger Traffic – Pass Kms 100 1571 system.
(Non-Sub)
• Recently also, the capacity constraints had largely
Source:IR Year Book 2013-14. been overcome by an adhoc increase in axle loads
from 20.3 tonne to 22.9 tonne. This can be broadly
translated into an annual freight traffic increase of 90
Year Track Number of Wagon Operating Mt and a corresponding extra yearly income of Rs.
Renewals Accidents Turnround Ratio 6,000 cr. (Ref.: Sudhir Kumar and Shagun Mehrotra
(Kms) (days) (Percent) – 2009)
S.4.11.3 There is severe congestion on the Golden Quadrilateral

1994-95 2,763 501 9.5 82.6 (connecting four metro cities of Delhi, Kolkata,
1995-96 2,893 398 9.1 82.5 Chennai and Mumbai) and its two diagonals which
constitute about 16% of Route Kms but carry around
1996-97 2,795 381 8.5 86.2
60% of the IR’s traffic. Large number of sections
1997-98 2,950 396 8.1 90.9 falling on these routes is having line capacity utilization
1998-99 2,967 397 8.2 93.3 exceeding 100% (see Table No. 3).
1999-00 3,006 463 7.7 93.3
Table No. 3: Line Capacity Utilisation on Golden
2000-01 3,250 473 7.5 98.3 Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals (2007-08)
2001-02 3,620 415 7.2 96.0
2002-03 4,776 351 7.0 92.3 Routes No. of Sections having Line Critical
2003-04 4,986 325 6.7 92.1 Sections Capacity Utilisation Sections$
2004-05 5,566 234 6.4 91.0 (%)
2005-06 4,725 234 6.1 83.8 More More More
2006-07 4,686 195 5.5 78.7 than than than
2007-08 4,002 194 5.23 75.9 80% 100% 120%
2008-09 3,841 177 5.19 90.5
2009-10 3,840 165 4.98 95.3 Delhi- 41 11 12 17 70%
2010-11 3,465 139 4.97 94.6 Howrah
2011-12 3,300 131 5.08 94.9
2012-13 3,296 120 5.10 90.2 Mumbai- 42 10 17 13 71%
2013-14 2,885 117 5.13 93.6 Howrah
Table No. 2 Delhi- 28 5 5 15 71%

Select Data – Indian Railways Mumbai
Source: IR Year Books. Delhi- 24 2 5 16 88%

S.4.11.2 The argument, that capacity constraints and adequate Chennai
via Jhansi,
inputs are not the IR’s problem but it is basically the
Nagpur-
inefficient operation and lack of focus, does not cut Ballarshah
much ice. Following may elucidate the point further:
Howrah- 17 5 6 5 65%
Chennai
Mumbai- 25 6 5 10 60%
Chennai
Total 177 39 50 76 71%
Source: White Paper on Indian Railways – Dec.2009.
35
Notes: • Production units to manufacture locomotives,
1. Sections having line capacity utilization of 100% or coaches, wheel and axles for wagons accredited
more have been assumed to be critical sections. with ISO 9001 Certification.
2. About 60% of IR’s traffic moves on the Golden • Introduced several state-of-art technologies.
Quadrilateral and its two diagonals.
3. About two-third of the sections are showing a line Weaknesses
capacity utilisation exceeding 100%.
4. In next 7-10 years traffic will double. Immediate • The large and increasing element of cross-
action for capacity enhancement is called for. subsidization of loss making passenger business by
freight; further price increases already have started
S.5.0 Some Points to Ponder undermining I.R.’s competitiveness in freight.
• I.R. as an organization has tended to be inward-
S.5.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Indian Railways focussed and lacks in customer focus.
• Lack of adaptability to a fast-changing
Strengths environment;
• Pricing of services not specifically linked to costs
• A successful track record of managing one of the on a more rational basis.
world’s most complex network organizations with a • There is lack of emphasis on solutions tailored to
record of being able to deliver. customer needs; Lack of long-term relationships
• The distinctive character of combining both with customers.
policy and operational responsibilities and the • Subsidies are not targeted adequately at the
flexibility and control that this offers. appropriate income segments.
• Railways are the only mode of transport that can use • Financial systems do not allow for accurate
any form of primary energy. measurement of financial performance by Division,
• I.R. has one of the largest skilled, dedicated and Passenger segment, etc.
qualified pool of professionals in the country. • Procurement systems are sub-optimal for adequate
• I.R. has a great legacy as a nation builder, almost component quality and availability; lack of long-
equal in stature to the defence sector in its role term relationships with suppliers.
during national emergencies. • Taking up a large number of unremunerative
• India is suited to railways on intrinsic economic projects and for maintaining the status-quo in fare-
grounds. Long leads and high traffic densities are freight distortions in the name of distributive
well suited to railway operations. justice.
• The railways have an installed infrastructure base • Performance parameters not geared for measuring
and time-tested and relatively efficient systems and user needs and satisfaction.
execution processes. • Arrears in asset renewal.
• The rail sector is superior to other modes in terms of • Time lag in technological upgradation and keeping
safety, environmental and noise pollution, energy up with the management practices.
consumption, and land take. • Concentration on bulk freight cargo segment.
• I.R. has proven capability to execute new projects. • Railway transportation, except handlings in sidings,
• No major industrial relations problems. is essentially multi-modal. It involves additional
• As against road transport handlings, costs and damages/loss, etc.
 General stability of freight rates for a year. • Declining budgetary support from the Government,
 No transhipment en-route. declining internal generation, greater dependence on
 Less proneness to vagaries of weather in covered high-cost market borrowing.
wagons. • Persisting resource constraints in the past have
 Less prone to accidents. adversely affected the Railways’ programme for
 Less prone to fire damage. capacity generation, which has also contributed to
 Less prone to damage and looting in disturbed areas. the loss of market share.
 Less transit time once the movement starts, • The Railways carry a substantial social burden in
especially true for rake loads and parcel traffic. the form of continued operation of unremunerative
 Ability to move without waiting on inter-State lines, subsidy on passenger and suburban travel and
barriers. even freight subsidy on certain commodities.
• For very heavy urban and suburban transport Ref.: Study by M/s A. F. Ferguson & Co. (April 1999)
demands in peak periods, the rail-based transport for the Indian Railways.
system is the only solution.
• Being part of the Central Government, Indian S.5.2 Savings in Fuel: Rail vs Road
Railways have Government’s financial backing.
• Railways have entered in the multi-modal Planning Commission’s Integrated Energy Policy
transportation business by setting up CONCOR. (August 2006) mentions that carriage of 3000 BTKM of
• Continued concern for Human Resource freight traffic by Rail instead of by Trucks (in the year
Development. Established large number of training 2030) will save 50 million tonne of diesel oil. Thus
Institutes at all levels to upgrade the technical and
saving in the cost of diesel oil for each net ton-km
managerial skills.
(NTKM) of freight carried by rail vis-à-vis road works
out to Rs. 0.60 (one ton of diesel = 1.2 kilolitres; cost of
diesel Rs. 30 per litre).
36
A study by Deutsche Bank (7th April 2006 ) indicates that S.5.4 Low Passenger Fares on the IR – Tariff Ratio
cost of carriage of freight by Road per NTKM is Rs. 1.10
On the Indian Railways (IR) passenger fares were
out of which 58% is fuel cost. On the other hand the cost
deliberately kept low as will be evident from the
of carriage by Rail is Rs. 0.50 per NTKM out of which following (Court of Directors – East India Company –
fuel cost is 14%. This translates into the following : 1845):
(a) Fuel cost per NTKM-Road = Rs. 0.58x1.1 = “According to the experience of this
Rs. 0.638 country (Great Britain) by far the largest
returns are procured from passengers;
(b) Fuel cost per NTKM-Rail = Rs. 0.14x0.5 the least from the traffic of goods. The
= Rs. 0.070 condition of India is in this respect
directly the reverse of that of England.
(c) Difference in Fuel costs per NTKM = Instead of a dense and wealthy
Rs. 0.568 population, the people of India are poor
and in many parts thinly scattered over
This also brings out that the road transport consumes extensive tracts of the country. But, on
the other hand, India abounds in
nine times more fuel in carrying one NTKM of freight
valuable produce of nature which are in
vis-à-vis Rail. a great measure deprived of a profitable
market by want of cheap and expeditious
This cost data (fuel cost per NTKM for Road Rs. 0.638; means of transport. It may, therefore, be
cost of carriage by Rail per NTKM Rs. 0.50) further assured that remuneration for rail-roads
indicates that carriage of trucks on rail wagons (similar to in India, must for the present, be drawn
RO-RO service in operation on the Konkan Railway) will chiefly from the conveyance of
not only be a financially viable option for the truckers but merchandise, and not from passengers.”
will also benefit the national economy by reducing the
fuel consumption. However, this can be a practical reality Tariff ratio is defined as the ratio between the average
only when adequate rail capacity to allow free flow of passenger fare per km to the average freight rate per
traffic exists, to ensure fast movements in guaranteed tonne km. The financially desirable value for the
time, by the Railways. Tariff ratio is around 1.0 while the Chinese
Railways have adopted a value which is greater than
S.5.3 Need for Level Playing Field to Rail vis-à-vis Road 1.0. The values of Tariff Ratio for some selected
countries are given below:
In our country 91% of the traffic is carried by Rail (31%)
and Road (60%). For carriage of freight traffic, Rail is Korea 1.4
nine times fuel efficient vis-à-vis road but is loosing its France 1.3
market share (from 89% in 1950-51 to 30% as of now) China 1.2
resulting in enhanced pollution for the transport sector as Austria 1.1
a whole. Efforts to contain this decline in Rail’s market Indonesia 0.9
share have not succeeded but the environmental concerns Greece 0.4
now necessitate urgent action to rectify the situation. The India 0.3
main reason for the Rail to loose vis-à-vis Road is that Bangladesh 0.2
‘social costs’ are not suitably factored in. While authentic
data in this regard is not available for our conditions, Source: White Paper on Indian Railways,
recourse to other international studies clearly highlights December, 2009.
that its impact is substantial. The findings of the Balance
Research Institute, Melbourne (1999) indicated below In the year 1950-51 the value of Tariff Ratio on the IR
further testify these facts: was around 0.5 which has since come down to 0.3.
The IR’s passenger earnings for the year 2008-09
“Including all known costs and revenues were about Rs. 21,000 crore and the loss on passenger
perhaps rail freight is 80% commercial at segment about Rs. 14,000 crore. (White Paper on
present, whereas road freight is perhaps Indian Railways 2009) If the Tariff Ratio was
50%. If they both had to pay 100% of the maintained at 0.5 then at least this loss in passenger
economical and societal costs then the segment would have been wiped out making the
modal split would change towards rail.” passenger segment break even.
This also highlights the need for a detailed Study and For a system already having a policy of keeping
evaluation of the Social Costs for our conditions and till passenger fares low (Tariff Ratio as 0.5 earlier) this
this is done to provide inputs to Rail on the same pattern further lowering of passenger fares (Tariff ratio 0.3 at
as being done for the Road very much like the National present) is resulting in heavy loss in the passenger
Highways Development Programme (NHDP) and the segment. This is partly responsible for the higher
freight rates on the IR (as given below) as also for the
Pradahan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY). As a paucity of adequate funds for maintenance,
matter of fact Rail should be given some additional inputs modernization, and growth.
so that the skew already created could be rectified with
speed.
37
The problem got further compounded due to the non- Author is in agreement with the approach as suggested
availability of level playing field to Rail vis-à-vis Road, the in the para above. This will mean that the existing
two primary transport modes carrying about 91% of the organizational structure of the I.R. working as a
traffic. The solution lies in having a Policy which ensures a Departmental Undertaking of the Government of India
level playing field to Rail vis-à-vis Road; and the Rail should continue. However, it should be with relaxed
correcting its Tariff ratio to 0.5 (from the existing value of Government controls, the organisation basically working on
0.3) so that the Passenger traffic does not remain a loss- commercial principles with social costs duly compensated
making segment. by the Government. With a separate Railway Budget, (since
the year 1924) the financial performance of the organisation
Average Freight Revenue: World Scenario is explicitly measurable and a change from Government
accounting system to Commercial accounting system can
Country Average Freight make it even more transparent.
Revenue per ton-km Railway Board is responsible for the policy laying
Germany 751 (Ministerial functions) and their implementation
India 395 (Operational functions), and this is a good system. This
South Africa 281 ensures better accountability and avoids any conflict
France 218 between the Ministry and its Operational arm, both
Japan 207 being the same. The corporatisation of LR. is also not
China 185 desirable as it will separate the Ministerial and Operational
Russia 122 functions. Further, the LR. being a Strategic department
USA* 100 (Defence, Atomic Energy and Railways are the Strategic
*Freight charges for countries are benchmarked as a departments of the Government of India) needs explicit
comparison to the US (taken as 100) and calculated as support and involvement of the Government, which the
freight revenue/tonne-km. existing system ensures.
Source: White Paper on Indian Railways, December, 2009. It may not be out of place to mention that the Railway
Reforms Committee set up in the year 1981, based on a
S.5.5 Need for Change in the Organisational Structure of study by the Indian Institute of Management (IIM),
the IR Ahmedabad and opinion of Experts and Associations
concluded in 1985 "that from the point of view of financial
It is felt by some quarters that the organizational structure of viability, stability of the organisation, the burden that
I.R. has become outdated. It is too bureaucratic, inflexible, dwells on the organisation to face situations like internal
un-responsive to the business needs etc. and should, therefore, and external emergencies, the Departmental form is most
be recast on business lines. Measures like privatization, suited for the Railways"
corporatization, deregulation, shedding of ancillary activities S.5.6 Organisation Reforms on IR – NTDPC (2014)
are suggested along with attendant organizational The National Transport Development Policy Committee
restructuring. The proponents of this view hold that unless (NTDPC) headed by Dr. Rakesh Mohan in its Report
some such action is taken, l.R. will not be able to meet the (2014) mentions the following with regard to
needs of the growing and liberalized economy, nor the Organizational Reforms on Indian Railways:
aspirations of the users. a) NTDPC recommends the separation of Railway
On the other hand, some others feel that the role of LR. in the management and operations from the Government. The
Indian economy is very much different from that of other Ministry of Railways ( or the unified Ministry of Transport)
world railways. It is a strategic department, and the life line of in the future should be limited to setting policies; a new
the Nation, and so it is too crucial to be experimented with Railways Regulatory Authority would be responsible for
lightly. Failure of any restructuring experiment can be overall regulation, including the setting of tariffs; and the
disastrous. Further, restructuring is a very costly exercise, as management and operations should be carried out by a
restructuring of U.K. railway (one third the size of LR.) costed corporatized entity, the Indian Railway Corporation (IRC),
600 million pounds (Rs. 4,200 crore) and took several years to be set up as a statutory corporation, which would retain
for completion. They also feel that privatized system does not many of the quasi-governmental powers endowed to the
attach the same degree of importance to rail safety and the Railway under the current Act. Existing railways
U.K. Government had to give a safety grant of one billion corporations such as CONCOR, DFCCIL, and the like will
pounds (Rs. 7,000 crore) to the privatized U.K. rail. become subsidiaries or joint ventures of the IRC.
Some others go a step further and say that the existing b) These reforms will be very complex and the NTDPC
structure of I.R. is intrinsically sound and is still perfectly recommends widespread consultation with major
capable of delivering the goods. What is exactly required is to stakeholders, including the staff and unions of the railways
allow the LR. to run on commercial principles (subsidies to be system. This process may take upto five years. During this
duly compensated), provide a level playing field to it vis-a~vis period, the Railway Board should be reorganized along
other transport modes for free and fair competition, duly business lines consistent with the recommendations of the
compensate I.R. for correcting the capacity constraints and 2001 Expert Group on Indian Railways and those of the
asset rehabilitation arrears which are basically the outcome of 2012 Expert Group for Modernisation of Indian Railways.
heavy social service obligations which the system has carried This is being cited to indicate that the NTDPC which
over the years, and lastly relax excessive Government controls examined the Transport Sector as a whole for a period of
allowing it to fix tariffs on Commercial (rather than about 4 years (Feb. 2010 to Jan 2014) duly assisted by its
Political/Social) considerations. Focus has to be on several Members as also serving Secretaries of concerned
commercialization rather than privatization / corporatization. Ministries, has come to a conclusion which appears
difficult to implement especially on the I.R. organization
where war like activities go on 24 hours a day, 365 days a
year.
38
S.5.7 Merger of Departmental Cadres – Is It Desirable? However, for a Country of our size and population, in appears
It can be argued that separate cadres can be formed, difficult to have several Ministries under one umbrella and so
corresponding to the three wings (viz. Infrastructure, Rolling an approach of controlled decentralization appears more
Stock and Operational) and this will obviate the necessity of pragmatic. In this connection following observations are
having several Departments in each Wing, which in turn, will made:
reduce problems of co-ordination and optimisation. (a.) Integrated development of various transport modes
Tandon Committee (March, 1994) had suggested for Indian is essential for efficiency and optimum resource
Railways-a unified service cadre where no differentiation was utilization as also for making the transport
to be made amongst the eight services, viz. Indian Railway ‘greener’. Many a times a unified Transport
Service ef Engineers, Indian Railway Service of Mechanical Ministry is seen as a solution covering various
Engineers, Indian Railway Service of Signal & transport modes like Rail, Road, Water and Air.
Telecommunication Engineers, Indian Railway Service of For a country of our size and population it appears
Electrical Engineers, Indian Railway Traffic Service, Indian difficult to have several Ministries like (i) Ministry
Railway Accounts Service, Indian Railway Personnel Service of Railways, (ii) Ministry of Road Transport &
and Indian Railway Stores Service and suggestion was to have Highways, (iii) Ministry of Shipping, (iv) Ministry
only one Indian Railway Management Service instead. It was of Civil Aviation, etc. under one umbrella. Further,
also further argued by some, that there are organisations which Ministries like Ministry of Urban Development,
do not have specialists and that the specialized work can be Ministry of Rural Development, and Ministry for
managed by engaging suitable consultants. This Development of North-Eastern Region also have a
recommendation of Tandon Committee was further examined ‘transport’ connect. Then there are Transport
by the Gupta-Narain Committee (Nov. 1994) and after an in Ministries of the States.
depth study and consulting various railway officials and (b.) An approach of controlled decentralization
organisations they concluded that such a change should not be appears more pragmatic to ensure Integrated
done. The Committee observed that "The younger generation Development of Transport coupled with freedom to
should be weaned away from 'management cult' and instead act with speed. For the purpose having a Group of
encouraged to taking on important technical assignments in Ministers from all the concerned Ministries under
the field - even in inhospitable areas. Professionalism should the Chairmanship of Prime Minister appears a
never be put at a discount, rather it should be further more logical solution more so as the Transport is a
strengthened. Any arrangement which leads to wholesale vital need for Development / Growth.
obliteration of the specialized functional streams, would have S.5.9 Deregulation / Privatisation
disastrous consequences affecting the efficiency of the Deregulation involves abolition of all forms of institutional,
Railways and the safety of operations and of human lives." legal or statutory impediments to the entry or exit of firms in a
It will be appreciated that in major organisations, needing given industry, irrespective of who owns the firms, the aim
specialized knowledge of various disciplines, especially in an being to promote competition in the product/service market;
era when the need for specialization is increasing, a unified whereas privatisation implies transfer of ownership rights
cadre will neither be desirable nor practical. A technically from public to private sector. Privatisation is an antithesis to
qualified person with some inputs may be able to handle jobs nationalization but deregulation can co-exist with both public
which do not require high degree of specialization but the and private ownership of the means of production and
reverse will not be true. The consultants will not also be distribution.
available easily as the railway activities are highly specialized Some believe that private ownership is better placed to
in nature and the numbers needed will also be large. To achieve productive efficiency than public ownership while the
substantiate the point further, a mention can be made that other group feels that if the constraints which are there before
International consultants in Baghdad were having problems in the public ownership are eased or removed, there is no reason
getting railway experts for New Railway Implementation why the public ownership should not function equally well.
Authority projects (1980). Another case is of British Rail Some examples where the private companies have done better
which recently faced problems (2002) due to non-availability than the public companies as also cases where public
of design specialists for Signal and Electrical installations and organisations have excelled are cited to prove the point. The
for which services of Indian Railway Engineers were obtained conventional wisdom of welfare economics is that while
by them through RITES. This invoked severe criticism by the private ownership does better than public ownership in terms
U.K. Press and Public who felt that the Country which was of productive efficiency, it fails badly to achieve allocative
responsible for giving the railway system to India had reached efficiency, i.e. non-commercial objectives pertaining to
a stage that they did not have adequate technical manpower external effects and distributional consequences etc. In many
for their own system! cases these aspects are as important (sometimes even more
important) than those concerning the productive efficiency
S.5.8 Single Unified Ministry of Transport and profitability. This has been historically the main rationale
The NTDPC (2014) recommends a single unified Ministry of behind nationalization.
Transport with a clear mandate to deliver a multimodal Generation of competition is a central point for enhancing
transport system that contributes to the country’s larger efficiency and effectiveness. Privatisation or de-regulation per
development goals including economic growth, se may not result in creating a competitive environment. If we
environmental sustainability and energy security.
consider a privately managed organisation which has a large
It is felt that such a system can solve two major problems
facing the Indian Railways today viz need for Level Playing market share for a given activity and in the absence of
Field vis-à-vis Road, and provision of resources for Capacity adequate competition is behaving more as a monopoly, then
Augmentation. de-regulation may help in generating competition. However,
this will be possible provided large investments are not
required by the new entrants and even if required, could be
retrieved to a significant degree in case their efforts fail.
39
This can be further clarified by taking the examples of road The broad relationship between the Variation levels, DPMO
and rail transports. In a road system where several transporters and Sigma is as given in Table below:
exist, the new entrants can join as the system is de-regulated. Table: Simplified Sigma Conversion Table
Such new entrants will have to invest in transport vehicles and Variation Level DPMO Sigma
allied areas and can thereafter start competing with others. In
case they want to exit the system the losses will not be large as 30.9% 6,90,000.0 1.0
transport vehicles can be suitably disposed. Contrary to this, if
we examine the case for a railway system, huge amounts will 69.2% 3,08,000.0 2.0
be needed for the fixed infrastructure and such investments
cannot be retrieved later if one wants to exit the system. 93.3% 66,800.0 3.0
Assuming that the fixed infrastructure is provided to all the
operators as a level playing field (as has been done in some of 99.4% 6,210.0 4.0
the countries), and the operators have to own the trains then
also the investments will be heavy and exiting will have its 99.98% 320.0 5.0
own problems due to non-availability of suitable market for
such trains. In such situations, even with large number of 99.9997% 3.4 6.0
entrants, the tendency will be to join hands and gradually turn
into a monopoly (On the privatized British Rail, 17 Rolling
Stock companies grouped into three) reaching a stage of little While some world organizations are working to reduce
or no competition. The Privatization/De-regulation of railway Variations to achieve Six Sigma quality but taking all
systems has to be seen in this context. processes even to Four Sigma (99.4 percent variation level)
Since Independence, the LR. has functioned primarily as a would be an enormous achievement for most of the
Department of the Government but number of activities have companies.
been off loaded to Public Sector Undertakings as also to the With about 70 lakh (7 million) trains being run every year
Private contractors. Privatization / Corporatization has often on the I.R. and about 120 consequential train accidents
been suggested as a panacea for all the ills but the IR's yearly, the DPMO value works out as 17 accidents per
approach has been cautious in this regard. The privatization million trains. The quality performance, therefore falls
experiment of the British rail has not been a complete success, between Five and Six Sigma levels (approaching Six Sigma
while the Japanese Railways have benefited from it. Level) and is definitely a good performance. For improving
S.5.10 Roll-on Roll-off Service the safety levels further, directed inputs are needed, and
RoRo service operates on the Konkan Railway, where the road achieving Six Sigma quality level will mean that accidents
trucks are carried on rail wagons, rail freight more or less are reduced from the present level of about 120 accidents
equals the fuel cost which the truck would have otherwise per year to about 20 accidents per year. Even though this is
incurred in its road journey, and the time of travel by rail is a Herculean task but the I.R. can do it. It will, however,
roughly half of what it would have been by road. It is a win- need adequate technological inputs, high quality and reliable
win situation for the rail, truckers, and the environment. materials and machines, absolute precision in systems,
However, such a service has not picked up on other IR concerted efforts towards Human Resource Development
sections primarily because of capacity and congestion factors. including intensive Staff Training, and above all the
Once Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are constructed, commitment and conviction of the Management in
many more such services should be a practical reality. achieving this goal. Management will have to ensure Six
The Ro-Ro service will have the following advantages: Sigma quality levels in all areas/activities concerning the
(i) Win-Win situation for the Truckers and the Rail. Men, Materials, Machines and Systems in this regard.
(ii) Saving in fuel hence environment friendly. On Swiss S.5.12 Formation of a Centralised Metro Rail Transport
Railway System, road trucks are carried on rail wagons Authority
to reduce environmental pollution. Metro Rail projects are not only essential to carry heavy urban
traffic but also considerably reduce environmental pollution.
(iii) Will provide speed and reliability of Rail and The Integrated Energy Policy of the Planning Commission,
flexibility of Road (at loading and unloading legs) for August 2006 lays special emphasis towards development of
the freight traffic. rail-based urban transport systems in major cities to conserve
(iv) Will reduce congestion on existing roads. fuel/energy. Construction of metro rail projects in our country
S.5.11 Accidents on I.R. as Measured on the ‘Sigma’ Scale has far lagged behind. Even though urban transport is a State
The ‘Sigma’, a Greek alphabet, is a symbol used in the subject but the Metro Rail projects need highly specialized
statistical notation to represent standard deviation of a knowledge and inputs. To give a boost and direction to this
population. Standard deviation is an indicator of the amount activity constitution of ‘Centralised Metro Rail Transport
of variation or inconsistency in any group of items or in any Authority’ appears necessary. This will ensure faster and
process. Sigma level of performance is a term commonly effective coordination between the Ministry of Urban
used to measure the performance levels with a view to reduce Development, Ministry of Railways, concerned State
the variations, e.g. if the variations are reduced to six standard Governments, Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and other Stake
deviations, it would be termed as Six Sigma. holders.
Sigma levels of performance are also expressed in terms of S.5.13 Ancient Indian Philosophy – Sustainability of Dharma
Defects Per Million Opportunities (DPMO) . The DPMO (Moral Values/Ethical Values)
indicates the errors that would show up if an activity was to be It is difficult to define Dharma as at different times
repeated a million times. different Seers have given different definitions. Further,
detailed Dharmas (Duties) have also been prescribed for the
various category of people like a King, Householder,
Housewife, Priest, Guest, etc.
40
The following three definitions, however, should be able to S.6.0 Make Power from Coal Plants Clean / Capture CO2
provide a reasonably good appreciation about Dharma : and Convert it to Fuel using Solar Power
1. Truth, Purity, Compassion, and Charity are the four pillars
of Dharma. S.6.1 Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth
2. Patience, forgiveness, restraint, not coveting others’
possessions, purity, control over sense organs, talent, The Report of the Expert Group on “Low Carbon Strategies
knowledge, truthfulness, and absence of pride are the ten for Inclusive Growth” - Planning Commission, Govt. of
characteristics of Dharma. India, (April 2014) in their Low Carbon Inclusive Growth
3. Dharma of a human being is humanity and the ‘humanity’ (LCIG) Scenario mentions as under:
comprises of all the good qualities like kindness,
forgiveness, truthfulness, honesty, purity, etc. • Solar : The Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission
Indian philosophy recommends four pursuits (JNNSM) has set a target of 22 GW ( 20 GW of grid-
(Purusharths) for healthy living and evolution of every connected and 2 GW off-grid/decentralized) of Solar power
individual. These are : by 2021-22. The Report (April 2014) in their Macro Model
i) Dharma (Duty/Moral Values/Ethical estimates solar capacity of more than 100 GW by the year
Values/Humanistic Values) 2030. The Report further mentions that the cost of Solar
ii) Artha (Wealth) power has already come down to Rs. 6 per kwh and it
iii) Kama (Sensory pleasures) expected to reduce further and is expected to achieve grid
iv) Moksha (Attainment of everlasting freedom/Spiritual parity in the coming few years.
goal)
It does not advocate man to simply target Moksha, the • Wind : In the Report (April 2014) the Macro Model
ultimate goal of life. It considers man’s need to earn wealth suggests, a Wind power generation capacity of about 120
(Artha) and the desire to satisfy his senses (Kama) as GW by the year 2030 which is more than six times the
legitimate and essential to life. However, it recommends present installed capacity of about 20 GW. This is
that Artha and Kama must not be pursued indiscriminately reasonable to expect since wind is cost effective and the
and must be tempered by Dharma. Further, even the wind industry in India has reached maturity after over two
Dharma for its sustenance has to be guided by a Higher decades of experience.
Principle, i.e., Moksha.
Our organizations are consciously recognizing that Ethics • Hydro : The present hydro-power installed capacity is
(Dharma aspect) is needed for sustainable about 39 GW. There is an estimated potential of 150 GW
performance/development and all out efforts are also being but most of this is in the North Eastern Region and it is not
made to imbibe it in the organizational culture. However, clear how much of it could be exploited given the
glaring ethical system failures in some reputed international environmental and ecological constraints. The LCIG
organizations like Enron, Arthur Anderson, Satyam, etc.,
Scenario projects a hydro-power capacity of 75 GW by the
point towards the need for Ethics to be rooted in some year 2030.
Higher Principles for its sustainability (Very much like
the Dharma rooted in Moksha). One remembers an old
• Coal : Even in the low carbon scenario, the India’s coal
saying in this regard :
based power generation capacity is expected to increase to
“Physical prosperity cannot be sustained without Moral
about 315 GW in the year 2030. However, about 50% of
Values; and Moral Values cannot be sustained without
the installed capacity in the year 2030 is projected to be
Spiritual Values”.
from supercritical coal technology and possibility with ultra
Ref. : Agarwal, V. K. : “Ethics and Environment” – RITES
- supercritical technology. This would help in reducing
Journal, Jan. 2010.
emissions from the sector as supercritical and ultra-
S.5.14 Development Paradigms and Ancient Indian Thought supercritical technologies are less carbon intensive.
Subhash Sharma (2008) succinctly brings out the need for
• Electricity Generation: The fuel-wise Electricity
Dharma (Duty/Moral Values/Humanistic Values) for
Sustainable Development and the need for even higher Generation in LCIG Scenario in the year 2030 will be as
values for Holistic Development as detailed below. under:
Development Values Value Expression
Paradigm Rootedness Expression from ancient Coal – Sub Critical 27% Fossil fuels 67%
thought Coal – Super Critical 36%
Economic Market Value Human resource Artha & Gas & Diesel 4%
Development development karma Wind 8% Renewables 18%
Economic value Solar 8%
addition Bio-mass 2%
Sustainable Market values Human & social Dharma,
Hydro 7% Hydro & 15%
development & social development Artha &
concerns ,Ethical value Karma
Nuclear 8% Nuclear
addition & • Energy Storage : Most utilities manage the intermittency
Ethical duties associated will renewables (Wind, Solar, Biomass) using Hydro
Holistic Balancing Human, Social &
Dharma, and Gas generation. The Report mentions that while the matter
Development between spiritual Artha ,
Market Values, development kama &
has not been examined by them but it is clear that grid will
Social values ,spiritual value
moksha need Energy Storage System (ESS) to prevent costly
&Spiritual addition renewable curtailment.
values Pumped Hydraulic System (PHS) is one of the cost effective
Ref. : Subhash Sharma : “New Mantras in Corporate Corridors –
From Ancient Roots to Global Routes” – New Age International and proven option for energy storage. It is a mature technology
Publishers (2007). and has low operating costs.
41
There is an estimated potential of 94 GW of pumped storage in • Carbon Use – Electro-chemical Approaches : Cheaply
India. The PHS system has a long lifetime and is easy to operate. converting carbon dioxide to useful products by
However, it is not clear how much of the estimated potential can techniques that don’t require lot of energy, is an area of
be achieved given that PHS systems are capital intensive and are active research. Some of these efforts are mentioned
associated with environmental and ecological challenges. below :
Grid level batteries are an option to consider but they still have - Converting carbon diaoxide (CO2) using catalyst and
high capital costs. Na-S, Flow Battery and Li ion battery systems electricity from solar energy into carbon monoxide
are among the leaders in the international grid level battery sector. (CO) that can be used for a range of industrial
However, detailed studies are required to ascertain their viability applications, including liquid fuel.
under Indian conditions.
- Conversion of carbon dioxide to liquid methanol
S.6.2 Need to make Coal based Power Plants Cleaner – using copper oxide nano-wires and sunlight.
Carbon Capture / Carbon Storage / Carbon Use
- Experiments are on to produce ‘kerosene’ from CO2
• Carbon Capture : Even for the LCIG Scenario about 63% using a multi-step process and concentrated sunlight
of power generation in our country will be from coal based (Solar Reactor at ETH, Zurich).
power plants in the year 2030. There is thus an urgent need to
capture carbon dioxide emissions from these plants (Carbon - Work is also on to convert carbon dioxide and
Capture) to reduce environmental pollution. Fast growing needs
water into liquid motor fuels but this reaction
for energy and availability of adequate coal deposits in the
country point towards the compulsive use of coal based power requires large amounts of energy. Effort is to
plants for some more time but this can be a practical reality make it economically viable.
only if adequate measures are taken to make the energy
‘cleaner’. Even though costly, carbon capture seems unavoidable. S.6.3 Solar Energy – An Overview
Rough estimates indicate that for a conventional coal plant, the
provisions for carbon capture, will reduce the amount of • Solar energy is a non-polluting source and is also available
electricity generation by about 25% while for new plants in abundance. The sunlight hitting the earth’s surface
(Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle or IGCC) this reduction everyday contains 7,000 times more energy than the fossil
may be about 15%. (Ref.: Goodal, Chris – 2008) fuels which we consume. Potential thus is enormous.
Technologies already exist for its production (Solar
While currently there is resistance to use carbon capture due to
high costs involved but the growing environmental concerns are Thermal; Solar Photovoltaic) but are being used to a limited
very likely to result in an increase in the levels of carbon tax. In extent primarily due to higher cost of Solar power (Costs
such a situation the balance may tilt in favour of carbon capture have come down drastically over the years; Rs. 6 per kwh at
vis-à-vis paying the carbon tax. present; May soon achieve grid parity ), need for large areas
• Carbon Storage : The carbon dioxide as captured can be for power collection, and energy availability only during a
compressed until it liquefies and then can be sent by pipeline limited period of the day.
to a place where it can be stored. This can be stored in
depleted fossil fuel reservoirs or injected deep into the saline • The Planning Commission Report (2006) on the “Integrated
aquifers composed of porous rocks etc. However, many Energy Policy” projects for our country the potential of
environmentalists and policy makers worry about whether Solar Thermal and Solar Photovoltaic as 1200 Mtoe
some of the carbon dioxide will eventually leak, returning to (Million tonnes of oil equivalent) for each, the total being
the atmosphere. Some also talk of the risk of escaped carbon 2400 Mtoe which is about four times our Total Primary
dioxide concentrating at ground level and asphyxiating living Energy consumption. The waste land requirement envisaged
creatures. is 5+5=10 million hectares and with improving technologies
• Carbon Use – Biofixation : The algae – a group of several may reduce significantly. It may not be out of place to
thousand water-living organisms, ranging from large seaweeds mention that our country has a total land area of 329 million
to single cell plants – are extremely efficient at breathing in hectares out of which about 30 million hectares is waste
carbon dioxide. Under controlled cultivations, the weight of land. Further, with an all India Power Grid connectivity
algae can more than double in a day provided light, water and Solar power transmission will also not pose any problems
nutrients including carbon dioxide are available. Further, for and Solar power can be produced in areas where sunshine is
certain types of algae, upto half the weight is a form of better and/or the waste land is available. The major
vegetable oil which after extraction and simple modification problem (besides the need to make solar power
can be used as fuel in standard diesel engines. commercially viable; cost has come down to Rs.6 per kwh
Instead of using captured carbon dioxide some experiments and is likely to achieve grid parity in future) is the need for
have also been done for fertilising the algae by using ‘storage’ of energy during day hours, for use in the other
unmodified exhaust gases from coal and gas power stations. periods. This becomes particularly relevant if the Solar
This can save cost of carbon capture. power has to find a dominant place in the energy mix.
However, the success of all these experiments / efforts have • Power Grid will need suitable Energy Storage Systems to
only been marginal. One of the main problems has been that
prevent Solar power being wasted. Pumped Hydraulic
algae do not respond well to industrial cultivation. Further, in
large open ponds, controlling the water temperature is difficult System (PHS) and Grid Level batteries are the main options
and undesirable species of algae can take over, reducing the to consider. Such a storage may give an energy efficiency of
useful yield. around 70% i.e. about 30% power will be
42
consumed in the storage process. Another approach could also 15. Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) : Indian
be to use the extra Solar power during the period it is Engineering Heritage (Railways), Second Report, January
available, say for production of hydrogen (by electrolysis of 2008.
16. Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) : Indian
water) and/or production of Fuel (by conversion of CO2
Engineering Heritage (Railways), Third Report, June 2012.
captured from coal based power plants). This approach 17. Indian National Academy of Engineering (INAE) : First
should be seen as an effort to store Solar power in the form of Report of Technology Foresight and Management Forum for
useful products like Hydrogen and Fuel rather than being Addressing National Challenges (March 2014).
wasted. The economics of the conversion process should get 18. Indian Railway Budget Speech 2014-15 by Honourable MR
credit for the loss of energy, inherent in the ‘storage’ process, to Shri Suresh Prabhu on 26th February 2015.
evaluate its financial viability. It is very likely that carbon dioxide 19. Indian Railways : Vision 2020, December 2009.
20. Indian Railways : White Paper, December 2009.
conversion to Fuel using Solar energy from the Grid may prove a
21. Indian Railways : Year Book, 2011-12.
financially viable option. 22. Indian Railways : Year Book, 2012-13.
23. Indian Railways : Year Book, 2013-14.
S.6.4 Make Power from the Coal Clean / Use Extra Solar 24. Indian Railways : Annual Report & Accounts, 2011-12.
Power to convert CO2 to Fuel / Balance the Power Grid 25. Indian Railways : Annual Report & Accounts, 2012-13.
26. Indian Railways : Annual Report & Accounts, 2013-14.
Power stations produce a large fraction of world’s carbon dioxide 27. Indian Railways : Report of the Expert Group (headed by
emissions. In developed countries, more than a third of the total Sam Pitroda) for Modernisation of Indian Railways, February
greenhouse gas output typically enters the atmosphere from the 2012.
smokestacks of fossil fuel power stations. If this carbon dioxide is 28. Indian Railways : Report of the High Level Safety Revenue
Committee (headed by Anil Kakodkar), February 2012.
captured it will be a large volume and the relief to environment
29. Kerzner, Harold : “Project Management – A System
will be significant. Instead of storing this carbon dioxide in Approach”, John Wiley, 2003.
underground depleted fossil fuel reservoirs or in the deep sea 30. National Transport Development Policy Committee
saline aquifers it will be much better to convert it into useful Fuel (NTDPC) Report, Rakesh Mohan Committee, 2014.
using Solar power. This will also avoid waste of Solar power and 31. Piccioni, Robert L. : “Einstein for Everyone”, Jaico, 2010.
will balance the Grid besides production of Fuel. Energy from 32. Planning Commission, Government of India : “Integrated
coal plants will no longer be a polluting energy and will qualify Energy Policy – Report of the Expert Committee”, 2006.
33. Planning Commission, Government of India : “Low Carbon
as the clean energy. Coal can continued to be used for power
Strategies for Inclusive Growth – Report of the Expert
generation without any adverse impact on the environment. Group”, April 2014.
34. Seema Sharma (Ed.) : “India Junction – A Window to the
References / Selected Reading Nation” – Select Essays, Rail Travelogues and Photographic
Features, Rupa Publications, 2014.
1. Abdul Kalam, A. P. J. : “Wings of Fire – An Autobiography”, 35. Singh, K. P. : “High Speed Rails : A Worldview and its
University Press, India, 2001. Relevance to India”, RITES Journal, January 2013.
2. Agarwal, M. M. :”Indian Railway Track (19th Ed.)”, Prabha 36. Soft Mobility Paper – Measures for a Climate-friendly
& Co., 2013. Transport Policy in Europe, July 2006.
3. Agarwal, M. M. : “Objective Railway Engineering – Track, www.stopclimatechange.net.
Work & Others”, Prabha & Co., 2011. 37. Sudhir Kumar & Shagun Mehrotra : “Bankruptcy to Billions
4. Agarwal, S. R. : “50 Years of RDSO – Powering Indian – How the Indian Railways Transformed”, Oxford University
Railways”, Research Deisgn & Standards Organisation, Press, 2009.
Lucknow, 2007. 38. UNESCO Report : “Engineering : Issues, Challenges and
5. Agarwal, V. K. : “Managing Indian Railways – The Future Opportunities for Development”, UNESCO, 2010.
Head”, Manas Publications, 2004. 39. Vir, R. K. : “Story of Chittranjan Locomotive Works”,
6. Bhandari, R. R. : “Indian Railways – Glorious 150 Years”, Chittranjan Locomotives Works, 2003.
Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of 40. White Paper : Indian Railways – Lifeline of the Nation”,
India, April 2005. Government of India, Ministry of Railways, February 2015.
7. Bhushan, Arya and Agarwal, M. M. : “Indian Railways
Safety – Ultimate Goal to Prevent Railway Accidents”, Bahri
Bros, 2015.
8. Chandra, Satish and Agarwal, M. M. : “Railways Engineering
(2nd Ed.)”, Oxford University Press, 2013.
9. “Changing Relativities Between Road and Rail –
www.balanceresearch.com.subs/conf 1999/Paper.htm
10. Chopra, A. K. : “Indian Railways – Silent Transformation”,
Institute of Rail Transport, 2007.
11. Collier, Paul : “The Plundered Planet”, Allen Lane, 2010.
12. Freeman, Roger and Jon Shaw (Ed.) : “British Railway
Privatisation”, McGRaw Hill, 2000.
13. Goodall, Chris : “Ten Technologies to Save the Planet”,
Green Profile, UK, 2008.
14. Government of India – Economic Survey 2014-15 presented
in Lok Sabha on 27th February 2015.
43
Tunnelling Through Water Bearing Strata
By
Sh. Ram Pal
GENERAL
All the serious difficulties that may be encountered

during the construction of an tunnel are directly or
indirectly due to the percolation of water toward the
tunnel. Therefore most of the techniques for improving
the ground condition are directed toward stopping the
seepage.
The control of ground water is of utmost importance in

soft ground tunnelling. The presence of a small amount
of water in granular soils above the water table may be
beneficial in providing an increase in stand-up time
because of apparent cohesion brought about by negative
capillary forces (until they dissipate), but below the
water table the presence of water serves to reduce the
effective strength drastically, and seepage pressures
cause rapid and complete failure in non cohesive soil.
The presence of water in clays is of primary importance
in determining the strength, sensitivity, and swelling
properties of the material. The type of control to be
exercised, whether in construction or in design of the
Fig-1. Methods of Controlling ground water.
final lining, is directly dependent on these properties.
METHODS OF CONTROLING THE GROUND

WATER Well point systems Fig-(2) are the most versatile
dewatering tool and can be used to draw the water table
To control ground water, the engineer has four principle
down in soils ranging from sandy silts to coarse sands and
methods:
gravels. The usual practice is to install two lines of well
1. Dewatering points, one line on either side of the tunnel.
2. Compressed Air
3. Grouting The effectiveness of well points is limited to shallow
4. Freezing tunnels because the suction lift limitation restricts the
Fig (1) Shows the applicability of these methods for grain draw-down to 5 to 7 mtr, the latter limit requiring special
sizes of the soil. techniques. In contrast to open cuts, for tunnelling it is
usually not possible to extend the effective depth of well
1.) DEWATERING points by installing in stages. The effectiveness of well
point in fine-grained soils sometimes may be extended by
Sumps and pumps typically are the most economical special techniques such as applying a vacuum or electro-
means of dewatering, but they more applicable in large osmosis. Eductors or ejectors can be used to lower the
open excavations. Therefore, in a tunnelling operation ground water table significantly more than 5 mtr, but they
it is found only at the portals. have a lower efficiency and more complex design
requirement then wells points systems.
Deep wells have a larger diameter then well points. Thus,

under applicable geological conditions, each deep well
generally has a larger drawdown area then does each well
point. In addition, because the pumps are submersible
each deep well typically attains a greater drawdown; wells
can be installed at depths up to 30 mtr, with drawdown
Sh.RAM PAL typically three-quarters of that.
IRSE
XEN/C/Sangaldan
44
2.7 Compressed Air
Compressed air can be an effective and productive means of
stabilizing the soil and controlling groundwater, especially in
granular (sandy) soils below the water table or in squeezing
soft cohesive (clay) soils.
In granular soils, compressed air is used to offset the water

pressure at the tunnel face, thereby preventing the flow of
the water (and accompanying fines) in to the face. However
the engineer is faced with a dilemma. It is impossible to
strike a perfect balance:
• If the air pressure is balanced at the invert, the water at the

crown will be driven away from the tunnel. This can dry the
sand. Leading to possible running conditions and even the
risk of an air “blow.”
• If the air pressure is balanced at the crown, the water at the

invert will be under a pressure of 0.43D, enough for
troublesome flows of water into the tunnel and possibly for
flowing conditions to exist.
The usual approach to this dilemma is to adjust the air

pressure so that it balances the water pressure at the tunnel
spring line. This compromise generally is the best solution
Fig-(2). Schematic design of wellpoint and deep well. available, but the engineer and contractor must recognize
that both of the problems enumerated above remain a
Deep well installation typically ranges from 10 to 30 cm in possibility, although each should be minimized.
diameter with the corresponding range in capacity being 4.4 to
63 lit/sec. Compared with well points, deep wells have a high When used in cohesive ground, the goal is to provide
unit cost for both installation and operation. Thus, the designer enough air pressure so that, in combination with the soil’s
natural strength, the tunnel will be stable for the tunnel
and contractor must continue to observe and test continuously
excavation and support operations. To obtain a measure of
as the construction proceeds, making changes (even during tunnel stability, Peck has proposed Equation (1.1) given
installation) if actual conditions prove to be different from those blow. For this application, Pa in that equation is the air
assumed. pressure above atmospheric. Table -1and 2 summarize the
approximate relationship between the stability factor (Nt)
In any dewatering operation, the drawdown of the groundwater and the behaviour of a tunnel. Table-(3) shows the tunnel
level causes a corresponding and often significant increase in behaviour in sands and gravels.
the effective stresses in the soil within the drawdown zone. This Nt = Pz-Pa {Eq-(1.1)}
increase in effective stresses results in a settlement that can be Su
Where Nt- The stability factor
roughly estimated by consolidation theory in cohesive soil and
Pz- Over burden pressure to the Tunnel center line.
elastic compression in granular soils. Particularly in soft Pa- Equivalent uniform interior pressure applied to
cohesive soils, this settlement is often large enough to produce the face.
worrisome differential settlements at overlying structures. Each Su- Undrained shear strength.
case must be evaluated independently, but a few approaches to
mitigating this situation are summarized below: Table-1 Tunnel Stability: Cohesive Soils.
• Allow the settlement to occur and then repair the building. Stability Tunnel Behaviour
This may be acceptable where the settlements are small, Factor, Nt
the building is forgiving of differential settlement, and/or
the building is low-level. 1 Stable
• Install cut-off walls (typically slurry walls) along both 2-3 Small creep
sides of the alignment, restricting the drawdown (hence the
4-5 Creeping, usually slow enough to permit
settlement) to the immediate area of the alignment.
tunnelling
• Recharge the groundwater immediately outside the
May produce general shear failure.
alignment. This also has the effect of restricting the 6 Clay likely to invade tail space too quickly to
drawdown to the immediate area of the alignment. handle
45
Table-2 Tunnel Stability: Silty Sands • Medical facility and staff
Stability Factor, Nt Tunnel Behaviour • Standby (trained) hospital staff and facility.
The quantity of air required can only be found by experience

on a site-by-site basis, but for initial planning purpose it may
0.25 - 0.33 Firm be estimated according to
0.33 – 0.5 Slow Raveling Q = KD2 Eq-1.2
0.5 - 1 Raveling Where Q is the quantity (CFM) of compressed air at the design
pressure, K is a constant (approximately 12 in fine sands and
24 in gravel), and D is the tunnel diameter in feet.
Table 3- Tunnel Behaviour: Sands and Gravels.

(3) GROUTING
Designation Degree of
Several types of grouting are used to modify and/or stabilize
compactness Tunnel Behavior
soils in situ in preparation for soft ground tunneling. Recent
Above water Below water improvements in grouting have made it a valuable tool in both
table table ground water control and soil stabilization for tunneling
Very fine Loose, N<10 Cohesive Flowing projects. It is a very effective method for improving tunneling
clean sand Dense, N>30 running Flowing under a number of situations such as the following:-
Fast Raveling
Fine sand Loose, N<10 Rapid Flowing (1) to strengthen loose or weak soil and prevent cave-ins due
with clay Dense, N>30 Raveling Slowly to disturbance of loose, sensitive or weak soils by the tunneling
binder Firm or Raveling operation,
slowly
Raveling (2) To decrease permeability and hence ground water flow,
Sand or Loose, N<10 Rapid Rapid
sandy Dense, N>30 Ravelling Ravelling or (3) To reduce the subsidence effects of dewatering or to
Gravel with Firm flowing
prevent the loss of fines from the soil,
clay binder Firm or slow
Raveling
(4) To stabilize sandy soils that has a tendency to run in a dry
Sandy Running Flowing state or to flow when below the water table.
Gravel and ground. conditions
medium to Uniform combined The general applications of grouting are of three types:
coarse sand (cu<3) and with
loose (N<10) extremely (a) Permeation grouting that fills the voids in the soil with
materials heavy either chemical or cement binders.
with round discharge of
grains run water. (b) Jet grouting that uses high pressure jet to breakup the soils
much more
and replace them with a mixture of excavated soil and cement,
freely than
well graded and
(cu>6) and
Dense (c) Compaction grouting that densities the soil during
(N>30) ones tunneling by injection of a stiff grout.
with angular
grains. These applications are illustrated by figure-3, and the types of soils
in which each grouting method may be effective are indicated
approximately by fig- 4.
The use of compressed air requires design and operation of the
system required to provide and control the requisite air. Groutability is primarily determined by the permeability of the soil.
For initial planning purposes, this may be expressed in broad terms
The requirements are given blow: such as shown in fig-5 where grouting materials are shown and
matched to the general soil discriptions. In more detailed terms,
• Compressors (with spares) groutability may be expressed directly in term of soil permeability
or of the percentage of fines (percent passing a No. 200 sive) in
• Material and muck locks(s)
sand, as shown in table 4. Finally, in greater detail, one can
• Man lock(s) compare the grain size curve for a given soil with a plot of
groutability, as shown on fig-6.
• Medical lock.
46
Permeation grouting may be by either cement or chemical
based grout, with the latter being necessary for satisfactory
penetration of finer soils. As shown by fig-5, cement grout is
feasible only in gravels and some sands, where as chemical
grouts are feasible in soils containing more fines. Historically,
the rule of thumb has been that soil having less than 10% of
fines passing the No 200 sieve could be successfully grouted
and those with more than 20% of fines could not. Recent
experience indicates that current methods and materials have
raised these limits approximately 5% each.
Fig-6 Groutable soils.
Fig-3 Applications of grouting for Tunnelling.
Fig-7 Grout pipe layout Plans.
In recent years environmental and worker safety regulations

have increasingly restricted the use of toxic chemicals, and
they have effectively retired some kinds of chemicals
grouts formerly in common use. New grouts are also being
developed.
Fig- 4 Grouting method and Soil type. Fig-5 Grain-size ranges groutable soils. It should be noted that the final grouted soil mass is
produced by the logical geometrical arrangement of small,
Table-4 Groutability Related to general soil Permeability and to contiguous grouted masses and that secondary and tertiary
percentage of fines in a sand. grouting pattern are often required to fill ungrouted zones
left by the original patterns. Thus, pipe spacing may vary
Groutability General Soil Percentage of fines
from 0.5 to 1.5 mtr.
permeability, cm/sec in sandy soils
Preferably, the pipe should be placed in an array in which
Easy 10-1 to 10-3 <12 all pipes are parallel, with the engineer determining the
grout zone pattern required for the problem at hand.
Moderate 10-3 to 10-4 12-20
However the geometry of the problem, soil permeability,
Marginal 10-4 to 10-5 20-25 and the type of grout very often dictate other patterns
around a tunnel, as illustrated in fig-7.
Ungroutable < 10-5 >25
47
In the past, four grouting methods were used: stage, series, On the Los Angeles sub way project, it was necessary to
circuit, and packers. Current practice, however, consistently perform the grouting from pits alongside a major (eight lane)
uses packer grouting because it has been shown to provide freeway (see fig-9 and 10). From the pits, the grout holes
(economically) the best control of the grouting operation by
were drilled horizontally under the free way, in that way
. Controlling the location of the injection along the grout
pipe. avoiding the traffic disruption that vertical drilling would
. Controlling the formation of unexpected flow channels cause. The contractor elected to drill all the way under the
along the grout pipe. free way from one side. This made the holes approximately
. Providing access for second or third stage grouting. 85 mtr long, a length that challenged the contractor ability to
control the long horizontal holes and keep them aligned as
The goal of the grout injection is to fill the defined volume of planned. Although there was some horizontal and vertical
soil with overlapping grout bulbs so that, under ideal
deviation of the holes, the contractor was able to bring them
conditions, the total volume is grouted. In reality the bulbs do
not take the assumed shape, and the total volume is not back to acceptable limits (and established a record for
grouted. However, when properly executed, a grouting horizontal grout holes ). Measurements of the grout hole
program involving primary and secondary grouting should locations and of the grout injected indicated that the grout
impregnate 90% or more of the required volume, and that is program was successful. This was proven later when the
generally enough to provide the stability required for the tunnel was driven successfully.
tunneling operation. Schematically, these operations have been
illustrated in fig-8.
Tertiary grouting may be desirable in some cases to try to fill

most or all of the un grouted zones left by the primary and
secondary grouting. The most obvious need for tertiary
grouting is where the prime goal is to shut off ground water.
Especially where moving groundwater may carry fines with it,
any ungrouted channels left from the primary and secondary
grouting might concentrate the flow and potentially compound
the transport problem. In these circumstances, tertiary grouting
may be critical. Fig-9 Horizontantal and chemical grouting program for the Hollywood
freeway, Los Angeles metro.
The equipment required for grouting typically consists of
storage tank, mixing tank, pumps, meters, gases, packers and
hoses. The pumping plant is of primary importance: its basic
function is to proportion, mix and pump the grout. The grout
pumping plants versatility is increased if the flow rate can be
varied at any time, allowing the flow rate to be maximized for
a given soil and the design limit pressure. The dimensional
capability can be again increased if the relative proportions of
the grout components can be varied easily and quickly at any
time, allowing changes in gel times while pumping. This is
important when temperature changes during pumping affect the
gel time or when trying to develop resistance to flow in given
situations. An accurate and appropriate means of monitoring
flow rates and pressures involved is essential. Positive
displacement meters should be placed on the inlet or outlet of
the pumps and pressure gauges should be placed at the pumps
and top of the grout pipe.
Fig-10 Design and actual grout hole locations.

Fig- 8 Crown grouting.
48
Grout pipe Installation:
The function of the grout pipe is to allow a designated grout
zone to be fully permeated. This may require the
introduction of the grout at one or more depths and in
multiple injection stages (see fig-11). A number of types of
grout pipes are used to meet the goal of fully permeating a
designated grout zone. A driven or jetted pipe is best used
for grout injection at a single depth as long as soil condition
will permit installation. A slotted grout pipe can be used for
grouting a relatively pervious, captive soil layer.
However, experience has shown that the sleeve port pipe

(Fig-12) provide the most versatile grout pipe installation.
10
By locating the internal grout packer at a particular sleeve
port, grout can be injected at any specified depth, and
regrouting can be performed at that depth in any number of Fig -12 Tube a Manchette.
stages. Four distinct advantages occur with the use of the
sleeve port: (1) grout can be injected at specific depths in (4). Freezing:
each bore hole, increasing the likelihood of penetrating the
desired area.(2) The elastic sleeve at each port prevents the
Freezing is more often used in shaft sinking than in tunneling,
grout from returning in to the grout pipe and gelling up
but the method is useful where nothing else will serve,
after grouting, allowing the port to be reused. (3) The sleeve
provided that surface access over the tunnel alignment is
ports allow the pipe to be completely sealed to the bore
available. It should be noted at the outset that, for the method
hole, reducing grout leakage away from the desired zone,
to be successful, sufficient water must be present: freezing
along either the pipe or bore-hole interface. (4) Chemical
will not change the stability characteristics of dry soils. For
and cement grouting can be performed in the same grout
freezing to be successful, in the situ pore water must be
pipe at any particular depth to grout more permeable soils.
converted to ice by extraction of the latent heat. The ice then
acts like a cement to bind the soil grain together, thereby
The grout pipe must be installed such that the sealing grout
raising the strength and lowering the permeability of the soil
surrounds the entire pipe and fills the annulus.The grout
mass. It should be also noted that the presence of organic
used to fill the annulus is usually made up of cement,
material (common in silts and clay) or salt water will result in
bentonite, and fly ash. The grout should be thick enough to
greater difficulty in freezing, since the ground water freezing
prevent infiltration into the soil; ideally it should be low
point will be depressed.
strength and brittle.
Another major deterrent to successful freezing is moving
ground water. To convert the pore water to ice, the freezing
system must remove heat so that the water temperature is
lowered below freezing. However, moving ground water can
easily bring heat in to the area faster than the freezing system
removes it. Even with modern freezing techniques, it may not
to be possible to obtain a freeze if the ground water is moving
more than approximately 8 cm per hour. At lower velocities,
the following water may create an elongated, rather than
circular, bulb of frozen ground. Such an unpredictable shape
may make difficult the closing of a freeze wall even though
the volume of ground frozen is theoretically correct. Finally,
note that in many soils, the expansion of water by freezing will
first cause heaving of the ground surface, but subsequently,
upon thawing, will cause subsidence. The net effect is
generally a compaction and permanent settlement of the
ground.
Tunnelling machine for water bearing strata-

Fig- 11 Multiple injection for Crown grouting. Selection of a tunnelling machine requires consideration of
soil conditions, water conditions, tunnel size, support system,
excavation conditions and the excavation environment. The
numbers of variables that must be considered in selecting a
machine is quite large. In today’s world of production- driven
tunneling, most soft ground (water bearing) tunnels are
excavated by circular tunnel boring machines (TBM).
However, special circumstances and configurations sometimes
dictate that other tunnel shapes or types of tunnel construction
be considered.
49
Table: Special machine for Tunnelling in soft
2. The second scheme consists of unbolted precast
ground/Water bearing strata. concrete segments in which the completed ring usually
consists of approximately four precast concrete pieces
Type Description Remarks or segments. These segments are erected within the tail
shield and expanded into place as they clear that tail
Slurry This machine uses Best for sandy soil, tends shield. To “complete the ring” the expansion gap (or
face pressurized slurry to to gum up in clay soils, gaps) is stabilized by means of steel props and then
machine balance the groundwater with coarse soils, face filled with fast-setting concrete.
and soil pressure at the may collapse into the
3. The third scheme consists of bolted (or pinned) precast
face. It has a bulkhead slurry. Coarse soil are
concrete segments made up into rings usually
(closed face) to maintain defined as consisting of approximately six pieces. In contrast to
the slurry pressure on the the above segments, however, these members are
face; that slurry must be • Gravel content>60% bolted (or sometimes pinned) together at all
piped down and recycled • Clay and silt circumferential and longitudinal joints. The variations
content<10% for bolted segments are almost endless: the rings all
from the surface. It may
• Water content<18% may be tapered, requiring a 1800 rotation in alternating
also be equipped with a
• Coefficient rings for a straight drive; the segments may be
stone crusher for permeability>10- identical except for special tapered ones for curves ; a
occasional cobbles. This 2
cm/sec key segment may or may not be used; various dowels
machine is good for water • Cobbles greater than or pins may be used in place of or in combination with
bearing silts and sands with 20cm bolts; bolt pockets, curved bolts, and special locking
fine gravels. devices have all been used to make up the connections.
Obviously these segments are more complicated than
Earth This machine has a closed Also best for sandy soils, those in the second scheme.
pressure chamber (bulkhead) face with acceptable conditions
Schemes 1 and 2 typically have a secondary or final lining
balance that uses trapped water and defined as
of cast-in-place concrete placed as a later operation. Thus,
(EPB) soil material to balance the
• Clay and silt these are called two-pass lining schemes. The concrete
machine groundwater and/or
content>7% lining is used to provide the design life support for the “
collapsing soil pressure at
• Gravel content<70% temporary” scheme 1, to sandwich drainage fabric or
the face. It uses a screw
• Cohesive soils (not less waterproof membrane in both scheme 1 and 2, and/or to
discharger with a cone
than 40% clay and silt) provide the requisite inner surface of the tunnel for user
valve or other means to have N-value <15. requirements such as fluid flow. Scheme 3 is called a one-
form a sand plug to control • Water content >18% in pass lining and usually does not have a final lining unless a
muck removal from the sandy soil and >25% in
cohesive soils. nominal one is dictated by user requirements.
face and there by maintain
face pressure to balance the
SURFACE EFFECT OF TUNNEL
earth pressure. It is good
for clay and clayey and CONSTRUCTION
silty sand soils, generally
1. Subsidence Due to Water-table Depression- Water-
below the water table. table depression will occur because of external
dewatering, or because the tunnel itself functions as
a groundwater drain.
WATER BEARING/SOFT GROUND TUNNEL 2. Subsidence Due to Lost Ground- For
SUPPORT AND LINING most purposes it is usually possible to assume that
the volume of surface settlement is equal to the
Just as most soft ground tunnels are now excavated by one or volume of lost ground.
another type of TBM, it is also true that most initial support systems
consist of one of three schemes: SEISMIC DESIGN OF WATER
BEARING/SOFT GROUND TUNNELS
1. The first scheme consists of ribs and lagging (also called ribs
and boards) in which steel wide flange sections (ribs) are Although underground structures are much less
rolled to the radius of the tunnel and erected in the tail of the vulnerable to earthquakes than surface structures,
machine on 3-5 feet centers. Spanning between the steel ribs, there still is a potential for damage to buried
and completely around the perimeter of the tunnel, are timber structures in strong-motion earthquakes. The actual
lagging members. As the steel ribs sequentially clear the tail risk must be assessed on the basis of both
shield, they are expanded in to place to contact the ground, seismological and geotechnical evaluation of the
with props put in the expansion gap. site. For this assessment, the required seismological
information includes.
50
• Historical data on earthquake recurrence intervals, magnitudes,
and associated parameters of ground shaking.
• Proximity of faults.
• Historical evidence of slippage on the faults and magnitude of
actual offsets with their recurrence intervals.
Similarly, the required geotechnical information includes
• Depth to and nature of underlying bedrock.
• Stratigraphic section and properties of the individual
components of soils/rock in the overburden.
• The location of the water table, presence of perched water, and
degree of saturation of the soil.
• Geophysical data, especially seismic shear wave velocity in
each major segment of the soil/rock horizon.
Engineers generally referred to the maximum design
earthquake (MDE) and the operating design earthquake
(ODE). These typically are defined as follows:
• The MDE is the earthquake event that has a return period of
several thousand years. It has a small probability of
exceedance, approximately 5% or less, during the 100 years
facility life. The MDE defines the level at which critical
elements continue to function to maintain public safety,
preventing catastrophic failure or collapse and loss of life.
However, some elements will experience inelastic
deformation, and the structures may require major repair
before being returned to full service.
• The ODE is the earthquake event that has a return period of
several 100 years. It can reasonably be expected to occur
during a 100 years facility design life; the probability of
exceedance of this event is approximately 40% during the
facility life. In the ODE, critical elements of the facility
maintain function and the overall system continue to operate
normally. Any needed repairs are cosmetic in nature and can
be done as part of maintenance operations.
51
Steel Fibre Reinforced Shotcrete And Its Comparison With The Wire Mesh
By
Sh. Sumeet Khajuria
1.0 Introduction Manufacturers must declare values for each individual
fiber characteristics that influences performance such as
Shotcrete is the pneumatic injection of aggregates length, diameter & aspect ratio, fibre tensile strength
and cement mixture and is an all-inclusive term for
etc. These values must not deviate by more than the
both the wet-mix and dry-mix versions. Shotcrete is
used in lieu of conventional concrete, in most tolerances outlined in the codes. An abstract of
instances, for reasons of cost or convenience. tolerances on fibre geometry and tensile strength is
Unreinforced shotcrete, like unreinforced reproduced below;
conventional concrete, is a brittle material that
experiences cracking and displacement when PROPERTY SYMBOL DEVIATION DEVIATION
OF OF
subjected to tensile stresses or strains. The addition INDIVIDUAL INDIVIDUAL
of fibers to the shotcrete mixture adds ductility, VALUE VALUE
durability, energy absorption capacity and impact FROM FROM
resistance. The composite material is capable of DECLARED DECLARED
VALUE VALUE
sustaining postcrack loadings and often displays (EN 14889-1- (ASTM
increased ultimate strength, particularly tensile 2006) A820M-06)
strength. Fibers used in shotcrete are available in
LENGTH L, ld 10% 10%
three general forms
a) Steel fibers.
b) Glass fibers. DIAMETER D 10% 10%
c) Other synthetic fibers.
ASPECT RATIO δ 10% 15%
2.0 Steel fibers (LENGTH/DIAMETER
)
Steel fibers are manufactured in several ways. Wire
fibers are produced from drawn wire that has been TENSILE STRENGTH Rm 15% 15%
subsequently cut or chopped. Flat steel fibers are cut
or slit from sheet of steel or by flattening wire. The
melt-extraction process is used to "cast" fibers by
extracting fibers from a pool of molten steel. 3.0 Constituent Materials of Steel fibre
Consequently, fibers are round, flat, or irregular in reinforced shotcrete
shape. Additional anchorage is provided by
deformations along the fiber length or at the ends 3.1 Cement: Ordinary Portland cement conforming to IS
.These are commercially available in lengths ranging 8112:2001.
from 1/2 to 3 inches. Typical fiber lengths for 3.2 Aggregates: restricted to 10mm conforming to IS
shotcrete range from 3/4 to 1-1/2 inches and are used 383.
in the amount of 1 to 2 percent by volume of the
3.3 Mixing water:
shotcrete. American ASTM A820M-06 and
3.4 Steel reinforcement comprising of steel fibres
European EN 14889-1 are the quality control
performance based manufacturing standards for steel /synthetic fibres in recommended dosages.
fibres in India various types of steel fibres are shown 3.5 Admixtures comprising accelerators and water
in Exhibit 1. reducers conforming to IS 9103.
3.6 Additives such as Silica fume( micro silica ),Fly ash
( Pulverized fuel ash ) ,Ground granulated blast
furnace slag (GGBS) etc. to be added in dosages
varying from 8% to 15% of the Portland cement or
as per the maximum dosages prescribed by the
prescribed standards.
4.0 Design Mix of Steel Fibre reinforced shotcrete

(SFRS)
These mixes can be used as a starting point when

embarking on a shotcrete programme , but it may be
necessary to seek expert assistance to 'fine tune' the mix
Sh. SUMEET KHAJURIA designs to suit site specific requirements.
XEN Udhampur Northern
Railway
USBRL Project
52
Table 1: Typical steel fibre reinforced silica fume shotcrete mix designs (After Wood, 1992)
Components Dry Mix Wet Mix

Kg/m3 %dry materials Kg/m3 %dry materials
Cement 420 19.0 420 18.1
Silica fume additive 50 2.2 40 1.7
Blended aggregate 1670 75.5 1600 68.9

Steel fibres 60 2.7 60 2.6
Accelerator 13 0.6 13 0.6
Superplaticiser ___ ___ 6 0.3
Air entraining ____ ___ ___ ___
admixture
water Controlled at Nozzle. 180 7.7
Total 2213 100 2321 100
5.0 Advantages of SFRS over wire mesh reinforced Exhibit 1: Steel fibres
shotcrete
The following advantages are attributed to Steel fibre
reinforced shotcrete in comparison to the steel wire mesh
installation
5.1 Faster means of support: Immediately after excavation of

tunnels in hard or softer strata, SFRS provides the quickest
means of reinforced ductile rock support in comparison to the
wire mesh which is time consuming.
5.2 Cheaper: SFRS is cheaper in comparison to the wire mesh

installation and shotcreting.
5.3 Homogeneous: SFRS applied over surface is more

homogeneous ,ductile and presents a uniform structure than
shotcrete applied over wiremesh owing to which there is a
tendency of voids left behind the wire mesh.
5.4 Safer : SFRS application immediately after excavation

supports the unsupported rock starta and thus provides a more
safer and viable means of rock support in comparison to the
wire mesh application and then shotcreting which is time
consuming.
5.5 Green solution: SFRS application as immediate support

reduces the cycle time for all operations and thus optimizes
the progress with appropriate utilization of resources.
5.6 Overbreak: Experience with the use of mesh (weld mesh,

etc.) has been unsatisfactory when there were over breaks in
the tunnel after blasting. In these cases, soon after the
weldmesh was spread between bolts and shotcrete, the mesh
started rebounding the shotcrete and it could not penetrate
inside the mesh and fill the gap between the mesh and the
overbreak. Unlike wire mesh. SFRS however can be evenly
applied to fill such gaps.
53
Solar/Wind Hybrid Power Plan
By
Sh. Nitin Verma
Power generation is a leading cause of air pollution. Coal is Railway is also constructing a VIP rest house at the Chenab
the worst offender, among various energy sources. The bridge site. The location of VIP rest house is on small hill top
energy choice we make during this pivotal moment will near to Chenab bridge site. The connected electrical load for
have huge consequence for our health, our climate, and our the rest hose will be approximately 50 KW. In order to
economy for decades to come. promote the green energy and to tap naturally available wind
Right now the world is moving towards a natural gas and solar energy, one 20 kW Hybrid (Solar + Wind) power
dominated electricity system, but over reliance on natural system as a stand-by power supply arrangement, is being
gas has significant risks and is not a long term solution to provided at this location.
our energy needs. Like coal, the natural gas is also a fossil 2. Wind and Solar Data at Chenab Bridge site:
fuel that generates substantial global warming emissions, The performance of hybrid system is highly dependent on the
and has other health, environmental & economic risks. environmental conditions. The wind data at Chenab bridge
There is a better and cleaner way to meet our energy needs. site, as collected from NASA’s website, indicates that the
Renewable energy resources like wind & solar power average wind speed at 10 mtr. height at this site is 4.5 m/s for
generate electricity with little or no pollution & global last one year.
warming and could reliably & affordably provide our The data of Anemometers, provided at this site to study and
energy needs. analyze the wind speed for the purpose of Design and
1. Introduction: construction of Chenab Bridge, indicates that the average
The alignment of USBRL project cuts across a annual wind speed of 4 years is 7.91 m/s. Also, the percentage
predominantly hilly region, rugged mountain terrain and of annual average wind velocity > 4 m/s, during last 4 years, is
the adverse geology. The project involves construction of 79%.
number of tunnels and Bridges. One such bridge is being
constructed over the Chenab River. Chenab Bridge is
located between Bakkal and Kauri in Reasi district of state
Jammu & Kashmir (J&K), India. The 1315 m long bridge
is being built at a height of 359 mtr. from river bed. Once
completed, it will be a tallest rail bridge in the world.
Chenab Bridge forms a massive steel arch, the first of its
kind in India. The bridge will include 17 spans, as well as
469 mtr. main arch span across the Chenab river and via
ducts on either side
Hence, to get the best use of natural resource (wind) available

at Chenab bridge site, 2 Aero generators of 5 KW capacity
each, are being provided in the VIP Rest House. As per the
power curve of this aero generator, the minimum cut in speed
required for generation is 3.5 m/s. The percentage of working
hours for Aero generator are expected from 67% to 88%
(average of 4 years is 79%).
Similarly, Hourly solar radiation data for one year was
collected from NASA’s website. The average annual solar
Sh. NITIN VERMA radiation is 5.13 kWh/m2/day at Chenab Bridge site. Hence,
Dy.CEE Northern Railway solar PV modules of 10 KWp capacity are being included in
Jammu the hybrid system
54
The details of Hybrid power system:
Capacity of Hybrid 2 Nos. x 5 KW wind

system generator + 10 KW Solar
Photo Voltaic cell system.
Total 20 kW Hybrid system.
Estimated energy 35 KWH per day
generation from
Solar PV modules.
Estimated energy 35 KWH per day
generation from
Aero generators.
Total estimated 70 KWH per day
energy generation
System voltage 96 V
Batteryl capacity 96V/840 Ah
Life of hybrid power 20 years
plant
Approximate Total Rs.46,30,000/-
cost of the Hybrid
system (excluding,
transportation,
excise/taxes/duties)
NOTE: Being a hybrid system, battery size is
optimized so that ON line usage of generated power
will avoid discharge of battery.
Conclusion:
3. Benefits of Wind + Solar Hybrid system: Provision of Hybrid system is an initiative towards harnessing
the naturally available green and clean energy. This is an
a) Renewable energy is clean, affordable, domestic and effectively initiative in line with the policy of Govt. of India. Jammu &
infinite. It produces no emissions and results in cleaner air and water Kashmir is considered as heaven on earth. The state is rich in
for all. Renewable power generates revenue for local communities. diversity of flora & fauna and plant life. It should be the
Revenue from solar and wind farms helps stimulate local endeavor of every citizen to protect the natural beauty and rich
economies. bio-diversity of the state. For day to day energy needs,
b) Ministry for New and Renewable Energy is extending Central generation of electricity through fossil fuel will pollute the
Financial Assistance to encourage using renewable energy. For state and may damage rich bio-diversity. The initiative of
demonstration projects in North-East, Jammu & Kashmir states the provision of Hybrid system will be a baby step towards
Central financial assistance is being extended by MNRE. harnessing green & clean energy and will help to reduce the
c) 24 Hrs. power back-up can be ensured. pollution in the state.
d) In monsoon, when generation of solar PV is very less, wind
power is at its peak and covers the generation for solar PV and in
summer vice a versa.
4. Salient features of Hybrid system:

a) Proven and reliable Wind turbine technology.
b) Direct drive, permanent magnet aero generators.
c) Automatic furling safety system with passive aligned tail vane.
d) No gear box in wind turbines, hence no maintenance.
e) Due to reduced maintenance, less life cycle cost.
f) Low cut in wind speed hence generation starts even when wind
speed is low. In no wind condition, system works on solar energy.
g) No skilled manpower required to maintain the system. Annual
maintenance solutions can be provided, if required,
h) Easy to install, robust, reliable and user friendly.
i) Auto change over between renewable system and grid supply
possible.
5. System Design Details:

The system shall be of Wind + Solar Hybrid power system
consisting of aero generators and solar photovoltaic cells. Average
power generation from 20 KW hybrid systems, at available wind
speed and solar radiation, is expected to be approximately 70 KWH
per day.
55
Indian Railways Vision 2030: Vision for Solar Energy the Way Forward
By
Sh. R.K. Chaudhary
1.0 Inception of the Project: Accordingly, a decision was taken on 18/07/14 in a
meeting held in chamber of Chairman, Rly. Board, to
Idea of installing Solar Power Plant on roof top of Katra install 1 MW Solar Power Plant at Shri Mata Vaishno
Railway Station Building was conceived by Sh. Surinder Devi Katra Railway Station within a very tight target of
Kaul, CAO/USBRL in the month of Jan 2013 and March 2015 as committed by Chairman, Railway Board
accordingly a tender for 80 KW Solar Power Plant was to Prime Minister.
invited based on the preliminary studies by M/s Plaza
Enerpack Pvt Ltd., New Delhi for technical feasibility on The foundation stone for 1 MW Solar Power Plant at
roof top of station building. Due to some technical Katra was laid by Sh. Arunendra Kumar, the then
problem, the tender opened on 18/06/2013 was Chairman Railway Board on Oct 28’2014, in presence of
discharged and further studies by M/s Gansun Global Sh. A.K Jain Managing Director, REIL.
Solutions India Pvt. Ltd. Bangalore, M/s Solar Energy
Corporation of India, New Delhi, M/s Tata Power Solar
Systems Limited were undertaken for potential for
generation of Solar Power on platform shelters and roof
top of station building and it was assessed as 2 MW
capacity.
2.0 Funding of the Project: The construction of solar

power plant was not a sanctioned work and it was a big
question how the project would be funded. To handle
this issue following actions were taken
A) Soon after the inception of the project, the possibility
Since it was planned to install a grid connected solar of funding of the project was explored. There were
power plant which do not have battery back-up for three options (I) funding through Public-Private
utilisation of power during the nights, capacity of solar Partnership (PPP) Model (II) funding from USBRL
Project (National Project) and (III) Submit the
power plant of 1 MW was assessed taking into account
proposal to Railway board to include in the Works
the diversity factor of 1/3rd of total connected load of 3.3 Programme Items. The inclusion in the Works
MW. While these studies were in progress, during Programme Items was going to take a very long time
and completion of the project would have taken at
least 2-3 years. The study of Public-Private
Partnership Model revealed that execution of work
under this model was not economically viable and
favorable for railways as capital investors could have
drawn the benefit for 25 years i.e., the entire life of
solar power plant as against the direct investment
model in which pay-back period is 8.5 years and after
Sh. R.K.Chaudhary payback period, energy generated is free for balance
Chief Electrical Engineer, period. Thus with finance concurrence, the Direct
USBRL Project. Investment Model for funding from USBRL Project was
Northern Railway, approved by CAO/USBRL.
56
Though, the process of studying various models was time iii) Submission of Performance Bank Guarantee was
consuming, it was done on war-footing and decision was taken delayed by the firm, though it was a pre-requisite for
within 14 days and tender was invited on 01/08/2014 after signing of the agreement but the agreement was signed
initiating the process on 18/07/14. without waiting for the Performance Bank Guarantee.
iv) Drawings submitted by the firm were personally taken
to concerned officers & to site so as to examine,
modifications done, sitting together with contractor’s
designer and drawings were personally taken at officer
levels for signature of officers of construction and
divisional level at various stations like Jammu, Katra,
Udhampur and Ferozpur
v) The signing of drawings were expedited in shortest
possible time between officers stationed at various
stations i.e., Jammu, Udhampur, Katra and Ferozpur
with close coordination at every level and monitoring at
Senior Level.
vi) In lieu of proto-type inspection by RDSO, independent
test reports of type test of solar module from
B) Special conditions of tender with warranty and independent laboratory of national repute were
performance clauses in association with FA&CAO was accepted. This reduced a long time for proto-type
designed properly as to protect the interest of Railways for approval which could have been taken by RDSO.
25years (life of plant).
C) The tender was opened on 16/09/14 and Tender Committee vii) For key items, RITES inspection was involved. It was
Recommendations accepted on 5/10/14 (order placed changed for some items by accepting the factory type
within 22 days after opening of the tender) as against the test reports and carrying out the inspections by
validity of 3 month of tender offer and letter of intent/letter consignee and MNRE’s approved agency jointly to
of acceptance issued on 07-10-14. curtail the delay on account of RITES Inspection as
The completion period was purposely kept very tight i.e., 4 envisaged and actually experienced in case of cables.
months from date of issuance of LOI/LOA as against the realistic viii) For expediting the supply of various materials, the team
assessment of 8 months for execution as per discussions held with of officers/supervisors were deputed to the
M/s BHEL, M/S CEL and M/s SECI so that the target given to manufacturing units of sub-vendors of main contractor.
PMO by Railway board is adhered to even after slippage of These officers/supervisors camped at manufacturer’s
completion period by 2-3 month. Finally strategy worked and the work-shop and got the material manufactured/inspected
plant was commissioned on 27/3/15 and target given to PMO was and dispatched before leaving the manufacturer’s work
achieved. shop. This could ensure timely delivery.
The cost of the project shall be included in the final ix) Close monitoring by CAO/USBRL was done on day to
revised/completion estimate of Udhampur-Katra section. Thus the day basis and even whenever required necessary
project was funded by USBRL Project funds. approvals and assistance was provided to project team
3.0 Target of the Project: As per the commitment of x) Close coordination was maintained between electrical,
Railway Board to PMO, the project was to be commissioned by engineering, finance, operating and commercial
31st March 2015 and there was a very tight schedule for framing departments of Railway at Katra Railway Station for
leading the material to site, on roof of station building
the proposal, getting finance vetting, preparation of technical
and platform shelters under the strict supervision of
specifications & tender document, inviting and finalisation of Railway officials.
tender and then executing the work which was a process of more
xi) Excavation work for earthing pits on granite stone of
than a year but curtailed to six months. In fact CRB himself was
platforms and foundation work on roof of station
involved in decision making process and monitoring the progress. building without digging was done in strict supervision
of engineering department in addition to electrical
4.0 Steps taken to curtail the time length supervision. Big boulders of rock were found on
After awarding of work, following steps were taken to curtail the platforms while digging the pits for earth pipes, against
normal process of time in Railway Working for various activities the expectations of normal earth. This aggravated the
at every stage of execution. problem of earthing at platforms.
i) Work awarded in 22 days from the date of opening of xii) The erection activities were spread over two shifts
tender as Tender Committee was asked to work starting from morning to mid-night. Even during the
dedicatedly and credentials got verified by sending rains, foundation work was casted by putting-up
officials all over India tarpals/tents so that the work does not get halted.
ii) Agreement was prepared and send to firm for their perusal
instead of waiting for the firm’s representative to come and
see the draft agreement in Dy CEE’s office at Jammu.
57
3). Clearance at Lakhanpur Border is a big hurdle in Jammu &
Kashmir State. Despite, liasoning tied-up with Sales Tax
Authorities in advance, consignments were not cleared timely
from Lakhanpur border. This was over-come by liasoning at
higher-level and submission of forms in advance of reaching
consignment at border. All papers/forms required by Sales
Tax Authorities were given in advance.
4). Galvanized structure on roof of station building was designed
to make it rust free and light weight. It was experienced that
the fabrication of components done for galvanized structure
were not matching for bolting. Lot of holes were made by gas
drilling to match the component which was a time consuming
process besides compromising the quality of holes. These gas
cutter holes were painted with cold galvanizing paint to
protect against rusting.
5). One truck carrying 2500 PV Modules and 14 Nos inverters got
over-turned after clearing the Lakhanpur border as the driver
was drunk. Keeping in view the urgency of the material at site,
without waiting for firm’s representatives, Railway Officers
and Supervisors were deputed to site of accident to manage
the transportation of the material from over-turned truck to
other truck and send the material to Katra without losing a
long time in the process of registering FIR and insurance
formalities.
iii) Various activities of erection i.e, erection of modules

on platform shelters, cable laying, earthing etc
started simultaneously in parallel. The team of
officers of Dy CEE/C/Banihal was inducted to
strengthen the coordination & supervision of the
work so as to maintain round the clock supervision.
Officers/supervisors were put for supervision of each
activity independently and overlapping of
instructions was avoided.
iv) Close liaison with Power Development Department
of J&K Govt was maintained for arranging the shut
down for the erection of Current Transformer and &
Potential Transformer and bi-directional energy
meter and also for obtaining approval of Electrical
Inspector to Government timely.
5.0 Hurdles/Irritants experienced:
1). Initially, it was decided that platform shelter and station
building will be taken-over back by construction
organisation from Ferozpur Division so as to minimise the
interference of division in drawing approval and
obstruction during the execution stage. However, division
did not hand-over these assets to construction organisation
as a result approval of drawings involved branch officers
of Ferozpur Division which prolonged the time of drawing
approvals due to complying with the requirement repeated
observations of Ferozpur Division. 6). During the commissioning of the inverters, it was found that 2
inverters were found defective due to damage in the accident
2). The work was awarded to M/s REIL, Jaipur (Govt PSU). and SCADA cable was not timely supplied due to which the
The PSU firm did not rise to the occasion as procurement / commissioning was got delayed. 3 Nos of inverters were got
tendering process for selecting the suppliers and sub- air-lifted from Bangalore to curtail the time for commissioning
contractors was to be followed by them which were time of the systems, CAT 6 cable was procured from Jammu and
plant was commissioned timely.
consuming and resulting in delays.
58
7). At one point of time, While working day and night with full 7.0 Recommendations for the future projects:
dedication for achieving target , which was approaching fast,
doubts developed in the minds of top management, whether i. The deviation taken to RDSO’s specifications should be
target would be achieved or not. With untiring support of incorporated in the RDSO Specification for Solar Power
CAO/USBRL, we consolidated our team efforts and target Plant based on the experience of the project and RDSO
was achieved.
Specifications
6.0 Learning from the execution of the project:
ii. Specifications should be revised for higher capacity as
i. Solar Power Plant on station platform shelters and roof top
of station building of such higher capacity i.e., 1 Mega Watt existing specification is only up to 500 kW capacity grid
was executed for the first time on Indian Railways which connected plant and it is not meant for platform shelters
may become a model for future projects of this nature by (including maintenance/walk ways). For the project
Indian Railways under Railway Solar Mission/National identified for the Solar Power Plant on Indian Railways,
Solar Mission Programme. the availability of subsidy from MNRE (Ministry of New
ii. Strategy adopted for curtailing the time in various activities Renewable Energy) in various states may be explored and
mentioned above may be used in future projects and can be used. For funding, various options may be explored and
properly built in the execution strategy itself. Model adopted by DMRC in Delhi may be tried out in
iii. The project should be closely monitored and supported at Railways.
higher levels by way of timely decision and other logistic
supports which will help for timely execution of the works. iii. Process of Power Purchase Agreement between State
Electricity Boards and Railways should be initiated in
iv. Way & means of funding of project may be explored by
advance before setting-up of the power plant to get the
deviating from the conventional thinking of Works
Programme Proposals. benefits of the power generated by the Solar Power Plant
and surplus energy fed to State Grid
v. For execution of the work, it was learnt that energy
generated by the Solar Power Plant is surplus to the iv. The tariff policy for Power Purchase Agreement with
Railway’s present requirement during the day time and that
State Electricity Boards for grid connected systems
surplus energy is fed to the Grid of Power Development
Department/J&K Govt at 33 KV system but presently no should be decided by Zonal Railways/ Railway Board,
credit for this energy is received by Railway. The matter has Railways being a deemed licensee.
been taken up with State Govt for signing of the Power
Purchase Agreement (PPA) between PDD and Railway for v. The consultancy contract should be awarded for
the surplus solar energy generated by Solar Power Plant at preparation of design, drawing, specifications and tender
Katra and fed to the PDD Grid. document before going for execution of contract for larger
vi. Since the technical specification was framed based on 2 capacity plants.
MW Solar Power Plant at RCF Raibareilly which is ground
mounted, walk ways required for maintenance of solar vi. People are fragile like a glass and they need to be handled
modules on platform shelter were left out. This is being softly with care. Motivational approach need to be applied
done separately now. for sincere & dedicated team for achieving the better
vii. The feasibility studies were done free of cost from various results.
agency which perhaps were not very detailed and no input
for technical specification was available. Many issues crop-
up during execution; therefore consultancy contract should
have been done.
viii. Moral support, guidance and quick decision making
provided by CAO was appreciable and finally it was rolled- Disclaimer: The views of author in this article are personal
out into results. and intent not to hurt feeling of any reader in any way.
59
Implication of Himalayan Geology in TBM working
By
Sh. B.B.S Tomar & Sh. Amit Kumar
1. Introduction :- A review of tunneling methods shows that the
conventional drill-&-blast method remains practically the
India has an immense hydropower potential to the dominant practice for excavation of tunnels in India. The
tune of 84,000 MW, a major chunk of which is in tunneling rates achieved using the conventional method of
Himalayas. The slower rate of development of excavation vary from 7.5 m to 81.0 m on monthly average
hydropower for last many decades has resulted in the basis depending upon the size of tunnel , geology
total share of hydro power of the total generating encountered etc which is comparably much lower than the
capacity to only 25%. The surge in power demand in rates achieved otherwise using mechanized tunnelling
the country has necessitated putting an increased elsewhere. Attempts have been made in the past on some
thrust in development of hydroelectric projects in projects to use Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) with
India. Government of India has launched a hydro success in some and failure in others.
electric 50,000 MW initiative to enhance a hydro
generation and bring it to the desired ideal share of 3. Why Himalayan Geology is Special
40% of the generating capacity. The pace of Challenge for TBM Working :-
tunneling work, which forms a major component of
hydroelectric development, has a notable bearing on
the pace of the implementation of the project. From the tunnelling perspective, the Himalayas arguably
Barring few, most of India's underground pose the most challenging ground conditions almost
hydropower projects had faced and are still facing anywhere in the world. One of the prime reasons for this is
time and cost overruns. that they are the youngest of the mountain chains. They
are demonstrably rising faster than anywhere else. Their
composition is also younger generally, and in consequence
2. Tunnelling Technology :-
less well consolidated than all of the other older fold belts.
This is consistent with the fact that they constitute one of
Following are the methods of tunnelling.
the most active of the plate margin zones, rising at a rate
(i) Conventional Method
that is almost double that of the Andes, which, in turn is
• Drilling and Blasting Method
almost three times that of the Alps. Almost nowhere else,
• New Austrian Tunneling Methodology
on a world scale, except around the Pacific Ring of Fire, is
(NATM)
even on the same active “stress” scale. As insitu stress
• Drainage, Reinforcement, Excavation,
levels are to a large extent geologic age dependent the
Support Solution (DRESS)
younger the mountain belts the more imbalanced is the
(ii) Mechanized Method stress state. Even though impressively rugged, the
Canadian Rockies and West Coast Ranges of North
• Road Headers America, the Urals of Central Russia, or the coastal ranges
of Norway are largely benign from a stress imbalance
• Tunnel Boring Machines (TBM) perspective. As a result, stress conditions (magnitude and
variation) can potentially be more extreme and adverse on
a Himalayan tunnelling project than even has been
encountered in some of the worst sub-mountain tunnel
drives (including the Olmos and Yacambu Tunnels of
Peru and Colombia respectively, which are landmark
projects from the bursting and squeezing perspective). On
a ranking scale, these Andean tunnels traversed much
worse ground conditions and arguably met greater
geotechnical challenges than were encountered anywhere
Sh. B.B.S Tomar along the 50+ km length of the Lötchberg and Alp Base
Chief Engineer Northern Railway deep tunnel drives, echoing the fact that the level of active
USBRL Project. out-of-balance deviatoric stress state experienced by these
tunnels is likely mountain range dependent.
Sh. AMIT KUMAR
Dy.CE Chenab Northern Railway
USBRL Project.
60
One can thus postulate a tunnelling difficulty ranking scale for Hard rock machine designs are however moving forward
the mountain chains of the world, viz., – #1 the Himalayas, to encompass full umbrella forepoling and soft rock
arguably the most difficult and challenging, through #2 the machine pre-grouting and ground treatment philosophies
Andes and #3 the Alps, through to #4 the least difficult of the in an attempt to combat some of these problems by
main chains, the Rockies and the Western Cordillera, with #5, making the machines sufficiently robust and at the same
6, 7 corresponding to older and older mountain cores – with the time flexible enough to be capable of safely and
Archean Canadian and Scandinavian, Algonquin and successfully excavating through extremely bad ground. In
Adinondak age mountain belts being almost totally benign the nut shell we can understand that the Himalayan
stress-wise. This is not to say that there aren’t adverse faults geology is quite varying with folds and large number of
and challenging zones of poor ground in even these old small and big faults, thrusts, shear-zones. Moreover, the
mountain range areas. The dominant difference relates to stress rocks of Shiwaliks and Lesser Himalayas are, jointed,
state. Based on “active” stress state alone, therefore, similar sheared, fragile and weak. These together make
length deep tunnel excavations under the Himalayas likely will Himalayan rocks a difficult tunneling media. The weak
pose significantly more challenges than an equal length, equal and jointed masses of Himalayas which constitute one
cover drive almost anywhere else in the world. These third of land mass in India pose a major challenge to
difficulties of tunnelling at depth through high mountainous project planners. Problems of roof wedges, rock fall from
terrain pose major challenges not just for tunnel boring machine crown, squeezing rock, water ingress are predominant in
(TBM) drivages but also for application of traditional drill and Himalayas which make it difficult proposition and has
blast (D&B) and NATM methods. Dealing with adverse resulted in slow progress of work. In view of these factors,
geology at any depth can be problematic and can lead to the TBM could not gain a wider acceptance in the country
significant tunnelling delays if not adequately foreseen; but due to complexities involved in geological conditions
geological problem conditions, which might be tractable at prevalent in the country, especially in Himalayas. The
shallow depth, with either TBM’s or D&B approaches, when TBM which has now evolved and provide an effective
encountered at significant depth (>1000m) can prove disastrous solution towards faster tunneling in various media world
depending on stress state, rock competence and prevailing over. Although the initial experience was not encouraging,
groundwater inflows. Mitigating delay problems associated all efforts are on to make it a successful venture in India.
with exceptionally bad ground at depth requires considerable With the advent of advanced technology, the TBMs can
foresight and advanced planning. The more challenging the now be used for wide variety of rocks and geological
ground, the greater the pre-planning that is required prior to conditions. More and more projects in India are switching
tunnelling. This challenge is not just one of tackling the adverse to TBM technique over conventional technique. The
ground condition, by modifying the excavation and support subsequent paras discuss the experience of TBM in India
processes in order to deal with the specific problem zone, stress in some important water resources projects and its
state and groundwater conditions, it is also often about logistics, prospects and challenges.
as all too often for deep tunnels in mountainous regions the
problem geologic zones are at significant distance from the 4. Experience of working with TBM in
nearest portal, and at such significant depth that surface pre-
treatment is generally impractical.Traversing faulted and Dulhasti Hydroelectric Power Project
disturbed ground at significant depth requires that tunnelling (J&K) :-
procedures be able to cope with a huge range of difficult
geological conditions. Investigating, evaluating and assessing
anticipated geology ahead of tunnelling, and dealing with Dulhasti hydroelectric project, the first major
encountered difficult ground conditions requires that better hydroelectric venture using TBM, had been
understanding be gained of the interaction between complex contemplated as a run-of-the-river scheme over the
geology and stress conditions when excavating at significant Chandra river, a tributary of the Chenab. The project in
depths. Extremes of ground conditions present major contrasts Kishtwar district has been constructed by the National
to tunnelling, so much so that they often demand use of flexible
Hydroelectric Projects Corp (NHPC), a Government of
rock engineering solutions in order for the tunnel to progress.
The fact that within the Himalayas, conditions can be expected India undertaking and is located at about 200 km
to be as bad as has ever been encountered elsewhere means that northeast of the state's winter capital Jammu. The main
there has to be the ability while tunnelling to allow changes to features of the project include a 65 m high, 186 m long
be made of driving method and support approaches. This need concrete gravity dam near Dul village, a 10.6 km-long
to adopt flexible solutions is often seen as being at variance and 7.46 / 7.7 m diameter headrace tunnel, a “Dufor-
with the constraints imposed by the rigidity of design elements type” desilting basin with 240 metre of length, a 90-
incorporated into the fabrication of a typical TBM. As a result,
metre-high surge shaft, a 311.6 metre long pressure
traditionally there has been a reluctance to use machines in
these conditions, mainly due to the perceived extremely adverse shaft, an underground powerhouse near Hasti village
consequences of entrapping or damaging the TBM. In some accommodating three Francis turbines of 130 MW each
part this is due to the perception that there is more difficulty utilizing 235 m of gross head. The project is designed to
dealing with adverse ground conditions in the confined working generate 1928 MW annually in a dependable year. The
area of a TBM, in comparison to dealing with the same problem project lies within lesser Himalayan zone and is
in the larger working space of a D&B/NATM heading. characterized by a unique plateau like feature with
schist/ gneiss on western side and quartzite/phyllite on
eastern side.
61
Kishtwar Regional fault divides the plateau into two
Interception of these zone with tunnel caused sudden ingress
lithological units. The power house and part of
of water with sediments/pebbles/gravels and boulders ranging
downstream HRT lie within schist / gneiss formation
from 0.5 mm to 1000 mm leading to cavity formation and
whereas the dam complex and upstream HRT rest in
deposition of muck near mouth of cavity.This was tackled by
quartzite/phyllite sequence. The main interesting
filling the cavity with concrete by concrete pumps pressure
geomorphic feature of the project is fossil valley area. The
grouting and umbrella forepoling. Steel ribs at the spacing of
detailed investigation carried out by NHPC has revealed
1000 mm c/c had also been provided. This has resulted in
that the fossil valley is filled up with Lacustrine deposits
severe time overrun.
comprising of sand, silt, clay and pebbles. Originally, the
HRT was conceived as 9.6 km long straight HRT. In
2. The TBM had the facility of drilling advance probe holes of 40
absence of suitable intermediate adit location, the
m length over crown portion of the tunnel. However, blow out
excavation of HRT had to be planned from two faces.
at three closely spaced locations at invert sprang a surprise.
During the review in the construction phase, the 300-500
The blowouts carried slushy discharge of 700 litre per second
m length of this HRT was seen to be passing through
in the beginning and further increasing to 1100 litre per
fossil valley area. It was apprehended that the geological
second. This was later stabilized to 50-70 litre per second. The
surprises coupled with lack of advanced techniques could
water also carried and deposited about 2500 cum – 3000 cum
lead to many avoidable problems. Hence, an alternative
of muck comprising of sand, silt and pebbles. The blowout
layout of length 10.6 km with a loop to avoid fossil valley
caused extensive damages with four motors and loco buried in
area with siphon type depression to provide proper rock
the muck. The presence of full faced TBM left little scope for
cover and adoption of varying invert slopes was chosen.
further investigations. No attempt had been made to choke the
Due to non availability of a feasible site for an
crater as this would have lead to building up pressure. The
intermediate adit, it was decided to bore 6.75 km upstream
crater had been filled with boulder and graded material with
portion of tunnel using TBM with the finished size as 7.7
wire mesh to prevent movement of material while the water
m circular and remaining portion using DBM with the
had been allowed to free flow. Extensive pumping
finished size as 7.46 m horse shoe shaped.
arrangement had been made. This had led to loss of around 4
The TBM used was hard rock TBM manufactured by M/S months.
Robbins of 270- series which had the ability to bore into
hard rock and fractured zones too. The 8.33 m diameter 3. Against the ideal consumption of 1 cutter/m, the consumption
machine had 59 disc cutters with max cutterhead thrust of of cutters during excavation was about 6 cutters/m which was
13100 kN. The precast segments were laid in the invert brought down to 2 cutters/m when done by NHPC or JSA JV.
along with the progress of excavation. The segments were
designed to form a trench for dewatering at center of the 4. The progress envisaged was 15 m/day or 400 m/ month
invert. The machine comprised of rockbolting system, whereas the actual progress achieved by French had been an
wire mesh installer, shotcreting system and steel rib average of 86 m/month and a maximum of 156 m/month. The
erector. The rockbolting done mainly comprised of 3 m maximum progress achieved by NHPC was 66 m/month. In
long, 20 mm diameter with mechanical expansion shells. comparison the progress by DBM had been 133 m/month with
The TBM had the facility of probe hole drill system 50 average of 73 m/month.
mm diameter holes about 50 m ahead of the face.
Overall, this experience in Himalayan geology was not
Extensive geo investigations including surface mapping of
encouraging. The TBM could bore only 2.86 km and finally
rock exposures, aerial photo, satellite imageries,
abandoned giving preference to conventional methods. The
exploratory drift had been carried out to ensure smooth
project is now commissioned and the commercial production
functioning of TBM. But the unpredictable Himalayan
started in April 2008.
geology resulted in severe geological conditions to be
encountered in many reaches. As a result, the TBM
5. Experience of working with TBM in Parbati
excavation ran into many problems resulting in time and
Hydroelectric Power Project Stage-II (HP) :-
cost overrun.
The major problems encountered were: The Parbati hydroelectric project is located in Himachal
Pradesh (India). It is a cascade scheme, planned to be
1. Ingress of water and cavity formation due to aquifer effect. developed in three stages with an aggregate generating
This was predicted earlier as the tunnel alignment was capacity of 2070 MW. Stage-I of the Parbati hydropower
expected to pass through alternating sequence of jointed project that envisaged capacity of 750 MW was abandoned in
quartzite and phyllite. The alternating sequence of jointed
2001 due to environment-related concerns.
quartzite being good receptor of sub surface water and
phyllite forming the impervious barrier was found to be
conducive of artisan condition.
62
Stage II of this scheme is a run-of-river scheme comprising thrust is 18550 kN and considered suitable for hard rock
an 85 m-high 113 m-long concrete gravity dam near Village machine. Maximum total gripping force is 55600 kN
Pulga in Parbati valley. The reservoir will have a live storage carried over 4 gripper pads. The machine is equipped with
capacity of 3.09 million m3, sufficient for four hours full ring-mounted probe drilling equipment, which can cover
load peaking every day even during lean flow period. A 360 degrees of tunnel. The probe drills with the maximum
discharge of 116 cumec from Parbati River and Tosh stream probing length of 120 m are also intended for use in the
is diverted through a 6 m diameter 31.5 km-long headrace
installation of drain holes and for cover grouting.TBM had
tunnel on the left bank of Parbati to an underground
‘restricted orifice’ surge shaft 17 m in diameter that will feed arrangement of rock bolting, wet & dry shotcreting and ring
two steel lined pressure shafts each of 3.5m diameter having beam erector for erection of heavy steel arches. The
length of 1542 m and inclined at 30° to the horizontal. A machine was also equipped with high performance injection
gross head of 862 m so formed is utilized to generate 800 grouting plant. In the event of unexpected geological
MW of power through 4 generating units of 200 MW each in conditions, drilling into rock ahead of face through
the surface powerhouse is located on the right bank of the cutterhead would be possible in upper arc. After Launching
Sainj river near Suind village, 200 m downstream of the
the refurbished Jarva TBM in the end of May 2004, the
confluence of the Jiwa Nala and Sainj rivers. Short tailrace
channels will discharge the water from the powerhouse to contractor Himachal Joint Venture (HJV) faced problems
Sainj river. The project area lies in a high mountainous which commonly occur for an initial phase of a TBM drive
region in the remote part of Himachal Pradesh and is prone to such as repairs and replacements of electrical components
landslides and cloud bursts. as well as mechanical modifications, adjustments and
repairs. Quite unusually, the frontseals of the bearing was
Excavation in head race tunnel leaking from the very beginning and had to be replaced
The 31.5 km long HRT of this project is the longest tunnel in finally. A lot of electrical troubleshooting delayed
any hydropower project in the country and one of the longest significantly the progress in July 2004. The initial reach of
in the world. The excavation of this tunnel was very critical the tunnel boring comprised of gneiss with schist bands and
for the timely execution of this project. The HRT had been minor quartz lenses which could be supported by rock bolts
planned to be excavated through six adits. In absence of the and wire mesh. The rock formation then changed to
possibility of an intermediate adit in the reach between adit 1 schistose gneiss with bands of chlorite schist, sometimes
and adit 2, it has been decided to excavate the HRT by the weak and highly jointed. A wedge failure occurred at ch
conventional DBM for a length of 22.476 km with finished 748 m due to presence of four primary joint set and fine
diameter of 6.0 m and balance 9.05 km of circular shape by random joints and a large block of 6.0 m x 2.5 m separated
the open type hard Rock TBM. The inaccessible terrain had from the crown. The rock bolter could not access the cavity
restricted the amount of investigations in comparison to size and tight joint sets rendered pre grouting impossible. The
of the project. Investigations revealed that the headrace probe holes drilling equipment were also incapacitated due
tunnel will broadly pass through seven lithological units of to installation of ring beam. To tackle this problem, the ring
two geological formations, separated by a regional thrust beam had to be removed and the rock was supported with
known as Jutogh (Kullu) Thrust. The rock encountered was channels and girders. The cavity was backfilled with
expected to be granite/gneissose granite, quartzite, biotitic concrete. The treatment caused a loss of nearly three weeks.
schist with subordinate schistose quartzite. The incumbent With this experience, modifications had been made in TBM
cover had been ascertained to be 400 m to 1200 m. Another to provide extension drilling system to access the cavities
important feature of the area is the high angle reverse fault and arrangement of manual shotcreting just behind the
towards the end of HRT near surge shaft, the zone of which cutterhead. The next 250 m reach was marked with
extending to 50-100m thickness. rock/wedge failure forming cavities up to 5m above the
crown and required a lot of concrete backfilling. The
The TBM designed for HRT had been refurbished Robbins excavation rate dropped significantly. This condition soon
TBM MK 27 of 6.8 m diameter. The cutter head is a closed, improved and best weekly rate with 90 m could be
backloading type, with recessed cutters and equipped with achieved. The failure on several gripper cylinders in end of
low profile muck buckets and replaceable scrapers. The 2004 caused approximately 8 weeks of downtime and
installed cutterhead capacity is 3150 kW and stroke length is necessitated NHPC to call the Robbins Company for
2.050 m. The machine is equipped with 49 x 432 mm support. The Robbins Company took over the operation of
diameter cutters with recommended maximum operating load the remaining TBM drive of headrace tunnel. The increased
per cutter as 267 kN. Nominal cutter spacing is 65 mm and excavation rate of best of 250 m/month and 24 m/day could
maximum cutterhead rotation speed is 5.77 rpm. Maximum be achieved. The unfavorable rock conditions in gneiss and
machine quartz like rock bursts and large over break were
encountered soon after requiring rock support using steel
ribs, fore poling, steel channel lagging and back filling with
shotcrete. As the work progressed the rock conditions got
even worse, as several mica schist bands were crossed.
63
These adverse geological conditions resulted in numerous
severe over breaks requiring for closely spaced (0.4 m c/c)
steel ribbing, lagging, fore poling and shotcrete application
immediate behind the cutter head. Significant convergence of
tunnel walls was observed as well, requiring additional rock
support behind the grippers. These measures resulted in
substantial decrease of progress rates. The use of TBM’s made
the work very difficult, cumbersome & expensive.
6. Conclusion:-
Tunnels are important elements of Infrastructural projects such
as Hydro Power, Transportation, water supply & sewerage
system etc. Its construction involves many complexities in
terms of different shapes, soil/rock conditions, alignments etc.
Himalaya is young mountain with complex geology and the
tunnelling activity in various projects in Himalayas are
suffered by diverse geological problems such as difficult 10
terrain conditions, thrust zones, shear zones, folded rock
sequence, in-situ stresses, rock cover, ingress of water,
geothermal gradient, ingress of gases, high level of seismicity
etc. All these challenges may result in increased cost and
extended completion period. Compared with the great
advances made in methodology for tunnelling all around the
globe, it is obvious that we in India have still a long way to go
to catch up with modern tunnel construction technologies. So
construction of Tunnels in Himalayan region using TBM is a
long way to go for success.
64
Design and Proof Checking of Steel Mega Bridges – Part 1
By
R.K. Singh
1.0 Introduction - Bridge No.43: Total Length of Bridge –
777.0m,
Northern Railway is constucting Udhampur – Srinagar Continuous deck length of Viaduct – 35.0 +
–Baramula Rail link project in the stae of Jammu & 53.0 + 10 x 64.0 + 49.0m
Kashmir. The construction work of Udhampur to Katra Steel Deck Width – 11.70m wide composite
section and Baramulla to Banihal section has been deck with 0.9m wide
completed and trains are also moving in both sections. walkway on either side, supported on main
The construction work at various sections between girder system
Katra to Banihal are under progress. Under this section,
four mega special steel bridges are under design, proof The reason for adopting continuous steel deck
checking and construction. The bridges are namely as superstructure for above 4 bridges are due to site
Anji Bridge, Bridge No. 39, Bridge No. 43 & Chenab requirements & adopting the latest technology and
Bridge. All four bridges are having continuous span. the popularity of steel bridges in the modern era
Chenab & Anji Bridge have continuous steel deck span because of its various advantages. Structural steels
over arch and in viaduct portion whereas Bridge No. 39 have high strength, ductility and strength to weight
& 43 are having continous steel plate Gider with ratio. Thus it has become the first choice for long
composite concrete deck. The detail length & width of span bridges as steel due to more efficient and
continuous deck span of all four bridges are as follows: economical. Various optimization methods in
design has been attempted to achieve better
Chenab Bridge: Total Length of Bridge – 1315m, economic sections and therefore the evolution of
Continuous deck length of design & proof checking procedure of mega steel
Viaduct – 785m bridges is become essential. Designers have used
Continuous span length over various national & international codes like BS,
arch (S10 to S70) – 530m Euro & American code/specification provisions in
Deck Width – 13.50 & 17.00m addition to own country codes to achieve better
economy / optimum and better design.
Anji Bridge: Total Length of Bridge – 657m,
Continuous deck length of Viaduct – The detail contents of this paper shall be made /
240m published in 3 part of up coming USBRL Technical
Continuous span length over arch – News Magzine. The first part of paper contains
417m the design & proof checking of viaduct portion
Steel Deck Width – 13.50m (S70-S180) of Chenab Bridge:
Bridge No.39: Total Length of Bridge – 490.30m, 2.0 Finalisation of General Arrangement &
Continuous deck length of Viaduct Cross Section of Viaduct Portion of
– 53.15 + 6 x 64.0 + 53.15m Chenab Bridge (S70 –S180)
Composite Deck Width – 10.6m
wide composite deck with 5.485m A number of proposal based on preliminary design was
wide platform on either side, attempted for fixing the spans in viaduct portion (S70-
supported on independent girder S180). In first proposal 100m simply supported span was
system
proposed but it was finally made as continuous to reduce the
total weight of superstructure & horizontal forces in pier and
its foundations since the bridge was supposed to designed
for seismic zone V. The number of bearings and expansion
joints have been made minimum, which help in the
mantinanace, inspection efforts and improve the riding
quality. The span of continuous viaduct is finalised after
considering the bearing capacity of foundation and
economical cross section of superstructure which is having
Plate Girders in form of Main Girders (T Beams),
Secondary beams, cross beams, lattice structures and deck
plate resting on spherical bearings at top of pier cap
pedestal. Hollow rectangular concrete pier resting on open
and pile foundations have been adopted. The GAD of
Chenab bridge is shown below.
Sh. R.K. SINGH
Dy. Chief Engineer/Planning
65
Fig. 1 General Arrangement of Bridge
After finalisation of GAD based on geotechnical

investigation report & preliminary design, Design Basis Note
(DBN) has been prepared for the preparation of detailed
design & drawing of the bridge.
3.0 Superstructure
The superstructure is mainly continuous plate girder type and
the width of the superstructure was fixed based on the
minimum clearance required for the passage of railway
broad guage trains and site specific requirement. Sizes of the
element of superstructure were fixed from fabrication and
mantinance considerations, besides structural requirements
also. The arrangement of continuous viaduct span from S70-
S180 makes it most critical and challanging, as the alignment
being a combination of straight, transition curve and circular
curve along its longitudinal gradient in addition to this, the
orthotropic fully welded deck structure, comprising of two
monolithic deck structure. The span arrangemt for viaduct
(S70-S180) is proposed as continuous span of 40m + 9x50m
+ 40m with deck widh of 13.5m Typical elevation, layout Fig-3
and cross section of viauct portion are shown at Fig. 2,3 & 4.
Fig- 2
Fig-5
66
3.1 Analysis and Design Approach
After finalisation of General Arrangement Drawing,
Design Basis Notes (DBN) has been finalised with various
codal provision of IRS, IRC, BS & International Codes /
Specifications. Analysis and design of bridge element were
carried out on basis as mentioned in DBN.
a) Global Modelling
3.1.1 Modelling
The global model was formulated to examine global load

and deformation effects in the viaduct deck and its
bearings was indepndently by Design Consultant and
Proof Consultnt. A 3-D line model was created using
SuperSTRESS, LUSAS, RM TDV by Design Consultant
& NODLE, LUSAS by Proof Consultant. A single span
beam with full 3-D element stiffness properties was used
to represent the deck, and similarly for the piers. Bearing
were modelled by using element with structural releases Fig. 5, 6 & 7 View of Global Analysis Model
and modified section properties to represent the real life
free and constrained directions. Additional lateral nodels 3.1.2 Geometry
were added to the deck span to ensure an accurate
disribution of weight laterally, so that the mass moment Model geometry was extracted from the information
of inertia was correctly modelled in the dynamic analysis. given on General Arrangement drawings. The full plan
The global model was prepared by softwares as shown in and vertical alignment is also considered in the gloal
Fig. 5, 6 & 7. A full set of load cases was formulated and modelling.
analysed as per the DBN. Multimodel analysis was
performed to yield the seismic affects and all load cases 3.1.3 Section Properties
enveloped to give maximised and coincident load effects.
Section properties were calculated from the dimensions
shown on the drawings. Gross section properties were
used for the modelling in accordance with the
recommendations in BS:5400.
3.1.4 Material Properties
Steel grade of steel structures is Fe410W C

(Normalized) according to IS:2062. Normal yield
strength of Fe 410WC are
i) Fy = 250 MPa, t < 20mm, ii) Fy = 240 MPa, t =20 -
40mm, iii) Fy = 230 MPa, t >40mm,
iv) Modulus of Elasticity (E) = 205000 MPa, v)
Poisson’s ratio = 0.3, vi) Density of structural steel =
78.5 KN/m3, vii) Coefficient of thermal expansion =
1.17 x 10-5 per 0 c
3.1.5 Model Behaviour
The behaviour of the local and global models were

compered and the comparision used to ensure that the
load effects extracted from the global model were
distributed to the individual longitudinal girders in a
suitable way and in accordance with that predicted by
the local model. In particular, the way the torsional
loads derived from trains loads applied to one of the two
final tracks, plus lateral effects, worked its way through
the deck structure was studied using local finite element.
Thus the relative effectiveness of the bottom plan
bracing in creating a torsion box was studied compared
with the load path of carrying the eccentic load through
almost purely vertical effects in the two longitudinal
beams.
67
b) Local Modelling Sufficient load cases were formulated and analyzed
to ensure that maximum stresses were obtained in the
A 3-dimensional finite element (FE) model was created to elements under consideration. This included
examine localised effects in the viaduct deck in greater Modified Broad Guage loading (considering both
detail than was possible in the global model. Primary areas train types), on a central single track and also on the
of concern were cross-girder, rail bearers, bearing final twin track configuration. Significant lateral and
diaphragms, plan bracing and the magnitude of stresses in longitudinal load effects were also included.
fatigue senstive locations.
c) Loading
The model was created using the LUSAS Bridge package,
and covered three complete 50m spans of the approach The loading was formulated according to the Design
viaduct deck. All major elements were modelled including Bsis referencing BS: 5400, Part 2, the IRS “Rules
longtudinal girders, deck plates complete with stiffeners specifying the loads for design of superstructure and
and rail bearers, transverse and longitudinal web stiffeners, substructure of bridges (Bridge Rules)”, and other
plan bracing and diaphragms. relevant codes as appropriate. The following loads
were considered:
Symmetric or asymmetric restraints were used at the ends
of the model, as applicable, to represent the continuity of • Dead Load
the deck. Supports were modelled using stiffnesses • Superimposed Dead Load
extracted from the global model. • Dfferential Settlement
• Live Load
Due to the size of the model, FE meshing was controlled to
• Breaking and Acceleration Effects
give a fine mesh in the locations of interest with an
• Centrifugal, Racking and Nosing Loads
increasingly coarse mesh away from these locations and
towards the end of the model. Plates were modelled with • Wind Load
thin box shell elements which take account of both • Wind coincident with Live Load
membrane and flexural deformations. Bracng members • Seismic Load
were modelled with 3-D straight beam elements. • Blast Loading
• Temperature Restraint
The length of the model was sufficient to ensure that when • Differentail Temperature
looking at stresses at a particular location both global and • Effects of Longitudinal Welded Rail
local effects were adequetly representd. The model is • Derailment Loads
shown in Fig. 8 • Erection Cases
d) Strength Checks
The strength checks of the steel deck superstructure

were carried out in accordance with BS:5400 Part 3:
2000 – Code of Practice for the Design of Steel
Structures and as specified in the Design Basis Notes.
The following compnenet were checked:
• Main Girders
• Plan Bracing
• Diaphragms
• Load Bearing Stiffners
• Splices and Connections
• Rail to Deck Connection
• Bearings and seismic restrainers
• Railings
• Access Platforms
All componenets were found to meet the specified

criteria including the additional IRS clauses specified
in Design Basis Notes.
e) Fatigue Checks
A section of the global Finite Element Analysis

model was extracted and provided with a finer mesh
as shown in Fig.9. Deck plate has not been shown
due to clarity. A unit load was applied to represent a
single axle. This was moved to the most critical point
with respect to principal tensile stress in the
secondary beam web connection, so as establish the
peak ordinate in the influence line for principal
Fig. 8 Views of Local Finite Element Model tensile stress.
68
Fig. 9 Finite Element Model used in Fatigue Analysis
This was scaled so as to define the influence line shape 4.0 Substructure
for the passage of each of the 10 train types. Each train
was run over the influence line in a load effect The piers are hollow rectangular concrete piers
simulation spreadsheet and the stress sequence was having various height from 10.457m to 53.484m
established. A Miner’s Summation procedure was used integrated at top by piercap ( size 12.85 x 4.03 x
to establish fatigue stress cycles counts and this was 4.2/2.1) and at bottom with RCC Pile cap & open
used to calculate the total elapsed damage in the foundations. To prevent dislodgement of
lifetime of bridge. The fatigue lives of the deck superstructure, seismic arresters / restrainers have
componenets and connections were found to be been provided. For the purpose of the seismic
acceptable. analysis plastic hinges has been implemented at the
bottom of the piers. For the purpose of
Additional checks were made on fatigue stresses in the implementation the yield moment My, yield rotation
area of the cut-outs that permit the bottom flanges of Øy, ultimate moment Mu and ultimate rotation the
the railway track beams to pass through the cross yield moment My, yield rotation Øy, ultimate
beams. The design passed through several stages of moment Mu and ultimate rotation Øu has been
revisions and local finite element analysis that calculated. The plastic hinges hav been modelled as
culminated in a detail that we agree to have satisfactory trilinear springs. Specialised seiemic devices such as
theoretical fatigue life. preloaded spring dampers, shock transmission unit,
base isolation etc have also been prposed based on
f) Deformation Check specific requirements. Normally for concrete piers
inalastic damage will be located near the base of the
i) Precamber
pier and as mentioned more plasic hinges developed
Precamber checks were made in accordance with the simultaneously in many piers results in greater
load combination stated in the DBN. A similar energy dissipation. As such locations of energy
precamber pattern to that stated on the drawings was dissipation proper access for inspection and repair
obtained but found the magnitude is very less. The have been provided. Holes for ventilation has been
difference is due to a modelling difference between provided in the hollow piers to reduce the differential
Proof Consultant and the Designer since Design temperature inside and outside and provisions for
Consultant have used effective section properties and inspection on inside of hollow piers also been
Proof Consultant used the gross sectional properties in provided Typical cross section of pier & piercap are
global models. The overall magnitude of the precamber shown at Fig. 10, 11 & 12. The pier caps are
is small and the differences represents the rage of modelled as point masses and the self weight is taken
precamber possible depening upon the assumptions into account using point masses.
made. The effective section properties producing the
upper bound and the gross section properties the lower The loads acting on the piers have been derived ax
bound of what should be applied. per DBN. Second order (P-Δ effects) are also
included for slender piers for all ULS combinations.
ii) Check of Deflections and Rotations Piers is being designed for handeling adequate
ductility at plastic hinge locations based on the
Defelections and rotations were designed & checked results from the non – linear time history analysis
against the UIC criteria stated in the DBN and found performed in LUSAS, MATHCAD, BABe Software .
satisfactory. In addition, the pier are also verified for blast loading
corresponding to 100 kg TNT exploding at a distance
of 20m from the foundations to ground level.
69
Fig. 10
The superstructure is proposed to rest on sliding type 5.0 Foundation

bearings at all pier locations except at one end
S70/S180 where fixed bearings are proposed. At 5.1 Geotechnical Parameter Selection:
support location S70/S180, the main deck carrying the
tracks is longitudinally fixed by connecting the deck Characteristic parameters for design based on GT
with support through preloaded spring dampers Report carried out at site have been selected. These
mounted on pedestals which can transmit the have been converted into Mohr Coulomb shear
longitudinal braking / seismic forces. By using strength parametrs using the Hoek –Brown
preloaded spring dampers, which can absob 20% of Criterion etc. The orientation of regular fracturing
the total longitudinal force under seismic events, the within the rock is also considered as part of the
forces acting on the support S70/S180 is reduced and design assessment.
the bridge position are restored after a seismic event
by the preloaded spring force which has a value 5.2.1 Foundation Stability:
defined to overcome the friction force of the sliding
bearings. The superstructure is restrainrd against Bearing pressure at serviceability Limit State using
movement in the transverse direction at all pier a slope stability model to verify the stability of the
locations by transverse seismic restrainers.Seismic foundations has been established. The pressure
restrainers and vertical bearings will be separated. imposed at the base of the foundations allows for
the distribution of net lateral forces that are
ipmosed by the downhill slope of the ground
Fig. 10 relative to the buried section of the bridge piers.
Foundation Stability for a minimum lumped factor

of safety (resistance forces / distributing forces) of
at least 1.75 for non-seismic design cases has been
fixed. A lower factor of safety for seismic cases
dependent upon the design magnitude has been
assumed. This lumped factor provides a greater
degree of safety than is provided by the partial
factor combinations defiened in DBN. A higher
overall factor of safety has been selected to ensure
that fundation movements are in line with
serviceability expections. In order to confirm the
analysis basis, a design approach 1 combination 2
set of partial factor have been used..
Two ground models are used in the slope analysis,

Fig. 10 & 11
a mass Mohr Coulomb strength model, and an
intrinsic discontinuity model which allow for the
orientation of regular rock fractured planes relative
to the foundation. Stability of sloping ground
parallel and perpendicular to the long axix of the
bridge has been verified through analysis.
70
5.3 Foundation Movement: Based on the characteristics of the strata at the bridge
location, it was proposed pile foundation for S180 to
The foundation settlement in the first instance, using S150 and for S70 to S160 open foundation of various
a simple linear elastic compression model with sizes were designed. The detail size of substructures
Bousinesq distribution of stress imposed at the base & foundations are tabulated as below:
of the foundation and allowing for additional fill
placed around the foundations as part of the works S.N. Identity Height Size of Size of
has been assesed. As no direct strength or stiffness of Pier Hollow Foundation
measurements of the ground have been collected a Pier
range of moduli will be estimated for the ground 1. S180 10.457 13.103 16.60 x
based on the qualitative observations supplied. Then x 3.10 11.60 x
this range to generate worst case and moderately 2.20, pile
conservative movements has been used. This 1.0m dia -
33.60m –
approach allow an estimate of extreme differential 37 Nos.
settlement between adjacent piers and estimate of
individual founation tilt. 2. S170 34.359 8.00 x 14.10 x
3.50 10.10 x
2.75, pile
Movement of the foundations and the interaction of
1.0m dia -
the pier base with slope retention measures used to 22.20m -24
build the foundations using a simple numerical Nos.
analysis model has been assessed,
3. S160 44.234 8.03 x 15.1 x 11.6
3.53 x 3.25 1.0m
Numerical analysis has been performed to provide dia -22.20m
verification of the more extensive slope stability and -24 Nos -
settlement analyses. The stability by successful 21.5m
convergence of the numerical model when subject to
ULS loads has been reviewed the foundation 4. S150 46.759 8.03 x 17.6 x 11.6
movements for service load conditions. Lower bound 3.53 x 4.10,
stiffness values has been used for the ULS 1.0m dia -
22.20m -24
verification and moderately conservative stiffness Nos.-21.3m
values are used for the SLS verification. Pseudo-
static load to model has been used for the effect of
earthquake loading in line with the requirements of 5. S140 53.484 8.03 x 15.5 x 11.3
3.53 x 3.25m
DBN. Foundation sizes have been determined based
6. S130 35.709 8.03 x 16.5 x 14.3
on the ULS stability criteria and settlemets verified in 4.03 x 3.90
SLS. The founding levels were based on the 7. S120 32.334 8.03 x 18.0 x 15.0
verification of slope stability such that foundations 4.03 x 4.15
will not be destabilised by the loss of slope stability. 8. S110 39.759 8.03 x 16.5 x 13.0
In design, the soil strength parameters and the 4.03 x 3.60
maximum ULS bearing capacities as mentioed in GT 9. S100 35.584 8.03 x 14.7 x 10.2
Report are used. 3.53 x 2.65
10. S90 24.609 8.0 x 14.0 x 10.0
3.50 x 2.50
Resultant of forces at the base of the foundation shall
11. S80 17.546 8.0 x 14.7 x 10.0
not fall outside the middle half. This requirement 3.50 x 2.50
governs the foundation design and determines the 12. S70 16.500 8.0 x 14.2 x 10.0
size of the foundation slab. All the foundation has 3.50 x 2.50
been cast in one go/part.
Combinations for the foundation Design were done

as per IRS Bridge Sub-structure and Foundation 6.0 Bearing Schedules
code. The maximum Bearing Pressure was reached in
combination with earthquake during Live Load (EQ The Spherical Bearing is a structural bearing which
with LL, Cl. 3.2). Bearing Pressure was clearly less consists of a set of concave & convex mating steel
than the allowable bearing pressure. Maximum backing plate with a low friction sliding interface in
eccentricites were reached in combination with between thereby permitting rotation by in-curve
earthquake during live load (cl.3.2).Combinations for sliding. This is a compact bearing and shall be able to
the Structural Design were done as per DBN (based accommodate large rotations and vertical loads as it
on IRS Concrete Bridge Code) governing Load does not depend on the limitations of an elastomeric
Combination Cl. 2.5 (EQ with LL). This element and necessary sealing.
combination leaded to the maximum bearing
pressure. All the foindations were designed by using
LUSAS, MATHCAD, BABe Software
71
6.1 Loads The rail movement joints over the length of the
bridge in excess of 1.50m (+/- 750mm) of track and
For the spherical bearings, very good agreement was expansion joints along the structure needs to be
reached with the Designer’s permanent and maximum considered in conjunction with the direct fixing of the
SLS and ULS loads. For the elastomeric bearings track to prevent overstressing of continuous welded
satisfactory agreement with the loads was also obtained rail. If resilient track fixing are used then additional
for all bearings apart from that at 70SK1: where our bridge loads from traction and braking forces would
loads are about 45% larger . All other loads specified on need to be considered.
the bearing schedules are considered acceptable.
8.0 TEKLA 3D Modelling Technology for
6.2 Movements
Bridge Construction
For all bearings, satisfactory agreement with the stated
TEKLA 3D modelling technology is used for the
movement was obtained and the movements specified
preparation of fabrication drawings by modelling,
on the bearing schedule are considered acceptable. The
detailing and creating accurate drawings for the entire
movements values on the scheduled have all been
structure includes an extensive range of connections.
‘rounded up’ to values that satisfactorily exceed our
Its automated clash checking efficiently to correct are
theoretically exact numerical values.
some of the biggest challenges faced before the
finalisation of actual construction drawings.
7.0 Bridge Expansion Joints
The design, drawing and construction of substructure
Bridge Expansion joints are capable of accommodating
and foundation of viaduct portion except foundation
translations and rotations between the superstructure
S70 has been completed. Launching of
and approaches without any damage. And they are
Superstructure viaduct portion is under progress
capable of easy removal and replacement during the life
based on final design & construction drawing at site.
time of the structure. Structure expansion joints shall be
provided across the full width of the deck and shall be
water tight to prevent ingress of water.
72
Stability Considerations In Rock Slopes
By
T Ramamurthy
Introduction Failure Modes
The stability of rock slopes is essentially governed by the
The surface of the earth may be sloping at an inclination joint sets, joint material, seepage pressure, depth and
varying from near ‘zero’ degree to ninety degree with the steepness of the excavated slope face and its orientation with
horizontal. Natural slopes are therefore omnipresent. Man
made slopes are created when excavation is carried out for respect to the joint sets. Various modes of failure, which
construction activities of buildings, dams, roadways, railways, could be predicted from the pi diagram (stereo plot), are
waterways and opencast mines. Some of the man made deep mainly circular, planar, wedge and toppling cases. Most
excavations for opencast mining are as deep as 1.2 km, common modes of failure of rock slopes are identified as
Bingham canyon mine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA ( follows:
started in 1906); Chuquicamata mine north of Santiago, Chile
is 850 m deep (started a century back), Escondida mine at i) When a pi diagram does not indicate any well defined
Atacama Desert, Chile is 645m deep; Udachny mine, Eastern plane of orientation, the mode of failure is likely
Siberia, Russia is 630 m deep; Muruntau mine, Uzbekistan is to be along a curved surface and the mass movement
600 m deep and Fimiston open pit, S.E. of kalgoorlie, west will be into the excavation. Sliding along a curved
Australia is 600 m deep. All these mines have berms at regular surface is expected in a heavily jointed and weathered
interval along the slopes rock mass. The failure surface may correspond to a
circular arc, a polynomial or a log spiral. Often to
The failure of natural slopes is a common geological simplify the analysis, the sliding surface is
phenomenon occurring whenever an imbalance takes place approximated to a circular arc and referred to as
between the shear strength and shear stress. These failures may circular failure.
be triggered by slow-time dependent process or brought about
by extraneous factors in an abrupt manner. The instability is ii) Sliding on a joint/weak plane dipping into the
either due to the increase in the seepage pressure due to built excavation, often termed as a planar failure. When a
up of hydrostatic pressure in the tension cracks, due to the joint set is represented by a well defined single pole
excavation of the slope-toe material, due to the increase of the concentration, the mode of failure is planar. If the
shear stresses from surface loadings as a result of construction direction of excavation is perpendicular to the strike of
or traffic, or due to the slow time dependent deterioration of the joint set, planar failure will not result.
the material leading to acceleration of the creep rate. As far as
the rocks are concerned, the failures may be broadly iii) When two or more pole concentrations are revealed
categorized into (i) rock falls and (ii) rockslides, both rotational representing intersecting planes, wedge failure is
and translational. likely to take place, along the line of intersection of
the two planes day lighting into the excavation. This
Rock falls occur on very steep slopes when rock blocks get wedge shape is either tetrahedral or its truncated form.
detached from the joints without sliding. Heavily fractured and
weathered rock slopes may fail along a curved surface with a iv) When the pole concentration of the joints is on the
rotational slide. Translational slides tend to be planar, opposite side of the pole of the face of the excavation,
occurring along weak bedding, shear planes or along fault toppling is the possibility. Rotation of rock blocks or
zones. In general, the depth of the failing mass increases with layers takes place into the excavation when the critical
the increase of the slope angle. The basic difference in these joint set dips steeply into the rock mass; it is called
slides is that the moments initiate rotational slides whereas toppling failure caused by the moments, often
imbalance in the forces results translational movement. In the without the sliding mechanism.
latter case, the rocks may fail along a single or a combination
of planes in two or three dimensions depending upon the v) When the excavation is carried out with its face
orientation of the planes of weakness or joints in the mass. parallel to the thin, weakly bonded, steeply dipping
layers, depending upon the depth of the excavation,
these layers may buckle and fracture near the toe, and
sliding of the portions of the layers may result. It is the
buckling failure of layers.
Proven methods of analysis are available to prevent failure

of slopes for the above-mentioned modes of failure
adopting relevant parameters operating along the
joints.
In an open excavation for mining, for dam foundation or

T RAMAMURTHY along a meandering hill road, more than one mode of
Formerly professor, IIT Delhi failure of rock mass may take place. A combination of
more than one mode of failure may also be involved.
73
5. By providing retaining wall or buttress, with weep
Enhancing stability holes, at the toe of the slope. Sometimes a flexible
support system of gabions may serve the purpose.
When an analysis is carried out for the possible mode of failure These are constructed at the site to suit the specific
of the rock slope and if the factor of safety is found to be lower ground condition and built up by enclosing rock
than the specified value, it could be improved in the following fragments (of cobbles size) in galvanized wire mesh or
ways: in geo-grid. Gravel layer as backing to gabions may be
required to prevent erosion or migration of surface
4. By flattering the rock slope, if possible; this could be material of the slope. These gabions could also serve to
achieved even by incorporating berms at suitable dissipate the energy of surface water by introducing
elevations. These berms will also dissipate the energy of them at different elevations in a staggered pattern.
the flowing water on the slope and prevent erosion of
the toe and increase the stability. 1. By suitably providing catch water drains to prevent rain
water in to tension cracks and behind the shotcrete. The
5. By reducing the height of the slope or depth of tension cracks should be filled with impervious material
excavation; may not be possible in some situations. (like clay) and the surface, developed to prevent entry
of water into the cracks.
6. By providing rock bolts or rock anchors distributed over
the slope and orienting them as advantageously as 2. By nailing wire mesh or geo-grid onto the steep slope,
possible with respect to the location and attitude (strike rock falls and rolling of blocks down the slope can be
and dip) of the joints. To improve surface stability of the prevented.
slope, shotcrete with or without wire mesh is often
adopted with rock bolts. If loose or disjointed rock 3. By providing, in special circumstances like steep
blocks are present on the slope face, they are stitched saturated slopes, drainage gallery behind the toe at
with rock bolts and / or supported by padding work. some depth and connecting to horizontal and vertical or
When the sloping face is irregular fibre reinforced inclined drainage holes; the slope may be made
shotcrete is desirable. The shotcrete should be tucked effectively free of seepage water. In the case of
properly at the top of the slope to prevent seepage of excessive seepage, more than one gallery at different
surface water entering behind it. elevations may be required.
The length of rock belts usually vary from 4m to 6m for Foundation on slope
surfacial stability and protection. But when the entire
When some structure is to be established on the
slope stability is to be enhanced with rock bolts or rock excavated berm, special care has to be taken not only to
anchors, their lengths go beyond the anticipated zone of stabilize the slope but also the foundation of the
failure consider in the analysis. The anchors may be structure from the point of its failure by rupture and
passive (not tensioned) or active, which are tensioned settlement. Since excavation is carried out to the
after full setting of the grout in the anchored length. foundation level by blasting or by other means and due
Suitable arrangement of anchor head at the sloping face to unloading of rock mass, some depth of the rock mass
will be fractured and some joint may open up. To
are erected to sustain the anchor force. The rock bolts /
increase the strength of the foundation rock mass,
anchors are usually at spacing varying from 1.0m to carefully controlled grouting is adopted as far as
3.0m depending upon the joint / fracture intensity and possible to fill the fractured and parent mass. This
arranged in a staggered manner on the face. For mega or operation is to be done only after rock bolts / anchors
sensitive projects higher factors of safety may be are fully established and set. The pressure of the grout
required from all possible considerations including should be as low as possible, preferably under gravity
earthquakes. and continues monitoring of the slope against
movements / buckling is carried out. Rock anchors /
bolts are supposed to not only stabilize the slope but
7. By decreasing the seepage pressure with the also strengthen the foundation of the structure.
introduction of drainage holes in to the rock, cutting Grouting is the last or additional option to be adopted in
across as many joints as possible. These drain holes are slope stabilization, since the grout pressure acts like
generally inclined upwards with the horizontal, so that seepage pressure resulting lowering of the factor of
the ground water flows under gravity. If perforated safety. The efficacy of the foundation grouting on slope
pipes are provided, they may be filled with gravel-to is checked by conducting static or dynamic tests to
prevent their collapse under pressure, in heavily determine the modules of rock mass before and after
fractured rock mass. grouting. While grouting the slopes, permeability tests
To drain the water-bearing slope effectively, drainage should be avoided, i.e. Lugeon tests.
holes may be extended beyond the failure zone
anticipated. These may be introduced preferably after The berms should be properly sloped outwards to
anchoring and grouting operations are complete, to
prevent accumulation of water from rain or seepage at
prevent chocking of drains if introduced earlier.
the inside toe of the slope. When toe drain is provided,
it should be maintained against blockage.
74
Estimation Of Rock Load For The Design Of Tunnel Lining
By
Rashmi Ranjan Mallick
1. THE ESTIMATION OF TUNNEL ROCK

LOAD
ABSTRACT: In this study, the existing methods proposed to
estimate relaxed rock load due to a tunnel excavation are
compared. Also a new approach, by which the stress relaxed 2.1 Terzaghi’s equation
zone around an excavated tunnel periphery can be
systematically estimated, was suggested for the design of
tunnel lining. The new approach proposed in this study has the Terzaghi(1946) applied the failure mechanism shown in Figure
advantage of estimating the height of rock load regardless of 1 to calculate rock load which a tunnel lining should support
the shape of a tunnel and the ground conditions. Since the when the tunnel was excavated in cohesionless dry coarse soil.
height of the relaxed rock load is estimated from the local Vertical rock load (Proof ) was suggested by Equation (1) for
factor of safety, which is a relatively clear criterion, the shallow tunnels.
designer’s subjectivity involved in the design of concrete
γ .B
tunnel lining might be reduced. 2H
K tan ϕ
Proof = 1 − (1 − e B
)
2. INTRODUCTION 2 K tan ϕ
The estimation of rock load is very methods important for the Eq-1
design of tunnel lining. Terzaghi’s rock load method,
Where,
Bierbäumer’s equation, empirical based on RMR and Q
ϕ
system, and numerical approaches have been mainly used for
the estimation of rock load. B = b + 2m. tan(45 − )
2
To estimate rock load of a tunnel excavated in rock mass,
Terzaghi’s rock load classification table, RMR index, or Q  is the unit weight of rock mass, K is coefficient of lateral
value can be used but these methods are merely empirical. The earth pressure, φ is friction angle, B, m, and H are the width,
Terzaghi’s and Bierbäumer’s proposed equations are also height, and depth of a tunnel respectively.
applied. However, these equations were derived based on the
limit equilibrium theory with the assumption that the rock mass
was continuous. In numerical approaches, on the other hand, For deep tunnels, the vertical rock load was also suggested as
rock load is inferred from the stresses behind shotcrete or follows;
plastic zones occurred due to tunnel excavation during the
stability analysis of tunnels. Nevertheless, these approaches are γ .B
Proof = (const.)
so ad hoc that the estimated rock load may be different 2 K tan ϕ
designer by designer. In this study, therefore, the existing Eq-2
methods are compared, and a new systematic way is
demonstrated to estimate the stress relaxed zone of a tunnel 2.2 Bierbäumer’s equation:
due to excavation. Also, the proposed method is applied for the
design of tunnel lining.
Bierbäumer (1913) assumed that the shape of stress relaxed
zone occurred due to tunnel excavation might be a parabola as
shown in Figure 2 (Part, 2003). In Figure 2 is the internal
friction angle of rock mass, m is the tunnel height, and B is the
width of the relaxed zone.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the upper relaxed zone acts on the

tunnel along 45+φ/2 inclined plane as a vertical load. The
height of the relaxed zone (h) is assumed to be proportional to
the depth of the tunnel (H); h=αH (α is reduction factor). At
tunnel crown, the vertical relaxed load (Proof) can be given as
follows;
RASHMI RANJAN MALLICK
Dy.CE/Design, KRCL
75
Proof=H  Eq-3
Where,  is the unit weight of rock mass. And the reduction factor can be obtained as follows;
• when H is very small; =1

tan Φ·tan 2 (45° − Φ / 2) H
α =1−
• when H ≤5B b + 2m·tan(45° - Φ/2)
• when H ≥5B α = tan 4 (45° − Φ / 2)
( a) (b)
Figure :1 Terzaghi Rock load approaches Figure:2 Bierbäumer’s Rock load

approaches
2.3 Kommerell’s concept vertical loading:
It is an extension method of calculation of external load graphically as defined.
( y1 + y2 )
V= * lh * γ
Vertical pressure diagram= 2 Eq-4
76
( x1 + x2 )
H= * lv * γ
Horizontal pressure diagram= 2 Eq-5
Where y1,y2 height of parabolic stress block separated by segmental width lh . Similarly x1 and x2 are graphically defined
stress values.
2.3 Empirical approaches
2.3.1 Terzaghi’s rock load classification
Terzaghi (1946) proposed rock load classification for steel rib support and then Rose modified it as shown in Table: 1 in 1982. In
the system, rock load conditions are divided into 9 categories. However it is very subjective and can be applicable only for the
horseshoe shaped tunnels.
Table-1:
Rock Condition RQD Rock Load Height Remarks

Hp in m
1. Hard and intact 95-100 0 Light limiting required only if spalling or
popping occurs.
2. Hard stratified or schistose 90-99 0∼0.5b Light support, mainly or schistose for protection
against Spalling. Load may change erratically
from point to point.
3. Massive, moderately jointed 85-95 0∼0.25b -

4. Moderately blocky and seamy 75-85 0.25b∼0.20 (b+m) Reduced by about 50% from Terzaghi values
5. Very blocky and seamy 30-75 (0.20∼0.60) (b+m) because water table has little effect on rock load.
6. Completely crushed but 3-30 0.60∼1.10 (b+m) (Terzaghi 1946; Brekke, 1968)
chemically intact
6a. Sand and gravel 0-3 1.10∼1.40 (b+m) Heavy side pressure, invert struts required.
Circular ribs are recommended
7. Squeezing rock, moderate NA 1.1~2.1 (b+m) -
depth
8. Squeezing rock, great depth NA 2.10∼4.50 (b+m) -
9. Swelling rock NA Up to 250ft Circular ribs required in extreme case, use
irrespective of value yielding support
of (b+m)
2.3.2 Approach based on the RMR classification system
Bieniawski RMR system Depends with following six Parameters as defined as : 1. Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material
(A1), 2. Rock Quality Designation (RQD) (A2), 3. Spacing of discontinuities (A3), 4. Condition of discontinuities (A4) 5.
Groundwater conditions (A5), 6. Orientation of discontinuities (A6).
RMR=A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6 Eq-6
Higher the RMR greater is the rock quality. RMR System may be used to estimate the stand-up time and the maximum stable rock
span for a given RMR. Lauffer (1988) presented a revised stand-up time diagram specifically for tunnel boring machine (TBM)
excavation.
Unal (1983) proposed the following empirical equation for the estimation of vertical rock load (Proof) based upon RMR values
which a tunnel should be supported:
77
100 − RMR Eq-7 Where, P : is the support pressure in kN/m2,
P=( ).γ .B.S = γht ht : is the rock-load height in meters,
100 B : is the tunnel width in meters,
100 − RMR Eq-8 S : strength factor (Figure 4),
ht = ( ).B.S  : is the density of the rock in kN/m3
100
Figure: 4 (Effect of horizontal to vertical stress ratio to Figure: 5 Variation of rock oad as a function of roof span in
Failure height to rock load height ratio (strength factor S) different rock classes in Geomechanics classification after Unal
in 1983
2.3.3 Approach based on the Q system

Barton et al. (1974) proposed an empirical equation for the estimation of vertical rock load (Proof) based on Q values as follows;
Eq-9
RQD : Rock Quality Designation Jn : Joint set number
Jr : Joint roughness number Ja : Joint alteration number
Jw : Joint water reduction factor SRF : Stress reduction factor
RQD/Jn : (Block size) Structure of the rock mass
Jr/Ja : (Inter-block shear strength) Roughness and frictional characteristics of the joint walls or filling materials
Jw/SRF :( Active stress) consists of two stress parameters.
The parameters Jn, Jr and Ja appear to play a more important role than orientation, because the number of joint sets determinist
2.3.3.1 Non-squeezing Ground H<350 Q 1/3) Ultimate roof support pressure in kg/cm2
a) Vertical Roof Pressure=Pru
2
Pru = f Eq-10
J r Q1 / 3
Where f: correction factor = 1+(H-320)/800 >1 where H: Overburden above crown
78
2.4 Numerical approach
b) Ultimate wall support pressure(Pwu ) => Q increased to Qwu
Qwu =5Q for Q>10
Numerical Analysis is possible in special and complex
Qwu =2.5Q for 0.1<Q<10 structure i.e., intersections, bifurcations, stacked tunnels. Four
basic Approaches to Numerical modeling with recognized
Qwu =Q for for Q<0.1
geological structures 1. Continuum, 2. Continuum with few
predominant joints, 3. Rock with well-defined joint set, 4.
Frequently and randomly fractured rock mass (Pseudo
c) For short term Pressure the QshortTerm= 5 x Q shall be continuum approach).
considered in design. The pressure will be calculated
accordingly as above (a) and (b) where Q is Q value, Jn is Modelling is required to be done with two-dimensional plane
the number of joint sets, and Jr is the joint roughness strain assumption for tunnel section. In this finite element
coefficient. simulation, based on the elasto-plastic analysis. Boundary
property, Geometry of the section and Physical/mechanical
property of masses are required to be modeled. Model can be
2.3.3.2 Squeezing Ground( H>350 Q 1/3) Ultimate roof made with dimensioning 5x tunnel dimension or field actual
support pressure in kg/cm2
for loading. The stability of tunnel in the rock masses was
assessed by comparing displacements obtained from the
a) Vertical Roof Pressure=Pru numerical method with critical displacements c
ε =σ / E
c .
2
Pru = f.f ' Eq-11
Critical displacements resulted is checked with the hazard
J r Q1 / 3 warning levels.
Table: 2 Concrete lining must support the whole load when the
shotcrete lost its support capability after long period time.
Sl Rock Support Tunnel f’ There are two ways of calculating rock load which the lining
No. Condition System Closure supports. One way is that rock load can be proportional to the
u/a ( percent size of the plastic zone occurred around tunnel excavation
)
periphery. The other way is that rock load can be a function of
1 Non- 1.1
squeezing radial stresses occurred behind shotcrete.
( H < 350
1/3 The radial stresses behind shotcrete might not be properly
Q )
2 Squeezing Very stiff <2 >1.8 used as rock load because it became much greater around
1/3 lower corner than around crown and its magnitude will be
( H < 350 Q )
3 Squeezing Stiff 2-4 0.85 very small in comparison. Also when the rock load is
1/3
( H < 350 Q ) estimated to be proportional to the size of plastic zone, it can
4 Squeezing Flexible 4-6 0.7 be very sensitive to the ground properties such as cohesion
( H < 350 and the coefficient of lateral earth pressure, joint orientation
1/3
Q ) etc. Therefore, it is recommend for great care must be given in
estimating ground parameters for the design of tunnel lining.
1. LOCAL SAFETY FACTOR
b) Ultimate wall support pressure (Pwu ) => Q increased to Qwu

as that of non-squeezing Ground clause 2.3.3.1(b). In numerical analysis, state of stresses can presented at each
elements in terms of principal stresses (σ1 andσ3) as shown in
c) For short term Pressure the QshortTerm= 5 x Q Eq-12 Figure 6. This stress state is, in general, depicted by a Mohr’s
circle (a) with a radius r in the σ- plane. Failure is assumed
to occur when the circle touches the failure envelope. If
The pressure will be calculated accordingly as above (a) and (b) failure occurs at a certain stress state, σ1 should increase
where Jn is the number of joint sets, and Jr is the joint roughness keeping σ3 unchanged until the circle touches the failure
coefficient. envelope like circle (b). Also, failure can be reached by
increasing the radius of the circle keeping the center of a
circle fixed like circle (c). The ratio of two circles’ radii (R1/r,
or R2/r) is a kind of strength/stress ratio in a given state of
stresses and is often called as ‘local factor of safety (FS).
79
Figure: 6 Local Factor of safety
In this study, local factor of safety is obtained with the

assumption that failure occurs by increasing σ1 and keeping σ3
unchanged. The maximum principal stress at the moment of
failure (σ1f ) can be written as follows;
This approach can be very effective in explaining how close

the failure is at each element. In addition, it is very useful in
searching potential weak zones from tunnel excavation and
the zone where supports are required.
Therefore, it is expected that the size of relaxed zone occurred

by tunnel excavation could be found by finding the contour of
local safety factor of 2.0 or 3.0.
80
Quality Control of Steel (Mechanical, Micro and Chemical Tests)
By
Kishan Rawat
references to relevant standards, objective criteria / tolerance
Indian Railways has undertaken the construction of Chenab parameters, acceptance criteria, responsibilities of every
Bridge, which is the highest and longest arch span bridge in the party involved (Contractor, QC Engineer, Third Party,
world. The consumption of steel in the fabrication of bridge is Client’s Representative etc) and the records to be maintained.
huge as the arch, many piers and the girders (deck segments) Inspection and Test Plans, when properly implemented, help
are to be made of steel. The procurement of the steel for the to verify whether, work has been undertaken to the required
bridge is as per IS 2062 and mainly has three kinds of steel standard and requirements, and that records are kept.
2
grades i.e. E250C (yield strength – 250 N/mm ), E410C (yield Tests to ensure quality of steel : Before reaching site, steel
2
strength – 410 N/mm ) and E410C Z-steel (through thickness procured from various vendors undergo various tests such as
properties and yield strength – 410 N/mm2). The process of mechanical tests, micro analysis and chemical tests. All these
steel fabrication and procurement commences with the tests ensure that the material procured is of the desired quality
preparation of Quality Assurance Plan (QAP), Inspection & and meeting all the requirements of corresponding codes,
Test Plan (ITP) and ends with testing of the material. specifications and documents. The following tests are
conducted:
Quality Assurance Plan (QAP): A quality assurance 1. Tensile test
plan is a document, meant to ensure that the quality is managed 2. Bend test
effectively throughout a project i.e. the final products are of the
3. Charpy V-notch impact test
utmost quality. A QAP must indicate stage wise manufacturing
process covering various steps, tests, checks & their frequency, 4. Hardness test
sampling plan, specifications, authority for grant of clearance 5. Micro Analysis
etc.for all activities from inspection and testing of raw material 6. Chemical analysis
to trial assembly and erection. It should also mention roles and
1) Tensile test: The test is performed to determine a) Yield
responsibilities of various agencies involved in fabrication,
erection & inspection. For welded girders, RDSO is the strength b) Ultimate tensile strength and c) Percentage
competent authority to scrutinize and approve QAP. Field Elongation of the steel. During testing, a tensile load is
Engineer should ensure that work is carried out strictly as per
applied to the specimen till fracture and values of yield
the approved QAP and no deviation takes place from QAP.
strength, ultimate strength and elongation are noted. As per IS
Inspection & Test Plan (ITP): An inspection & Test 2062, the sample is to be taken in the transverse direction of
Plan is a document, that records all inspection and testing plate i.e. direction perpendicular to the direction of rolling. As
requirements relevant to a specific process. An ITP identifies per IS 1608, the test is to be carried out at ambient
the items of materials and work to be inspected or tested, by temperature between 10°C & 35°C and the rate of stressing
whom and at what stage or frequency, kind of inspection should be between 6 MPa/sec & 30 MPa/sec .
(visual inspection, Lab testing etc), Sample Preparation Transverse Direction
Reference Codes IS 2062 & IS 1608
Number of samples 2 Nos / Cast / Heat
Gauge length (for measuring % 5.65√A; where A is the cross-
elongation) sectional area of the test piece
Steel Tensile Yield Stress (MPa) %
Grade Strength Elongatio
< 20 20 - > 40
(MPa) n (min)
mm 40 mm
E250 C 410 250 240 230 23
KISHAN RAWAT,
E410 C 540 410 390 380 20
XEN/Chenab
81
3) Charpy V-notch Impact Test: The Charpy impact
test, also known as the Charpy V-notch test, is
a standardized high strain-rate test which determines the
amount of energy absorbed by a material during fracture. It
involves striking a standard notched specimen with a
controlled weight pendulum swung from a set height. The
standard Charpy-V notch specimen is 55 mm long, 10 mm
square and has a 2 mm deep notch with a tip radius of 0.25
mm machined on one face. The specimen is supported at its
two ends on an anvil and struck on the opposite face to the
notch by the pendulum. The amount of energy absorbed in
2) Bend Test: The bend test consists of submitting a test fracturing the test-piece is measured and this gives an
piece of round, square, rectangular, or polygonal cross section indication of the notch toughness of the test material. Charpy
to plastic deformation by bending, without changing the tests show whether a metal can be classified as being either
direction of loading, until a specified angle of bend is reached. brittle or ductile. This is particularly useful for ferritic steels
The axes of the two legs of the test piece remain in a plane that show a ductile to brittle transition with decreasing
perpendicular to the axis of bending. In the case of 180° bend, temperature. A brittle metal will absorb a small amount of
the two lateral surfaces may, depending on the requirements of energy when impact tested, a tough ductile metal absorbs a
the material, standard, lie flat against each other or may be large amount of energy. As per IS 2062, the impact test shall
parallel at a specified distance, an insert being used to control normally be carried out for plates having thickness greater
this distance. than or equal to 12 mm. Energy absorbed in joules is noted
Sample Preparation Transverse Direction by testing three specimens at any one temperature and the
results are averaged.

Sample Preparation Longitudinal Direction i.e.
Notch axis is in the
transverse direction
Acceptance Criteria No crack to be observed
Notch 2 mm depth & 45° angle
Number of samples 1 Nos (thickest plate) / Cast

/ Heat
E250 C (at – 20° C) Avg. Charpy impact value ≥

27 J
E 410 C (at – 20° C) Avg. Charpy impact value ≥

25 J
82
Micro Analysis (Grain Size Determination): The
4) Hardness Test: Hardness may be defined as resistance of
analysis specifies a micrographic method to determine the
metal to plastic deformation, usually by indentation. However,
grain size of the steel. It describes the methods of revealing
the term may also refer to stiffness or temper, or to resistance to
grain boundaries and of estimating the mean grain size of
scratching, abrasion, or cutting. It is the property of a metal,
specimens with unimodal size distribution. Although grains are
which gives it the ability to resist being permanently, deformed
three-dimensional in shape, the metallographic sectioning plane
(bent, broken, or have its shape changed), when a load is
can cut through a grain at any point from a grain corner, to the
applied. The greater the hardness of the metal, the greater
maximum diameter of the grain, thus producing a range of
resistance it has to deformation.
apparent grain sizes on the two-dimensional plane, even in a
In mineralogy, hardness is the property of matter commonly sample with a perfectly consistent grain size. As per ASTM E
described as the resistance of a substance to being scratched by 112, grain size number is calculated on the basis of number of
another substance. In metallurgy hardness is defined as the grains encountered in a specified area under a given
ability of a material to resist plastic deformation. The dictionary magnification. In other words, grain size is determined on the
of Metallurgy defines the indentation hardness as the resistance basis of No. of grains/mm2 of area at 1X (magnification factor)
of a material to indentation. This is the usual type of hardness OR No. of grains/inch2 of area at 100 X (magnification factor).
test, in which a pointed or rounded indenter is pressed into a Clearly, smaller the grain size, larger is the number of grains in
surface under a substantially static load and the hardness is a specified area and thus larger is the grain size number. In
determined by measuring the permanent depth of indentation. other words, grain size number 9 has smaller grains as
Generally, two hardness tests used in the laboratory are Vicker’s compared to the grain size number 8. Futher in terms of
Hardness test and Brinell’s Hardness test. mechanical properties, the smaller is the grain size, higher is
the yield value and better is the toughness properties.
Vickers (HV) Pyramidal indentation Reference Codes ASTM E 112
Brinell (HB) Round indentation
Hardness Smaller the indentation, harder the Number of samples 1 Nos / Cast / Heat
material
320 HV 10 Vickers hardness; Load applied is 10
kgf and the value obtained is 320 Acceptance Criteria for Grain size number
Chenab Bridge Steel ≥8
83
6) Chemical Analysis: The analysis is performed to
accurately determine the concentration of elements in the
material comprising a given sample. A variety of analysis
techniques are used for metals and alloys to determine the alloy
composition of raw materials, to verify conformance to a
specification or to identify the alloy used to make a specific
component. Carbon equivalent (CE) of the material should be as
per IS 2062, as its value is very important in determining the
weldability of the material. Higher the value of CE, lower is the
weldability and vice-versa.
Mn (Cr+Mo+V) (Ni+Cu)
CE = C + + +
6 5 15
Optical emission spectroscopy using arc and spark excitation

(Arc Spark OES) is the preferred method for trace metal
analysis to determine the chemical composition of metallic
samples. This process is widely used in the metal making
industries, including primary producers, foundries, die casters
and manufacturing. Due to its rapid analysis time and inherent
accuracy, arc spark optical emission spectroscopy systems are
most effective in controlling the processing of alloys.
Reference Codes IS 2062
Steel Grade Laddle Analysis, Percent, Max Carbon Equivalent

(CE), Max
C Mn S P Si Micro-alloys N
(Nb,V,Ti)
E250 C 0.20 1.50 0.040 0.040 0.40 0.25 0.012 0.39
E410 C 0.20 1.60 0.040 0.040 0.45 0.25 0.012 0.50
84
Introduction To Arc Welding Process
By
Vinay Mani Tiwari
Welding is a method of creating a permanent metallurgical

bond between two materials (usually metals) by localized
coalescence produced through the application of temperature,
pressure or their appropriate combination. The materials to be
joined by welding can be similar or dissimilar chemical
composition
The selection of the welding process for a particular
job depends upon many factors. There is no one specific rule
governing the type of welding process to be selected for a
certain job. A few of the factors that must be considered
when choosing a welding process are Availability of
equipment, Repetitiveness of the operation, Quality
requirements (base metal penetration, consistency, etc.),
Location of work, Materials to be joined, Appearance of the
finished product, Size of the parts to be joined, Time available
for work, Skill experience of workers, Cost of materials, Code
or specification requirements
Welding processes are mainly classified into two major

groups:
1. Fusion welding: In this process, base metal is

melted by means of heat. Often, in fusion welding
operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool
to facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength
to the joint. It is widely used in fabrication process,
further classified based on Energy source, thermal
source, shielding as GTAW,SMAW,SAW,FCAW
etc. which are shown in fig below.
2. Solid-state welding: In this process, joining of
parts takes place by application of pressure alone or a ARC WELDING AND SIMILAR PROCESSES
combination of heat and pressure. No filler metal is Arc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more
used. Commonly used solid-state welding processes metal parts. It consists of combination of different welding
are: diffusion welding, friction welding, ultrasonic processes wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an
welding etc. electric arc, (mostly without the application of pressure) and
with or without the use of filler metals depending upon the
In this paper further elaboration will be confined to different base plate thickness. A homogeneous joint is achieved by
type of arc welding, their advantage disadvantage and melting and fusing the adjacent portions of the separate parts.
suitability. The final welded joint has unit strength approximately equal
to that of the base material. The arc temperature is maintained
approximately 4400°C. A flux material is used to prevent
oxidation, which decomposes under the heat of welding and
releases a gas that shields the arc and the hot metal. The
second basic method employs an inert or nearly inert gas to
form a protective envelope around the arc and the weld.
Helium, argon, and carbon dioxide are the most commonly
used gases.
VINAY MANI TIWARI,

AXEN/Chenab
85
Shielded-Metal Arc (SMAW) or Stick Welding The main advantage of SMAW is simplicity and portability
(Also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) of its equipment, its Consumables easily available, can be
used for various metal and thickness. However its
Welding)
limitation is low productivity and low deposition rate, slag
removal and stub loss contributes to slow productivity.
This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by heating the workpiece with an electric arc setup
between a flux-coated electrode and the workpiece. The
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
electrode is in a rod form coated with flux. Figure below
This is another type of arc welding process, in which
illustrates the process.
coalescence is produced by heating the workpiece with an
As molten metal droplets from the electrode are
electric arc setup between the bare electrode and the work
transferred across the arc and into the molten weld puddle,
piece. Molten pool remains completely hidden under a blanket
they are shielded from atmosphere by gases produced from
of granular material called flux. The electrode is in a wire form
decomposition of flux coating. The molten slag floats to the
and is continuously fed from a reel. Movement of the weld
top of weld puddle, where it protects the weld metal from the
gun, dispensing of the flux and picking up of surplus flux
atmosphere during solidification. The slag must be removed
granules behind the gun are usually automatic.
after deposition each weld run.
Power source can be a constant voltage or constant
This method may utilize either alternating current
current type( AC or DC) .SAW process can easily automated
(AC) or direct current (DC), but in either case, the power
with help of additional features like seam tracking and
source must be of the constant current type. This type of
controls.
source will deliver relatively constant amperage or welding
current regardless of arc length variation by operator. The
amperage determines the amount of heat at the arc and since
it will remain relatively constant, the weld beads produced
will be uniform in size and shape. However AC,DC or both
power source depends on many factor like type of electrode,
metal thickness, distance from work to power source, welding
position, arc blow(magmatic field set up throughout the
weldment.
Figure: Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
Figure: Shielded-Metal Arc (SMAW)

86
Advantages of this process includes high deposition DC Power source with constant voltage characteristics
rate, deep weld penetration, consistent ,sound ,uniform, used in this process, which enables to provide self regulated
ductile weld and give good impact value, high speed, arc. Self regulated arc means maintaining the arc length at
minimum welding fume or arc light, excess flux can be same level throughout the welding operation. Welding current,
recycled via hopper, high utilization of electrode wire, arc voltage, electrical stick out ( length of electrode wire
minimal operational skill required. As arc is completely extending beyond contact tip upto the arc) are the primary
covered by flux layer, heat loss to atmosphere is extremely variables affecting quality in FCAW.
low.
Disadvantages: This process suitable for ferrous and This welding is generally used in addition with
some nickel based alloys, normally limited to particular SMAW in segment to segment welding (Main Girder web to
welding positions ( 1F/PA,1G/PA, and 2 F/PB),limited to Main Girder Web, Secondary Girder Web to Secondary
long straight seams, requires flux feeding, inter-pass post Girder Web, Main Girder Flange to Main Girder Flange etc )
weld slag removal. in Chenab Bridge fabrication site. Detailed information is
This welding is generally used in segment attached in Annexure -I
component welding(Main Girder web to Main Girder
Flange, Secondary Girder Web to Secondary Girder Flange Advantage of FCAW process lies in its ability to
etc ) in Chenab Bridge fabrication site. Detailed operate at higher current density than solid wires. Suitable flux
information is attached in Annexure -I formulation allows a wide tolerance in welding parameter such
as current, voltage and welding speed without much risk of
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) defects.
Limitation in this process flux cored wire produces
This process is similar to the shielded-arc stick welding more fumes, expensive, wire requires careful manufacturing
process with the main difference being the flux is inside the and storage as residual moisture cannot be removed.
welding rod. Tubular, coiled and continuously fed electrode
containing flux inside the electrode is used, thereby, saving Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
the cost of changing the welding. Sometimes, externally
supplied gas is used to assist in shielding the arc. In the GMAW process, an arc is established between
a continuous wire electrode (which is always being consumed)
and the base metal. Under the correct conditions, the wire is
fed at a constant rate to the arc, matching the rate at which the
arc melts it. DC Power source with constant voltage
characteristics used in this process
The filler metal is the thin wire that’s fed

automatically into the pool where it melts. Since molten metal
is sensitive to oxygen in the air, good shielding with oxygen-
free gases is required, then an inert gas such as argon, helium,
carbon dioxide or a mixture of them are used to prevent
atmospheric contamination of the weld. This shielding gas
provides a stable, inert environment to protect the weld pool as
it solidifies.
Consequently, GMAW is commonly known as MIG

(metal inert gas) welding. Since fluxes are not used (like
SMAW), the welds produced are sound, free of contaminants,
and as corrosion-resistant as the parent metal. The filler
material is usually the same composition (or alloy) as the base
metal.
This welding is generally used in segment assembly

welding (Main Girder Web to Deck Plate, Secondary Girder
Web to Deck Plate etc.) as well as deck plate welding in
Chenab Bridge fabrication site. Detailed information is
Figure: Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) attached in Annexure -I
87
Advantage of GMAW, It provides higher duty cycle Comparison in deposition rate among various arc welding
due to continuous wire, all position welding possible, high process
welding speed and deposition rate, deeper penetration due to
higher current density, open arc enables it monitoring and
control during welding, less distortion due to higher welding
speed.
Major limitation of GMAW is that the process cannot

be employed in open area where proper protection from wing
not available.
WELDING TERMINOLOGY
There is some special technical vocabulary (or language)

that is used in welding. The basic terms of the welding
Figure: Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
language include:
Comparison of different arc welding and their rate of
deposition are as under
Filler Material: When welding two pieces of metal
together, we often have to leave a space between the joint.
The material that is added to fill this space during the
welding process is known as the filler material (or filler
metal). Two types of filler metals are commonly used in
welding are welding rods and welding electrodes.
• Welding Rod: The term welding rod refers to a form

of filler metal that does not conduct an electric
current during the welding process. The only purpose
of a welding rod is to supply filler metal to the joint.
This type of filler metal is often used for gas welding.
• Electrode: In electric-arc welding, the term electrode

refers to the component that conducts the current from
the electrode holder to the metal being welded.
Electrodes are classified into two groups: consumable
and non-consumable.
♦ Consumable electrodes not only provide a

path for the current but they also supply filler
metal to the joint. An example is the
electrode used in shielded metal-arc welding.
♦ Non-consumable electrodes are only used as

a conductor for the electrical current, such as
in gas tungsten arc welding. The filler metal
for gas tungsten arc welding is a hand fed
consumable welding rod.
88
Flux: Before performing any welding process, the base A weld Bead is a weld deposit produced by a single pass with
metal must be cleaned form impurities such as oxides one of the welding processes. A weld bead may be either
(rust). Unless these oxides are removed by using a proper narrow or wide, depending on the amount of transverse
flux, a faulty weld may result. The term flux refers to a oscillation (side-to-side movement) used by the welder. A weld
material used to dissolve oxides and release trapped gases bead made without much weaving motion is often referred to
and slag (impurities) from the base metal such that the as a stringer bead. On the other hand, a weld bead made with
filler metal and the base metal can be fused together. side-to-side oscillation is called a weave bead.
Fluxes come in the form of a paste, powder, or liquid.
Different types of fluxes are available and the selection of
appropriate flux is usually based on the type of welding
and the type of the base metal.
Types of Welded Joints
The weld joint is where two or more metal parts are joined
by welding. The five basic types of weld joints are the butt, Several weld beads applied side-by-side are usually used in
corner, tee, lap, and edge. Surfacing which is a welding process used to apply a hard,
wear-resistant layer of metal to surfaces or edges of worn-out
Butt Joint: it is used to join two members aligned in the same parts.
plane. This joint is frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and
pipe work.
A Fillet weld is triangular in shape and this weld is used to

Corner and Tee Joints: these joints are used to join two join two surfaces that are at approximately right angles to
members located at right angles to each other. In cross section, each other in a lap, tee, or comer joint.
the corner joint forms an L-shape, and the tee joint has the
shape of the letter T.
Lap Joint: this joint is made by lapping one piece of metal

over another. This is one of the strongest types of joints Plug and Slot welds are welds made through holes or slots in
available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, the overlap one member of a lap joint. These welds are used to join that
should be at least three times the thickness of the thinnest member to the surface of another member that has been
member of the joint. exposed through the hole.
Edge Joint: it is used to join the edges of two or more

members lying in the same plane. In most cases, one of the
members is flanged, as seen in the figure. This type is
frequently used in sheet metal work for joining metals 1/4 inch
or less in thickness that are not subjected to heavy loads. Groove welds (also may be referred to as Butt welds) are
simply welds made in the groove between two members to be
joined. The weld is adaptable to a variety of butt joints, as seen
in the figure.
Types of Welds
There are many types of welds. The most common types are
the bead, surfacing, plug, slot, fillet, and groove.
89
A groove is an opening or space provided between the edges
of the metal parts to be welded.
 The groove face is that surface of a metal part
included in the groove, as shown in view A.
A given joint may have a root face or a root edge.
 The root face, also shown in view A, is the
portion of the prepared edge of a part to be
joined by a groove weld that has not been
grooved. As you can see, the root face has
relatively small dimensions.
The root edge is basically a root face of zero width, as shown
in view B. As you can see in views C and D of the illustration,
the groove face and the root face are the same metal surfaces in
some joints.
Groove welds may be joined with one or more weld beads,

depending on the thickness of the metal. If two or more beads
are deposited in the groove, the weld is made with multiple-
pass layers, as shown in the figure. As a rule, a multiple-pass
layer is made with stringer beads in manual operations.
The buildup sequence refers to the order in which the beads of

a multiple-pass weld are deposited in the joint. Usually, before
adding the next pass, the previous pass needs to cool down to a
certain temperature which is called the inter-pass temperature.
Also, before adding the next pass, the surface of the previous
pass needs to be cleaned from slag, especially with SMAW,
using a wire brush or other appropriate method.
• The specified requirements for a particular joint are

expressed in terms such as bevel angle, groove angle,
groove radius, and root opening which are illustrated in
the figure.
 The bevel angle is the angle formed between the
prepared edge of a member and a plane perpendicular
to the surface of the member.
 The groove angle is the total angle of the groove
between the parts to be joined. For example, if the
edge of each of two plates were bevelled to an angle
Parts of Welded Joints of 30 degrees, the groove angle would be 60 degrees.
While there are many variations of joints, the parts  The groove radius is the radius used to form the
of the joint are described by standard terms. shape of a J- or U-groove weld joint. It is used only
The root of a joint is that portion of the joint where for special groove joint designs.
the metals are closest to each other. As shown in the  The root opening refers to the separation between
figure, the root may be a point, a line, or an area, the parts to be joined at the root of the joint. It is
when viewed in cross section sometimes called the “root gap”.
90
• Root penetration refers to the depth that a weld • In a fillet weld, the throat is the distance from the root to
extends into the root of the joint. Root penetration is a point on the face of the weld along a line
measured on the center line of the root cross section. perpendicular to the face of the weld. Theoretically, the
face forms a straight line between the toes.
• Joint penetration refers to the minimum depth that a • The size of a fillet weld refers to the length of the
groove weld extends from its face into a joint, legs of the weld. The two legs are assumed to be
exclusive of weld reinforcement. equal in size unless otherwise specified.

In many cases, root penetration
and joint penetration, often refer to the
same dimension.
• Weld reinforcement is a term used to describe weld

metal in excess of the metal necessary to fill a joint.
The reinforcement needs to be grinded in some cases
depending on the intended use of the joint.
Parts of Welds
It is important to be familiar with the terms used to describe a

weld. The figure shows the parts of groove weld and fillet
welds.
• The face is the exposed surface of a weld on the

side from which the weld was made.
• The toe is the junction between the face of the weld and
the base metal.
• The root of a weld includes the points at which the back
of the weld intersects the base metal surfaces.
• In a fillet weld, the leg is the portion of the weld from
the toe to the root.
91
ANNEXTURE -I
WELDING PROCESS USED FOR ASSEMBLY SEGMENTS AT CHENAB BRIDGE

FABRICATION.
Welding of T-section and Lattice structure
SR No. Description Description of Assembly Weld type Welding Process

Web with Flange Fillet SAW
1 Main Girder
Web with web Butt GMAW+SAW
2 Secondary beam Web with Flange Fillet SAW
3 Cross girder Web with Flange Fillet SAW
4 T-beam Web with Flange Fillet SAW
5 Lattice structure ISMC Box Square Butt GMAW+SAW/FCAW
Welding of components with Deck plate

Deck to Deck (Transverse) Butt GMAW+SAW
1 Deck plate
Deck to Deck (longitudinal) Butt GMAW+SAW
2 Main girder Main Girder Web To Deck Plate Butt GMAW+FCAW
Secondary girder web to Deck plate Butt GMAW+FCAW
3 Secondary beam Secondary girder web with cross beam
Fillet FCAW
web
Cross girder web with deck plate Butt GMAW+FCAW
Cross girder web with main girder web Butt GMAW+FCAW
4 Cross girder Cross girder flange with vertical Butt
FCAW
stiffener
Cross girder web with vertical stiffener Fillet FCAW
stiffeners to Deck plate Fillet FCAW
5 Stiffeners
stiffeners with cross girder web Fillet FCAW
6 Longitudinal stiffeners Stiffeners with Main girder web Fillet FCAW
Vertical stiffener with main girder web Fillet FCAW
Vertical stiffener Vertical stiffener with longitudinal

7 Fillet FCAW
stiffener
Vertical stiffener with Main girder
Fillet FCAW
flange
Vertical stiffener with Cross girder web Fillet FCAW
8 End plate End plate to Deck plate Fillet FCAW
End bracket with Deck plate Butt GMAW+FCAW

9 End Bracket End bracket with main girder web Fillet FCAW
End bracket with end plate Fillet FCAW
Assembly welding of Lattice member
10 Lattice member Fillet FCAW
with gusset
T-beam web with main girder web Fillet FCAW

T-beam web with main girder flange Fillet FCAW
T-beam flange with cross girder flange Butt GMAW+FCAW
T-beam
11 T-beam Web with gusset Fillet FCAW
T-beam web with cross girder flange Fillet FCAW
T-beam flange with pipe bracket Fillet FCAW
T-beam web with longitudinal stiff Butt GMAW+FCAW
Welding Of Deck Segment To Segment

1 Deck plate deck to deck Butt GMAW+SAW
2 Main Girder Main Girder Web To WEB Butt FCAW

Main Girder Flange To Flange Butt GMAW+FCAW
GMAW+FCAW
3 Secondary beam Secondary beam Flange to Flange Butt
Secondary beam Web to Web Butt FCAW
4 Longitudinal stiffeners Stiffeners with stiffeners Butt FCAW
5 End Plate End plate to end plate Butt FCAW
6 Lattice member Lattice member with gusset Fillet FCAW
92
SPECIFICATION OF WELDING PROCEDURES FOR Welding procedure specifications are written
METALLIC MATERIALS - WELDING PROCEDURE exactly to translate these properties requirements
TEST onto relevant welding variables. Properties of weld
Introduction comprises of mainly two factors viz.
• Physical soundness (freedom from
Welding procedures are required to when it is
discontinuities).
necessary to demonstrate that the company has the
• Metallurgical compatibility.
ability to produce welds possessing the correct
Physical soundness is related to the mode of
mechanical and metallurgical properties. Once the
deposition, in other words, the process techniques
procedure is approved, it is necessary to
as influenced by the skill of welder or welding
demonstrate that all the welders working to it have
machine operator. Metallurgical compatibility is by
the required knowledge and skill to make it clean
itself depending upon
sound weld. A list of general parameters observed
for such qualifications are listed below:
(i) Chemical composition the base metal/ filler /
• Scope of work and code by which the work is flux or gas and
covered. (ii) Heat cycle the weldment is undergoing while
• Welding processes employed welding and post weld heat treatments.
• Base metals and applicable specifications.
The above two could be made analogous crudely to
• Type, classification and composition of filler rods
an athlete's wholesome strength, which includes
and weldments.
both his physical fitness and stamina. A person's
• Type of current and current range.
height, weight or chest x-ray can give an account of
• Welder qualification requirements.
his physical fitness where as stamina is tested by a
• Joints preparation and cleaning of surface for
'run'.
welding.
• Tack welding. Similarly radiography can give a conclusive account of the
• Joint welding details. physical soundness of a weld but the metallurgical
• Position of welding involved at workshop and at compatibility is revealed only by running mechanical-
sites. tests; the result of this test being then named as mechanical
• Preheat, inter pass and post heat treatment. property of the weldment. Conversely, a welding
• Heat input –electrode run length procedure, which is written to specify the- welding
• Post weld heat treatment parameters in order to attain the metallurgical
• Repairs of welds. compatibility, is qualified necessarily through a
• Impaction volume and stages acceptable levels. destructive mechanical test. The skill of the welder, which
• Records WPS, WPQR welder’s performance directly influences the soundness of the deposit, can be
qualification. easily qualified through an x-ray evaluation.
Procedure & Performance Qualification WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION

(WPS)
The utility, which requires the fabrication, are The Welding Procedure should provide all the
generally boilers, heat exchangers, pressure vessels, information needed to make a sound weld with the
bridges, construction structure and equipments and mechanical properties required by the code.
industrial machinery etc. production engineers Welding procedures must be tested or qualified and
along with quality control engineers ensure quality they must be communicated to those who need to
assurance at the design end. From the designer’s know. This includes the designer, the welding
point of view, the properties of weld joints are inspector, the welding supervisor, and last but not
designated as least, the welder. When welding codes or high-
quality work is involved, this can become a welding
• Weld metal chemistry. procedure specification (WPS), which lists in detail
• Ultimate tensile strength. the various factors or variables - involved. Different
• Yield point. codes and specifications have somewhat different
• Percentage elongation. requirements for a welding procedure, but in
• Hardness general a welding procedure consists of three parts
• Impact strength and so on. as follows.
93
• A detailed written explanation of how the weld is Non essential variables
to be made.
• A drawing or sketch showing the weld joint Those welding variables which when changed during
design and the conditions for making each pass or welding (within logical limits) do not alter the desired
bead weld properties. They are just altered in the WPS.
• A record of the test results of the resulting weld Typical examples are joint design, techniques, etc.
The weld meets the requirements of the code or Production welds with such altered parameters could be
specification and if the written procedure is continued without any re-qualification of the welding
properly executed and signed, it becomes a procedure. Audit shall be carried out by appropriate
qualified welding procedure. agency.
Purpose of WPS WELDING PROCEDURE
The purpose of Welding Procedure Specification The code says that all the details of the welding
(WPS) and procedure qualification Record (PQR) is procedure should be listed in a document known as
to determine that the weldment proposed for 'Welding procedure specification’ (WPS). Each of
construction is capable of having the required these welding procedure specifications shall be
properties for its intended application. It is pre qualified by welding of the test coupons and
supposed that the welder or the welding machine mechanical testing of specimens cut from these
operator performing the welding procedure coupons, as required in the code. The welding data
qualification is a skilled artisan. The welding for these coupons and the results of these tests shall
procedure qualification 'is therefore, strictly to be recorded in a document known as "Procedure
establish the metallurgical compatibility of the Qualification Record" (PQR).
weldment through mechanical tests and not the skill
of the welder or the welding operator. In addition to
Scope and WPS and PQR
the basic property without consideration of the
A welding Procedure Specification (WPS) is
metallurgical properties, requirements, as expressed
written qualified Welding Procedure prepared to
by engineering tensile test results and bend test
provide direction for making production welds to
results, a weldment is sometimes has to be below
code requirements.
zero degree. Procedural tests in those cases to assess
the notch toughness property of the weld include
A Procedure Qualification Record (PQR) is
impact tests as well.
essentially a record of welding data used to weld a
test coupon. It also contains the test results of the
Variables tested specimens. Recorded variables normally fall
Depending on their influence on obtaining a desired within a small range of the actual variables that will
mechanical strength in the weldment, the welding be used in production welding. Changes to POR are
variables are then classified and listed. Some of generally not permitted except in the cases of
them are listed as "Essential variables", some of editorial correction to the entries or the case of an
them as "supplementary essential variables" and the addenda being added. All changes in POR would
others as Non Essential Variables. call for a re-qualification. When more than one
welding process or filler metal is used to weld a test
Essential Variables coupon, the deposited weld metal thickness of each
process and filler metal would be recorded. Several
Changes in welding condition which will affect the
WPS may be prepared from the data on a single
mechanical properties of the weldment are known
PQR. A single WPS may cover several essential
as essential variables. Hence production welds with
variable changes as long as a supporting PQR exists
such altered variables should not be continued
for each essential and supplementary essential
without re- qualification and certification. The
(when required) variable.
typical examples are: base metal, filler metal etc.
Supplementary essential variables A WPS may require the support of more than one
PQR; while alternatively, one PQR may support a
Changes in welding condition which will affect the number of WPS. WPS will be applicable equally for
notch toughness (Impact) properties of the a plate, pipe and tube joints. Now, it is shown how a
weldment are called supplementary essential welding procedure specification is written. The
variables. Change in heat input, uphill or down WPS should contain the following points in detail:
vertical welding, diameter of electrode, position,
etc. are typical examples.
94
Joint details Technique
The groove design, the type of backing used etc. may The details of the welding techniques, string or weave
be specified in the joint details. If change in the type bead, method of initial and inter pass cleaning, back
of edge preparation (single V, single 'U' or double V gouging, single or multiple passes, root grinding etc.,
etc.,) is made or if the joint backing is removed, the shall be written here.
WPS can be revised but need not be qualified by a The test welding can be done either in a plate or pipe
test. Alternatively, the standard drawing or production material or in any position. The maximum thickness for
drawing also can be mentioned. which the procedure is applicable is generally twice the
thickness of the test plate. The welder who welds the
Base metal test joint is also qualified for the procedure, but only in
that position in which he welds whereas the procedure
The base metal (P) number and the thickness ranges, is qualified for all positions. The result of the test shall
for which the procedure is applicable etc, have to be be recorded in PQR.
mentioned here. If the range of thickness has to be
increased or a change of base metal from one 'P' EXAMINATION AND TESTING OF THE TEST
number to another 'P' number is required, a new WPS PIECECS FOR WPS
should be prepared and supported by the due tests.
Filler metal
Test Type of Extent
The details of the electrodes, consumable inserts and Pieces test of
filler wires have to be specified here. The 'F' number,
'A', number and the type of the filler metals have to be Testing
specified here. A change in 'F' number or 'A' number
shall require a new PQR. A change in the diameter of
the electrode requires REVISION IN WPS but need
not be qualified by a test. Visual 100 %
Radiographic or 100 %
Position ultrasonic
Surface crack
100 %
The positions in which the welding should be done detection
shall be mentioned here. The qualification test can be Butt Joint Transverse
with Full 2 specimens
done in any position, but still the procedure is tensile test
applicable to all positions. Penetration Transverse bend
4 specimens
test
Preheat Impact test 2 sets
Hardness test 1 specimen
The preheat temperature, inter pass temperature etc. Macroscopic
required
shall be clearly specified. If the preheat is to be examination
decreased by more than 55°C, then a new PQR is Visual 100 %
required.
Surface crack
T- joint with 100 %
Post weld heat treatment. detection
full Hardness test 100 %
The temperature and time of the post weld heat-treatment penetration
Ultrasonic or required
shall be shown here. Any change of addition or deletion in radiographic
this shall require a new procedure qualification. Macroscopic
2 specimens
examination
Electrical characteristics Visual 100 %
Surface crack
The type of current (AC or DC) polarity, amps and 100 %
detection
voltage etc. has to be indicated here. Fillet welds
Hardness test required
Macroscopic
GAS 2 specimens
examination
The shielding gases flow rate, details of gas backing
etc. will be shown here.
95
WRITING OF A WELDING PROCEDURE PROCESS FLOW CHART FOR WELDER
SPECIFICATION (WPS) QUALIFICATION
A typical working procedure specification is written

with all the factors of production in mind. Both
experience and latest technological awareness help
to write an acceptable WPS. The WPS is a list of
the following welding variables with the proper
values of these entered accordingly.
• Welding process
• Base metal
• Joint Design
• Filler metal
• Position
• Preheat/inter pass/post heat
• Electrical characteristic
• Post weld heat treatment
• Gas(s)
• Technique (straight/wave bead, metal transfer
mode, orifice diameter etc.)
WELDER PERFORMANCE
QUALIFICATIONS
Requirement of Welder’s Qualification
In Performance Qualification, the basic attempt is to

establish the ability of the welder to deposit sound
metal. In case of welding operator qualification it is
his mechanical ability to operate the welding
machine that is tested and acknowledged.
The object of the welder's qualification test is to
determine the ability of the welders to make sound
welds. The welders may be qualified, based on the
results of the mechanical tests or by non-destructive
examination.
During welder's qualification, only the essential

variables (as applicable to welder's skill) are
considered and production welds with such altered
variables should not be continued without
additionally qualifying the welders A welding
machine operator usually gets qualified-along with
procedure test. Additional qualifications are to be Examination and testing
suitably enforced as and when certain essential
variables are not meeting. The welding of test pieces shall be witnessed by the
examiner or examining body. The testing shall be
verified by the examiner or examining body.
The test pieces shall be marked with the
identification of the examiner and the welder before
welding starts. Additionally welding positions for
all test pieces are to be marked on the test piece and
for fixed pipe welds, the 12 o’clock welding
position shall also be marked.
96
The examiner or examining body may stop the test Confirmation of the validity
if the welding conditions are not correct or if it
appears that the welder does not have the skill to The welder's qualification test certificate issued is valid for
fulfill the requirements, e.g. where there are a period of two years. This is providing that the welding
excessive and/or systematic repairs. coordinator or the responsible personnel of the employer
can confirm that the welder has been working within the
Welding conditions initial range of qualification. This shall be confirmed every
six months.
The following welding conditions shall apply:
Prolongation of qualification
• the welding time for the test piece shall Welder's qualification test certificates according to this
correspond to the working time under usual standard can be prolonged every two years by an
production conditions; examiner/examining body.
• the test pieces shall have at least one stop and one
re-start in the root run and in the capping run and Before prolongation of the certification takes place, it
be identified in the examination length to be needs to be satisfied and also the following conditions
examined; need to be confirmed:
• any post-welded heat treatment required in the
a) All records and evidence used to support
pWPS or WPS can be omitted unless bend tests
prolongation are traceable to the welder and
are required;
identifies the WPS(s) that have been used in
• identification of the test piece;
production.
• the welder shall be allowed to remove minor
imperfections by grinding, except on the surfaces b) Evidence used to support prolongation shall be of
after finishing the weld. The permission of the a volumetric nature (radiographic testing or
examiner or examining body shall be obtained. ultrasonic testing) or for destructive testing
(fracture or bends) made on two welds during the
Test Required For Welder’s Qualification:- previous six months. Evidence relating to
prolongation needs to be retained for a minimum
• Visual Testing;
of two years.
• Radiographic Testing/Ultrasonic Testing;
• Bend Test c) The welds shall satisfy the acceptance levels for
• Fracture Test. imperfections.
Re-tests The test results mentioned in b) shall demonstrate that the

welder has reproduced the original test conditions, except
If any test fails to comply with the requirements of this for thickness and outside pipe diameter.
standard, the welder shall be given the opportunity to
repeat the qualification test.
If it is established that failure is due to metallurgical or CERTIFICATE

other extraneous causes that cannot be directly attributed
to the welder’s lack of skill, an additional test is required It shall be verified that the welder has successfully passed
in order to assess the quality and integrity of the new test the qualification test. All essential variables shall be
material and/or new test conditions. recorded on the certificate. If the test piece(s) fail(s) any of
the required tests, no certificate shall be issued.
PERIOD OF VALIDITY
The certificate shall be issued under the sole responsibility
Initial qualification of the examiner or examining body and shall contain all
information detailed in annex A. The format of this annex
The validity of the welder’s qualification begins from the A is recommended to be used as the welder’s qualification
date of welding of the test piece(s). test certificate. If any other form of welder’s qualification
test certificate is used, it shall contain the information
This is providing that the required testing has been carried required in annex A.
out and the test results obtained were acceptable.
In general for each test piece a separate welder's
qualification test certificate shall be issued.
97
Solar Energy: Theoretical Perspectives
By
Mohit Sinha
We have some good reasons to completely switch There is one factor that makes our solar power very
over to solar power as it is cheaper in many cases and unpredictable. That is cloud cover. As the sun’s rays move
definitely more sustainable than our dependence on our towards the earth some get absorbed by other atmosphere,
traditional power plants run with fuels like coal which will some are reflected back into outer space but the rest make it to
eventually run out. earth’s surface. Ones that do not get deviated are called direct
irradiance. Ones that are deflected by clouds are called diffused
irradiance. And those rays that get reflected by a surface, like a
nearby building, before reaching a solar energy system are
called reflected irradiance.
Before we examine how clouds affect the sun rays and

electricity production, let’s see how commonly used solar
electric systems work. First ones have solar towers. These are
made up of a central tower surrounded by a huge field filled by
mirrors that track the sun’s path and focus only the direct rays
on to a single point on the tower. The heat generated by these
rays is so intense that it can boil water and produce steam that
drives the traditional turbines which are used to generate
electricity. But when we talk of solar energy system, we are
generally talking about photo voltaic or solar power which are
the system most commonly used to generate solar power.
Solar panels are made up of small cells called solar

cells which are made up of silicon, which is a semi conduction
which is second most abundant element on earth. In a solar
cell, crystalline silicon is sandwiched between conduction
layers. Each silicon atom is connected to its neighboring atom
with four strong bonds, which keep the electrons in place,
hence no current can flow.
The earth intercepts a lot of solar power 173,000 Tera watts or

173,000,000,000,000, 000W that is 10,000 times more power
than what the world’s population uses. Then the question that
would come to anyone’s mind - is it possible that the world
becomes completely relient on solar energy and why do we not
replace the traditional power plants with solar energy power
plants? A solar cell uses two types of silicon: N-type silicon and P-
types silicon. N-type silicon has extra electrons and P-type
silicon has spaces for extra electrons called holes. Where two
types of silicon meet (P/N junction), electrons can wander
across the P(N junction), creating a positive charge on this side
and a negative charge on the other. Light is a flow of tiny
particles called photons, shooting out from the sun.When any
photon strikes a silicon cell with enough energy it knocks a
MOHIT SINHA electron from its bond leaving a hole. The negatively charged
FA&CAO electron and the positively charged hole are now force to move
USBRL around.
98
. Because of electric field at P/N Junction they only What is stopping us from becoming fully dependent
go one way. The electron is drawn to N-side while the hole is on solar power? Other than political reasons, there are
drawn to the P-side. Mobile electrons is picked up by thin technical factors. We need more efficient methods to more
metallic fingers on the top of the cell which are in turn are electricity from sunnier parts to cloudy ones. Moreover, the
connected to the conductor. From there they flow through on most efficient solar cell converts only 46% of total energy it
external circuit and do some work (like lighting a bulb) before receives, and most commercial systems currently available are
returning to the collective aluminium sheet at the back of the converting 15 to 20 %. In spite of the limitations it is possible
cell. Each solar cell gives about half a volt of electricity but to feed the entire world with solar energy by the current
several cells are connected together to form a module. While technology. We need the funding and a good deal of space,
one module may give enough electricity to charge a mobile which according to some estimates are equal to 1000’s of
phone, several panels can connect to power say a household. square miles which seems like a lot, but Sahara desert along is
Electrons are the only moving parts in a solar cell. They return 3 million square miles or 4.8 million sq.km. in area.
to the place where they came from. So, there is nothing that Meanwhile, the solar cells are becoming cheaper and better and
gets worn out or used up, and as such solar cells can last for are competing with more traditional methods of generating
decades. electricity, and innovations like solar farms floating on high
seas may change the energy landscape entirely. About 2 billion
In solar panels, the photons from the sun’s rays hit the people live in less developed countries where they do not have
surface of the panel and electrons are released to make the reliable source of energy and they have plenty of sunshine. In
electric current going. So far as solar panels are concerned, these countries, solar energy is still a very viable option.
they can use all types of irradiance, which solar towers can
only use direct irradiance. And this is where clouds become
important. Because of their type and location relation to the sun
they can either increase or decrease the amount of electricity
produced. For instance even a few clouds in front of the sun
can reduce the electricity production from a solar tower almost
to zero because of its dependence on direct rays. In solar panels
those clouds would not decrease energy output as well though
not as much because solar panels are all types of irradiance.
However all this depends on clouds exact positioning. Due to
reflection on particular phenomena called Mie Scattering the
sun’s rays can actually be focused forward by the clouds to
create almost a 50% increase the solar irradiance reaching the
solar panel. If this potential is not accounted for, this can
damage the solar panel.
In solar tower, any increase in energy can use huge

tank of molten sulphur or salt to store excess heat and use it
when needed. And that is how they manage the problem of
fluctuation of solar irradiance in order to smooth out electricity
production. But in the case of solar panels currently there is no
way when we can affordably store extra energy. That’s where
the traditional power plants come in, because to correct for any
fluctuation in the solar power plants extra electricity from
traditional sources in always needed to be available.
But why are the traditional power plants always used

in the back up instead of we human depend upon them as our
main sources of energy, because it is humanly impossible for
any mechanism to just turn on a knob to turn on or off
electricity repairing upon how many clouds are there in the
sky. Response time will simply be too slow. That is why some
extra energy from traditional plants will always be produced.
On sunny days extra energy will be wasted but on cloudy days
it fills the gap. For this reason lot of research and study is
going on to forecast motion and formation of clouds.
99
Town Along USBRL Project- GOOL
By
Deepak Singh
Geographical aspects: Public care system:
Gool is a Tehsil in Ramban district of state of Jammu & Gool is having health care system in the form of sub-
Kashmir. It is about 52 kms from Ramban by state divisional hospital, public safety system in the form of
highway road. It is situated about 17 km away southern sub-divisional police station, government and private
side of Sangaldan (one of the proposed railway station schools at primary, middle, secondary and senior
under USBRL project). The altitude of Gool block is secondary level. There is also government degree and
about 1800 metres above the mean sea level. The ITI college affiliated to Jammu university and
population of the block is approximately sixty thousand. technical university respectively situated in the block.
The literacy rate of the block is around 50%. The There is also one of the armys unit (58 RR) stationed
agricultural activity is the priority of the people and at the block. The block is also having sound banking
maize, paddy, pulses, potato, rajma and rice are most system in the form of a leading bank of state (Jammu
prominently grown here. Various road projects & Kashmir bank ltd.) with the ATM of the bank and
undertaken by state government such as PMGSY and Co-operative bank. There is also a food store under
PWD road projects are in progress in the block to Consumer and public affairs department which
interconnect all the villages situated in the block. The supplements to better public distribution system of
Gool block is also densely forested under which total food for poor people of the block.
forest area is 17100 Ha which mostly have conifers
(kail, deodar, fur, spruce, chir), broad leaved trees Climate:
(willow, popular, champ, kainth, kiker, mulberry,
daman), shishum, walnut, apple, pear type of trees. As Gool is situated at such high altitude the climate
There is also Range office of forest situated here. here is mostly cold. From November ownwards till the
Various species of flower such as rose grown here adds month of March the hills and mountain situated around
to beauty of place. Also the second largest potato farm of the place are found to be snow covered which makes
the state is situated in Narsingha situated in Gool block. the place so much picturesque that that the phrase that
”Heaven is situated on the earth” can be substituted for
Transportation and Communication: the explanation of the beauty of the place.
The transport facility for Gool block from Sangaldan Picnic & Pilgrimage spots:
is mostly from jeep and mini buses. Also phone
communication is available in the block with various Gool also boasts of a lot of picnic spots which are
service providers’ phone connection such as BSNL, easily accessible by road or by foot with distance of
Airtel, Aircel etc working here. around 25 km or less from the place. Picnic spots
namely Deccan top, Asthan marg, Darsah top,
Ramakunda, Narsingha top, Hajammarg, Margoti,
Chamnar top, Iskunda, Sirkaintha top, Udra are the
most prominent among all the picnic spots situated
here. All the picnic spots are at altitude of around
1800m to 1900m approximately. There is also a
pilgrimage spot in the Gool block known as Tatapani
which is situated at a distance of approximately nine
kilometers south east of Sangaldan by road. Tatapani is
known for natural hot spring which is believed to have
medicinal importance in care of skin disease, bone
problems of human body can be gradually cured by
taking dip in the hot spring. Presence of sulphur in the
water is believed to be imparting alleged healing
properties to the water at the place. Especially during
monsoon season (from July to September) there is
heavy rush of people of the state at Tatapani to take the
DEEPAK SINGH holy dip in the hot spring.
XEN/C-I/Sangaldan
USBRL Project
100
J&K bank at Gool School at Gool
With aid of Corporate social responsibility SOLAR LIGHTAT MASJID,

UPPER SEERA, DHARAM (under.Gool block)
In near future when rail service will become operational

through Sangaldan connecting Baramulla towards north
and Jammu toward south it is most probable that Gool
& Tatapani will become one of the most favourite
tourist spots due to sacred and sound features of Gool &
Tatapani. Also state government should develop
recreational parks at various tourist spots in Gool so that
Ancient sculpture at Gool Hospital and community health centre at Gool
maximum number of tourists are attracted to the place.
Moreover by utilizing funds out of Corporate social
responsibility (CSR) , railway PSUs are helping in the
betterment of the lives of local people by serving
various social responsibilities such as distributing
clothes, food, bags etc. to poor people and by making
school & colleges for betterment of education which is
contributing in the development of Gool town socially.
Portion of forest area under Gool One of road projects of PMGSY under Gool Block
Judicial Magistrate office at Gool Way to Police station at Gool
101
Probiotics And Prebiotics As Functional Foods
By
Mohini Prabha Singh
Introduction Dairy products from the major part of functional
Did you know that certain foods or food components may products. To understand their success, it is important to
provide health and wellness benefits? The growing realize that milk is a natural and highly nutritive part of
awareness of the relationship between diet and health has a balanced daily diet. Milk and some other dairy
led to an increasing demand for food products that support products were recognized as important foods as early
health above and beyond providing basic nutrition. as 4000 B.C. Nowadays dairy products are excellent
These foods, also known as “functional foods,” are media to generate an array of products that fit to
thought to provide benefits beyond basic nutrition and may current consumer demand for functional food.
play a role in reducing or minimizing the risk of certain Fermented dairy products enriched with probiotic
diseases and other health conditions. Examples of these bacteria have developed into one of the most
foods include fruits and vegetables, whole grains, fortified successful parts of functional foods. The food industry
foods and beverages and some dietary supplements. is especially active in studying probiotics because the
Functional characteristics of many traditional foods are gastrointestinal tract is one of the richest zones of
being discovered and studied, while new food products are biodiversity within the body with at least 450 known
being developed to include beneficial components. By species of microorganisms commonly found there.
knowing which foods can provide specific health benefits, Alternative products for incorporating probiotics (e.g.,
you can make food and beverage choices that allow you to ice cream, cheeses, cereals, fruit juices, vegetables, and
take greater control of your health. soy beans) are also being utilized.
These probiotics and prebiotics are nothing but the
Definition of Functional Foods
components present in foods, or that can be
It is defined as a “Natural or processed food that contains
incorporated into foods, which yield health benefits
known biologically-active compounds which when in
related to their interactions with the gastrointestinal
defined quantitative and qualitative amounts provides a
tract (GI). While the benefits of prebiotics have come
clinically proven and documented health benefit, and thus,
to light in more recent years, recognition of probiotic
an important source in the prevention, management and
effects dates back to the 19th century when the French
treatment of chronic diseases of the modern age.” The term
scientist Louis Pasteur (1822 –1895) postulated the
was first used in Japan in the 1980s. Functional food enters
importance of microorganisms in human life; this was
the concept of considering food not only necessary for
further reinforced by work done by 1908 Nobel Prize-
living but also as a source of mental and physical well-
winner Elie Metchnikoff. Microorganisms that are
being, contributing to the prevention and reducing of risk
probiotics in humans include yeast, bacilli, Escherichia
factors for several diseases or enhancing certain
coli, enterococci and the more commonly used
physiological functions.
bifidobacteria and lactic acid bacteria, such as
lactobacilli, lactococci and streptococci.
What are Probiotics?
A probiotic has been defined as “a live microbial food
ingredient that, when ingested in sufficient quantities,
exerts health benefits. Probiotic microorganisms can
be found in both supplement form and as components
of foods and beverages.
MOHINI PRABHA SINGH
D/O M. B. Azad AXEN/C/JAT
102
These bacteria and yeasts have been used for thousands of Table 1: Examples of Probiotics and Prebiotics
years to ferment foods. Certain yogurts and other cultured
dairy products contain such helpful bacteria, particularly Potential
Class/Component Source*
Benefit
specific strains of Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli. Not all
bacteria present in fermented milk products or yogurt have a Probiotics
probiotic effect. For this reason, in order to consider a
Lactobacillus or Bifidobacterium a probiotic, the specific Certain species Certain yogurts, May improve
and strains other cultured gastrointestinal
strains selected must exert a clinically established health
of Lactobacilli, dairy products, health
benefit. In near future, probiotics may also be found in Bifidobacteria, and non-dairy and systemic
fermented vegetables and meats. After passage through the Yeast applications immunity
stomach and the small intestine, some probiotics survive and
Prebiotics
become established transiently in the large bowel. Indeed,
the colon’s fermentation capacity may be modified after Whole grains,
probiotic intake, and oral intake of certain lactic acid bacteria onions,
Inulin, Fructo- bananas, garlic,
will increase the number of lactobacilli or bifidobacteria in
oligosaccharides honey, leeks, May improve
human feces. (FOS), artichokes, gastrointestinal
What are Prebiotics? Polydextrose, fortified foods health;
Arabinogalactan, and beverages, may improve
Prebiotics are defined as “nondigestible food ingredients that Polyols — dietary calcium absorption
beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the lactulose, lactitol supplements
growth of one or a limited number of bacterial species in the and other food
applications
colon, such as Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, which have
the potential to improve host health.” Prebiotics are, simply Chart adapted from International Food Information
speaking, the “food” for beneficial bacteria. Prebiotics are Council Foundation: Media Guide on Food Safety and
Nutrition: 2004-2006.
found naturally in many foods, and can also be isolated from
*Examples are not an all-inclusive list
plants (e.g., chicory root) or synthesized (e.g., enzymatically,
from sucrose)—see below in Table 1. In order for a food
ingredient to be classified as a prebiotic, it has to be Probiotic bacteria taken together with prebiotics that
support their growth are called “synbiotics.” Both work
demonstrated, that it: (a) is not broken down in the stomach
together in a synergistic way more efficiently promoting the
or absorbed in the GI tract, (b) is fermented by the
probiotics’ benefits.
gastrointestinal microflora; and (c) most importantly,
selectively stimulates the growth and/or activity of intestinal PROBIOTICS AND PREBIOTICS AS
bacteria associated with health and wellbeing. The only FUNCTIONAL FOOD INGREDIENTS
prebiotics for which sufficient data have been generated to Actions of the GI Tract
allow an evaluation of their possible classification as To understand the role that probiotics and prebiotics
functional food ingredients are the inulin-type fructans play in overall health, familiarity with the Gastro
(carbohydrates). Intestinal tract and the body is important. Human
beings play host to many types of microorganisms on
The most common sources are wheat, onion, banana, garlic, the skin, in the mouth, and in the GI tract. The human
and leeks. Chicory insulin and oligofructose are officially gastrointestinal environment, including the microflora,
recognized as natural food ingredients in most European has a significant role in the health of its host. The
countries, and they have a self-affirmed generally recognized normal gut microflora activity is complex including
as safe status in the United States. both potentially beneficial and potentially harmful
bacteria, thus, it is important to maintain a healthy
intestinal tract and helps the intestine acts as an
effective barrier; allowing nutrients to be absorbed and
keeping out toxins and pathogens (foreign bacteria or
viruses).
103
The gut microflora breaks down vitamins and also ferments Table 2: Strength of the evidence for improvement
fibers and carbohydrates that are not digested in the upper GI of body functions by probiotics and prebiotics
tract. This breakdown produces fatty acids that are important
for supporting a healthy intestinal barrier (particularly in the
lower GI tract) and also inhibits the growth of harmful
bacteria. Healthy intestinal flora is also associated with
intestinal (stool) regularity.
Actions of Probiotics in the GI Tract
Consumption of probiotics, particularly certain species of
Bifidobacteria and Lactobacilli, can help “balance” the flora,
increasing the number of helpful, and reducing (inhibiting
the growth of) harmful bacteria, in the intestine.
Consumption of probiotics can also modify the gut immune
response and improve its barrier function. For example,
specific probiotic species can reduce the risk of certain
infections, particularly those of the GI tract, such as
intestinal viruses. More recently, probiotics have also been
shown to modulate/adjust the activity of the immune system,
helping to control or reduce the development of certain
allergies. While research is ongoing, current evidence with
several probiotic strains in animal and human studies
suggests a moderate cholesterol-lowering effect from
cultured dairy products such as yogurt and milk products.
Actions of Prebiotics in the GI Tract
The principal characteristic and effect of prebiotics in the Table 3: Strength of the evidence for disease
diet is to promote the growth and proliferation of beneficial risk reduction by probiotics and prebiotics
bacteria in the intestinal tract, and thus, potentially yield or
enhance the effect of probiotic bacteria. Prebiotics have also The Bottom Line
been shown to increase the absorption of certain minerals While some of the pro- and prebiotic beneficial effects on
(such as calcium and magnesium). Prebiotics may also help the function of the human gut have been established and
inhibit the growth of lesions, such as adenomas and their favorable impact on health widely supported, further
carcinomas in the gut, and thus reduce the risk factors scientific research is ongoing to substantiate their direct
involved in colorectal diseases. For prebiotic substances, relationship to disease risk reduction. These have
little data pertaining to lipid-lowering effects are available potential impact on the balance of the body’s microflora,
and come mostly from studies with inulin and oligofructose. and directly or indirectly in their enhancement of the
In hyperlipidemic subjects, when a prebiotic effect is seen, it function of the gut and systemic immune system.
is a reduction in cholesterol; whereas in normal-lipidemic Although benefits vary, depending on the type and
subjects, any noted effects are on serum triglycerides. amount of a pre- or probiotic consumed, experts agree
that daily consumption of foods containing these
Improvement of functions and reduction in disease risk
The strength of experimental evidence supporting claims of a functional components is beneficial. In addition, effects
functional effect from probiotics and prebiotics is of probiotics are strain-specific and must be demonstrated
summarized in Table 2 and Table 3 as strong, promising, or through appropriate clinical trials.
preliminary or as no effect or unknown.
104
Children’s Work
57
By: - Poorva Gupta of Class 2nd D/o Sh. Niraj Kumar,

Dy.CE/Reasi
By: - Asima Jahangir of class 7th Niece of Jameel Ahmed,

OS/USBRL/JAT
105
Children’s Work
By: - Asima Jahangir of class 7th Niece of Jameel Ahmed

OS/USBRL/JAT
By: - Adil Jahangir of class 6th Nephew of Jameel Ahmed

OS/USBRL/JAT
106
Salient Features of the Project
Item Udhampur-Katra Katra- Banihal Banihal- Quazigund Quazigund – Total

Baramulla
Route Length (Km) 25 111 18 118 272
Ruling Gradient 1 in 100 (C ) 1 in 80 (C ) 1 in 100 (C ) 1 in 100 (C )
Max Curvature 5o 3.9o 3.1o 2.75o
Bridges 38 40 41 811 930
359 15.75 22
Max. height of bridge 85 7035 275 4210 13008
(m)
Longest span 154 m steel girder 467 m steel arch 45 m 45 m
over river Jhajjar over river
Chenab
Tunnel Length (Km) 11 95.7 11.215 0 118
Tunnels (No.) 10 28 1 0 39
% Length in Tunnel 44 86.2 62 0
Longest Tunnel (Km) 3.15 12.3 11.215
Jammu- Udhampur – 20 % length in tunnels
Udhampur- Katra – 44% length in tunnels
The Jammu Udhampur Srinagar Baramulla Rail Link Project was envisioned with a view to provide a reliable and alternate
transportation system in the state of Jammu and Kashmir and to connect the state and the Kashmir valley with rest of the Indian Railway
Network. With the above vision, Government of India planned a 326 km. long Railway Line. The Project was declared as a “National
Project “in year 2008.
Some of the special features of the project are as under:-
 The Jammu-Udhampur-Katra-Quazigund-Baramulla Railway line is the biggest project in the construction of a mountain railway since
independence. From Jammu to Baramulla, length of the new rail line is 326 km. and it passes through the young Himalayas, one of the
most geologically complicated and challenging terrains in the world. The Geology, tectonic thrusts and faults, drainage and ground water
of the region have great bearing on the construction of this project.
Sites are remotely located, inaccessible and therefore difficult from logistic and topographic consideration.
 Providing access to the work sites involves construction of large network of Access Roads, the most challenging job for completion of
this project. In particulars the stretch between river Chenab and Banihal is passing through a virgin territory and require construct of
about 200 km of access road.
 The alignment crosses deep gorges of Chenab River near Salal Hydro Power Dam, which necessitates construction of long span bridges.
The Chenab Bridge, 359 m above river bed, will be the highest bridge in the world, and longest span for BG Rail line with arch span of
467 m.
 The project also involved construction of Pir-Panjal tunnel, the longest transportation tunnel of Indian Railways across PirPanjal range
connecting Jammu & Kashmir provinces of J&K State. The tunnel is located between the Banihal railway stations in South and Qazigund
in North Total length of the tunnel is 11.2 km with overburden of 1100 m. This tunnel had been completed and Section from Banihal to
Quazigund opened to public by Hon’ble Prime Minister on 26.6.2013.
 The stretch between Katra to Qazigund representing 128 km length is the most difficult part of this project. Almost 80% of length of this
stretch is in tunnel and 10% on bridges and rest on embankment.
 Some of the special features of this stretch are:-
♦ Alignment in this stretch passes through the world’s one of the most difficult terrain, both in terms of logistics and geological strata.
♦ Terrain characterizes sedimentary/metamorphic rocks which are yet to be stabilized.
♦ Various type of geological formation are met with in this stretch having altogether different characteristic / properties.
♦ Alignment running across major tectonic features such as Reasi Thrust, MurreeThrust,Panjal Thrust & Local faults
♦ The structural discontinuities occurring in the form of faults, thrusts, shears and joints are likely to pose problems in the
construction activities along the rail alignment
♦ Adverse climatic condition due to heavy snowfall in winter resulting in sub-zero temperature and reduced working period.
♦ Many of station on this project are located on tunnel/ bridges.
♦ World most advance and modern technology is being used for construction.
♦ When completed this will be a marvel of engineering with unparalleled benchmark.
107
Geology Along The Project Alignment
11
Disclaimer
Him Prabhat, USBRL technical news magazine is published in good faith and can-not be held responsible in any way for
inaccuracies in report / content that appear in this publication and the views of the contributors may not be those of the editors.
The opinions expressed by this magazine are not necessarily the views of the editors/publisher, but of the individual writers.
Unless specifically mention the articles and statements published in this magazine do not necessarily reflects the views or
policies of Northern Railway, Ministry of Railways or Govt. of India.

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5

Mohit Sinha Employees of the month: -11

 Estimation of Rock Load for the Design of Tunnel Lining :- 75-80

Associate Editors  Quality Control of Steel :- 81-84

MEETING WITH THE CONSULTANTS AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 13TH

GM VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 22ND OF JUNE 2015

AMBERG TEAM AT T-45/P2 SANGALDAN ON 6th OF NOVEMBER 2015

MOSR VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 24th OF JUNE 2015

CONSULATIVE COMMITTEE AT SRINAGAR ON 9th OF JULY 2015

INDEPENDENCE DAY CELEBRATIONS AT HEAD OFFICE SATYAM

ED RDSO VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 15th OF SEPTEMBER 2015

DESIGNERS REVIEW MEETING HELD ON 17th OF SEPTEMBER 2015

CRB VISIT AT CHENAB BRIDGE ON 16 & 17th OF OCTOBER 2015

Sh. Ashwani K. Bhardwaj

Sh. Santosh Kumar

Sh. Santosh Kumar is working as PA to Chief Engineer/North/USBRL. He is sincere, hard working

Favourite Food: All foods simply cooked.

Favourite Colour: All light colours

Best Moments: Opening of Jammu-Udhampur section

S.No. Name Service & Previous Posting Educational

IRSE - 2003 Sr. DEN/3/Ferozpur B-Tech (Civil)

Sh. Amit Kumar Dy.CE/Chenab

IRSE - 2001 Sr. DEN-I Moradabad AMIE (Civil)

Sh. Mohit Kumar Dy.CE/Banihal

Induction in Dy.CE/BD/Baroda M.E (Structure)

Sh. B.K. Sharma Dy.CE/Anji

IRSE - 1998 Dy.CE/Br./Lucknow/ M-TECH (IIT

Sh. Radha Mohan Singh Dy.CE/HQ/JAT

IRSE - 2001 Deputation RLDA AMIE(Civil Engg),

1.5.3 Economic Survey 2014-15 placed before the Parliament

V. K. AGARWAL Supplementing Data / Explanatory Notes are attached.

This will put IR on the World High Speed Rail Map

7.5.1 Indian Railways are already working to enhance speeds

Role of ‘Engineering’ is becoming more and more difficult

7.2 Dr. R. A. Mashelkar has suggested MLM approach, also

• Golden Quadrilateral and its two Diagonals connecting metro

• With the shift of Freight traffic to DFCs, the existing network

• Conventional High Speed Trains at 300-350 kmph should be

• System being a major provider of Transport and also being

• Indian railways should not only be a part of larger Transport

• Safety of travel should be accorded the highest priority and

• The System should manufacture Locos, Coaches, Wagons and

• Railway Management / Employees should not only be Fully

• Bhutan has begun to use Gross National Happiness

• Technology involves the use of tools, machines, materials,

• Science has contributed much to modern technology.

• The word technology is sometimes used to describe a

C. While discussing “smart energy” Piccioni (2010) in his

• Project Management This is an area which is mostly neglected resulting in

A more holistic view of science and technology

 Insanitation following water supply.

 Traffic jams following boost to automobile

S.4.11.3 There is severe congestion on the Golden Quadrilateral

Table No. 2 Delhi- 28 5 5 15 71%

Source: IR Year Books. Delhi- 24 2 5 16 88%

Source: White Paper on Indian Railways – Dec.2009.

All the serious difficulties that may be encountered

The control of ground water is of utmost importance in

METHODS OF CONTROLING THE GROUND