2nd quarter: ANIMAL DIVERSITY

139 Animal Phylogeny

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

 Interpret the metazoan phylogenetic tree

 Describe the types of data that scientists use to construct and revise animal phylogeny
 List some of the relationships within the modern phylogenetic tree that have been discovered as a result of
modern molecular data

Classifying Animals

Scientists have developed a classification scheme that categorizes all members of the animal kingdom, although there
are exceptions to most “rules” governing animal classification (Figure 1). Animals are primarily classified according to
morphological and developmental characteristics, such as a body plan. One of the most prominent features of the
body plan of true animals is that they are morphologically symmetrical. This means that their distribution of body
parts is balanced along an axis. Additional characteristics include the number of tissue layers formed during
development, the presence or absence of an internal body cavity, and other features of embryological development,
such as the origin of the mouth and anus.

True animals are divided into those with radial versus bilateral symmetry. Generally, the simpler and often non-motile
animals display radial symmetry. Animals with radial symmetry are also generally characterized by the development
of two embryological germ layers, the endoderm and ectoderm, whereas animals with bilateral symmetry are
generally characterized by the development of a third embryological germ layer, the mesoderm. Animals with three
germ layers, called triploblasts, are further characterized by the presence or absence of an internal body cavity called
a coelom. The presence of a coelom affords many advantages, and animals with a coelom may be termed true
coelomates or pseudocoelomates, depending on which tissue gives rise to the coelom. Coelomates are further divided
into one of two groups called protostomes and deuterostomes, based on a number of developmental characteristics,
including differences in zygote cleavage and method of coelom formation.

Figure 1. The phylogenetic tree of animals is based on morphological, fossil, and genetic evidence.
 PRACTICE QUESTION

Which of the following statements is false?

a. Eumetazoans have specialized tissues and parazoans don’t.
b. Lophotrochozoa and Ecdysozoa are both Bilataria.
c. Acoela and Cnidaria both possess radial symmetry.
d. Arthropods are more closely related to nematodes than they are to annelids.

Constructing an Animal Phylogenetic Tree

The current understanding of evolutionary relationships among animal, or Metazoa, phyla begins with the distinction
between animals with true differentiated tissues, called Eumetazoa, and animal phyla that do not have true
differentiated tissues, such as the sponges (Porifera) and the Placozoa. Similarities between the feeding cells of
sponges (choanocytes) and choanoflagellate protists ((Figure)) have been used to suggest that Metazoa evolved from
a common ancestral organism that resembled the moderncolonial choanoflagellates.

Choanoflagellates and choanocytes. Cells of the protist choanoflagellate clade closely resemble sponge choanocyte
cells. Beating of choanocyte flagella draws water through the sponge so that nutrients can be extracted and waste
removed.

Eumetazoa are subdivided into radially symmetrical animals and bilaterally symmetrical animals, and are thus
classified into the clades Bilateria and Radiata, respectively. As mentioned earlier, the cnidarians and ctenophores are
animal phyla with true radial, biradial, or rotational symmetry. All other Eumetazoa are members of the Bilateria
clade. The bilaterally symmetrical animals are further divided into deuterostomes (including chordates and
echinoderms) and two distinct clades of protostomes (including ecdysozoans and lophotrochozoans)
((Figure)a,b). Ecdysozoa includes nematodes and arthropods; they are so named for a commonly found
characteristic among the group: the physiological process of exoskeletal molting followed by the “stripping” of the
outer cuticular layer, called ecdysis. Lophotrochozoa is named for two structural features, each common to certain
phyla within the clade. Some lophotrochozoan phyla are characterized by a larval stage called trochophore larvae, and
other phyla are characterized by the presence of a feeding structure called a lophophore (thus, the shorter term,
“lopho-trocho-zoa”).

Ecdysozoa. Animals that molt their exoskeletons, such as these (a) Madagascar hissing cockroaches, are in the clade
Ecdysozoa. (b) Phoronids are in the clade Lophotrochozoa. The tentacles are part of a feeding structure called a
lophophore. (credit a: modification of work by Whitney Cranshaw, Colorado State University, Bugwood.org; credit b:
modification of work by NOAA)
Modern Advances in Phylogenetic Understanding Come from Molecular Analyses

The phylogenetic groupings are continually being debated and refined by evolutionary biologists. Each year, new
evidence emerges that further alters the relationships described by a phylogenetic tree diagram.

Nucleic acid and protein analyses have greatly modified and refined the modern phylogenetic animal tree. These data
come from a variety of molecular sources, such as mitochondrial DNA, nuclear DNA, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and
certain cellular proteins. Many evolutionary relationships in the modern tree have only recently been determined from
the molecular evidence. For example, a previously classified group of animals called lophophorates, which included
brachiopods and bryozoans, were long-thought to be primitive deuterostomes. Extensive molecular analysis using
rRNA data found these animals are actually protostomes, more closely related to annelids and mollusks. This
discovery allowed for the distinction of the protostome clade Lophotrochozoa. Molecular data have also shed light on
some differences within the lophotrochozoan group, and the placement of the Platyhelminthes is particularly
problematic. Some scientists believe that the phyla Platyhelminthes and Rotifera should actually belong to their own
clade of protostomes termed Platyzoa.

Molecular research similar to the discoveries that brought about the distinction of the lophotrochozoan clade has also
revealed a dramatic rearrangement of the relationships between mollusks, annelids, arthropods, and nematodes, and
as a result, a new ecdysozoan clade was formed. Due to morphological similarities in their segmented body types,
annelids and arthropods were once thought to be closely related. However, molecular evidence has revealed that
arthropods are actually more closely related to nematodes, now comprising the ecdysozoan clade, and annelids are
more closely related to mollusks, brachiopods, and other phyla in the lophotrochozoan clade. These two clades now
make up the protostomes.

Another change to former phylogenetic groupings because of modern molecular analyses includes the emergence of
an entirely new phylum of worm called Acoelomorpha. These acoel flatworms were long thought to belong to the
phylum Platyhelminthes because of their similar “flatworm” morphology. However, molecular analyses revealed this to
be a false relationship and originally suggested that acoels represented living species of some of the earliest divergent
bilaterians. More recent research into the acoelomorphs has called this hypothesis into question and suggested that
the acoels are more closely related to deuterostomes. The placement of this new phylum remains disputed, but
scientists agree that with sufficient molecular data, their true phylogeny will be determined.

Another example of phylogenetic reorganization involves the identification of the Ctenophora as the basal clade of the
animal kingdom. Ctenophora, or comb jellies, were once considered to be a sister group of the Cnidaria, and the
sponges (Porifera) were placed as the basal animal group, sister to other animals. The presence of nerve and muscle
cells in both the Ctenophores and the Cnidaria and their absence in the Porifera strengthened this view of the
relationships among simple animal forms. However, recent molecular analysis has shown that many of the genes that
support neural development in other animals are absent from the Ctenophore genome. The muscle cells are restricted
to the mouth and tentacles and are derived from cells in the mesoglea. The mitochondrial genome of the Ctenophores
is small and lacks many genes found in other animal mitochondrial genomes. These features plus the absence
of Hox genes from the Ctenophores have been used to argue that the Ctenophores should be considered basal or as a
sister group of the Porifera, and that the evolution of specialized nerve and muscle tissue may have occurred more
than once in the history of animal life. Although Ctenophores have been shown as basal to other animals in the
phylogeny presented in Chapter 27.2, debate on this issue is likely to continue as Ctenophores are more closely
studied.

Changes to the phylogenetic tree can be difficult to track and understand, and are evidence of the process of science.
Data and analytical methods play a significant role in the development of phylogenies. For this reason – because
molecular analysis and reanalysis are not complete — we cannot necessarily dismiss a former phylogenetic tree as
inaccurate. A recent reanalysis of molecular evidence by an international group of evolutionary biologists refuted the
 proposition that comb jellies are the phylogenetically oldest extant metazoan group. The study, which relied on more
sophisticated methods of analyzing the original genetic data, reaffirms the traditional view that the sponges were
indeed the first phylum to diverge from the common ancestor of metazoans. The ongoing discussion concerning the
location of sponges and comb jellies on the animal “family tree” is an example of what drives science forward.

Section Summary

Scientists are interested in the evolutionary history of animals and the evolutionary relationships among them. There
are three main sources of data that scientists use to create phylogenetic evolutionary tree diagrams that illustrate
such relationships: morphological information (which includes developmental morphologies), fossil record data, and,
most recently, molecular data. The details of the modern phylogenetic tree change frequently as new data are
gathered, and molecular data has recently contributed to many substantial modifications of the understanding of
relationships between animal phyla.

QUESTIONS:

1. Animals with three germ layers are further characterized by the presence or absence of a
________.

A. COELOM
B. MESODERM
C. VERTEBRAL COLUMN

2. All animals are ________.

A. EUMETAZOANS
B. METAZOANS
C. MACROSCOPIC

3. ANIMALS ARE PRIMARILY CLASSIFIED BASED ON…

A. MORPHOLOGICAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL FEATURE

B. GENETIC AND DEV’T FEATURES
C. GENETIC AND BIOCHEMICAL MARKERS

Review Questions

Consulting the modern phylogenetic tree of animals, which of the following would not constitute a clade?

a. deuterostomes
b. lophotrochozoans
c. Parazoa
d. Bilateria

Which of the following is thought to be the most closely related to the common animal ancestor?

a. fungal cells
b. protist cells
c. plant cells
d. bacterial cells

As with the emergence of the Acoelomorpha phylum, it is common for ____ data to misplace animals in close relation
to other species, whereas ____ data often reveals a different and more accurate evolutionary relationship.

a. molecular : morphological
b. molecular : fossil record
c. fossil record : morphological
d. morphological : molecular

Critical Thinking Questions

1. Describe at least two major changes to the animal phylogenetic tree that have come about due to
molecular or genetic findings.
2. How is it that morphological data alone might lead scientists to group animals into erroneous
evolutionary relationships?

Glossary

Ecdysozoa
clade of protostomes that exhibit exoskeletal molting (ecdysis)
Eumetazoa
group of animals with true differentiated tissues
Lophotrochozoa
clade of protostomes that exhibit a trochophore larvae stage or a lophophore feeding structure
Metazoa
group containing all animals
Parazoa
group of animals without true differentiated tissues

14.1 Animal Form and Function

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

 Describe the various types of body plans that occur in animals

Animals vary in form and function. From a sponge to a worm to a goat, an organism has a distinct body plan that
limits its size and shape. Animals’ bodies are also designed to interact with their environments, whether in the deep
sea, a rainforest canopy, or the desert. Therefore, a large amount of information about the structure of an organism’s
body (anatomy) and the function of its cells, tissues and organs (physiology) can be learned by studying that
organism’s environment.

Body Plans

Figure 14.2
Animals exhibit different types of body symmetry. The sponge is asymmetrical, the sea anemone has radial
symmetry, and the goat has bilateral symmetry.

Animal body plans follow set patterns related to symmetry. They are asymmetrical, radial, or bilateral in form as
illustrated in Figure 14.2. Asymmetrical animals are animals with no pattern or symmetry; an example of an
asymmetrical animal is a sponge. Radial symmetry, as illustrated in Figure 14.2, describes when an animal has an up-
and-down orientation: any plane cut along its longitudinal axis through the organism produces equal halves, but not a
definite right or left side. This plan is found mostly in aquatic animals, especially organisms that attach themselves to
a base, like a rock or a boat, and extract their food from the surrounding water as it flows around the organism.
Bilateral symmetry is illustrated in the same figure by a goat. The goat also has an upper and lower component to it,
but a plane cut from front to back separates the animal into definite right and left sides. Additional terms used when
describing positions in the body are anterior (front), posterior (rear), dorsal (toward the back), and ventral (toward
the stomach). Bilateral symmetry is found in both land-based and aquatic animals; it enables a high level of mobility.

Limiting Effects of Diffusion on Size and Development

The exchange of nutrients and wastes between a cell and its watery environment occurs through the process of
diffusion. All living cells are bathed in liquid, whether they are in a single-celled organism or a multicellular one.
Diffusion is effective over a specific distance and limits the size that an individual cell can attain. If a cell is a single-
celled microorganism, such as an amoeba, it can satisfy all of its nutrient and waste needs through diffusion. If the
cell is too large, then diffusion is ineffective and the center of the cell does not receive adequate nutrients nor is it
able to effectively dispel its waste.

An important concept in understanding how efficient diffusion is as a means of transport is the surface to volume
ratio. Recall that any three-dimensional object has a surface area and volume; the ratio of these two quantities is the
surface-to-volume ratio. Consider a cell shaped like a perfect sphere: it has a surface area of 4πr 2, and a volume of
(4/3)πr3. The surface-to-volume ratio of a sphere is 3/r; as the cell gets bigger, its surface to volume ratio decreases,
making diffusion less efficient. The larger the size of the sphere, or animal, the less surface area for diffusion it
possesses.

The solution to producing larger organisms is for them to become multicellular. Specialization occurs in complex
organisms, allowing cells to become more efficient at doing fewer tasks. For example, circulatory systems bring
nutrients and remove waste, while respiratory systems provide oxygen for the cells and remove carbon dioxide from
them. Other organ systems have developed further specialization of cells and tissues and efficiently control body
functions. Moreover, surface-to-volume ratio applies to other areas of animal development, such as the relationship
between muscle mass and cross-sectional surface area in supporting skeletons, and in the relationship between
muscle mass and the generation of dissipation of heat.

Animal Bioenergetics

All animals must obtain their energy from food they ingest or absorb. These nutrients are converted to adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) for short-term storage and use by all cells. Some animals store energy for slightly longer times as
glycogen, and others store energy for much longer times in the form of triglycerides housed in specialized adipose
tissues. No energy system is one hundred percent efficient, and an animal’s metabolism produces waste energy in the
form of heat. If an animal can conserve that heat and maintain a relatively constant body temperature, it is classified
as a warm-blooded animal and called an endotherm. The insulation used to conserve the body heat comes in the
forms of fur, fat, or feathers. The absence of insulation in ectothermicanimals increases their dependence on the
environment for body heat.

The amount of energy expended by an animal over a specific time is called its metabolic rate. The rate is measured
variously in joules, calories, or kilocalories (1000 calories). Carbohydrates and proteins contain about 4.5 to 5 kcal/g,
and fat contains about 9 kcal/g. Metabolic rate is estimated as the basal metabolic rate (BMR) in endothermic
animals at rest and as the standard metabolic rate (SMR) in ectotherms. Human males have a BMR of 1600 to
1800 kcal/day, and human females have a BMR of 1300 to 1500 kcal/day. Even with insulation, endothermal animals
require extensive amounts of energy to maintain a constant body temperature. An ectotherm such as an alligator has
an SMR of 60 kcal/day.

Energy Requirements Related to Body Size

Smaller endothermic animals have a greater surface area for their mass than larger ones (Figure 14.4). Therefore,
smaller animals lose heat at a faster rate than larger animals and require more energy to maintain a constant internal
temperature. This results in a smaller endothermic animal having a higher BMR, per body weight, than a larger
endothermic animal.

Figure 14.4.  The mouse has a much higher metabolic rate than the elephant. (credit “mouse”: modification of work
by Magnus Kjaergaard; credit “elephant”: modification of work by “TheLizardQueen”/Flickr)

Energy Requirements Related to Levels of Activity

The more active an animal is, the more energy is needed to maintain that activity, and the higher its BMR or SMR.
The average daily rate of energy consumption is about two to four times an animal’s BMR or SMR. Humans are more
sedentary than most animals and have an average daily rate of only 1.5 times the BMR. The diet of an endothermic
animal is determined by its BMR. For example: the type of grasses, leaves, or shrubs that an herbivore eats affects
the number of calories that it takes in. The relative caloric content of herbivore foods, in descending order, is tall
grasses > legumes > short grasses > forbs (any broad-leaved plant, not a grass) > subshrubs > annuals/biennials.
Energy Requirements Related to Environment

Animals adapt to extremes of temperature or food availability through torpor. Torpor is a process that leads to a
decrease in activity and metabolism and allows animals to survive adverse conditions. Torpor can be used by animals
for long periods, such as entering a state of hibernation during the winter months, in which case it enables them to
maintain a reduced body temperature. During hibernation, ground squirrels can achieve an abdominal temperature of
0° C (32° F), while a bear’s internal temperature is maintained higher at about 37° C (99° F).

If torpor occurs during the summer months with high temperatures and little water, it is called estivation. Some
desert animals use this to survive the harshest months of the year. Torpor can occur on a daily basis; this is seen in
bats and hummingbirds. While endothermy is limited in smaller animals by surface to volume ratio, some organisms
can be smaller and still be endotherms because they employ daily torpor during the part of the day that is coldest.
This allows them to conserve energy during the colder parts of the day, when they consume more energy to maintain
their body temperature.

Animal Body Planes and Cavities

A standing vertebrate animal can be divided by several planes. A sagittal planedivides the body into right and left
portions. A midsagittal plane divides the body exactly in the middle, making two equal right and left halves.
A frontal plane (also called a coronal plane) separates the front from the back. A transverse plane (or, horizontal
plane) divides the animal into upper and lower portions. This is sometimes called a cross section, and, if the
transverse cut is at an angle, it is called an oblique plane. Figure 14.5 illustrates these planes on a goat (a four-legged
animal) and a human being.

Figure 14.5. 
Shown are the planes of a quadruped goat and a bipedal human. The midsagittal plane divides the body exactly in
half, into right and left portions. The frontal plane divides the front and back, and the transverse plane divides the
body into upper and lower portions.

Vertebrate animals have a number of defined body cavities, as illustrated in Figure 14.6. Two of these are major
cavities that contain smaller cavities within them. The dorsal cavity contains the cranial and the vertebral (or spinal)
cavities. The ventral cavity contains the thoracic cavity, which in turn contains the pleural cavity around the lungs
and the pericardial cavity, which surrounds the heart. The ventral cavity also contains the abdominopelvic cavity,
which can be separated into the abdominal and the pelvic cavities.
Figure 14.6.  Vertebrate animals have two major body cavities. The dorsal cavity, indicated in green, contains the
cranial and the spinal cavity. The ventral cavity, indicated in yellow, contains the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity. The thoracic cavity is separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm. The
thoracic cavity is separated into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity by an imaginary line parallel to the pelvis
bones. (credit: modification of work by NCI)

Physical Anthropologist

Physical anthropologists study the adaption, variability, and evolution of human beings, plus their living and fossil
relatives. They can work in a variety of settings, although most will have an academic appointment at a university,
usually in an anthropology department or a biology, genetics, or zoology department.

Non-academic positions are available in the automotive and aerospace industries where the focus is on human size,
shape, and anatomy. Research by these professionals might range from studies of how the human body reacts to car
crashes to exploring how to make seats more comfortable. Other non-academic positions can be obtained in museums
of natural history, anthropology, archaeology, or science and technology. These positions involve educating students
from grade school through graduate school. Physical anthropologists serve as education coordinators, collection
managers, writers for museum publications, and as administrators. Zoos employ these professionals, especially if they
have an expertise in primate biology; they work in collection management and captive breeding programs for
endangered species. Forensic science utilizes physical anthropology expertise in identifying human and animal
remains, assisting in determining the cause of death, and for expert testimony in trials.

Glossary

asymmetrical: describes animals with no axis of symmetry in their body pattern

basal metabolic rate (BMR): metabolic rate at rest in endothermic animals
cartilage: type of connective tissue with a large amount of ground substance matrix, cells called chondrocytes, and
some amount of fibers
chondrocyte: cell found in cartilage
columnar epithelia: epithelia made of cells taller than they are wide, specialized in absorption
connective tissue: type of tissue made of cells, ground substance matrix, and fibers
cuboidal epithelia: epithelia made of cube-shaped cells, specialized in glandular functions
dorsal cavity: body cavity on the posterior or back portion of an animal; includes the cranial and vertebral cavities
ectotherm: animal incapable of maintaining a relatively constant internal body temperatureendotherm: animal
capable of maintaining a relatively constant internal body temperature
estivation: torpor in response to extremely high temperatures and low water availability
fibrous connective tissue: type of connective tissue with a high concentration of fibers
fusiform: animal body shape that is tubular and tapered at both ends
hibernation: torpor over a long period of time, such as a winter
homeostasis: dynamic equilibrium maintaining appropriate body functions
lacuna: space in cartilage and bone that contains living cells
matrix: component of connective tissue made of both living and non-living (ground substances) cells
midsagittal plane: plane cutting through an animal separating the individual into even right and left sides
negative feedback loop: feedback to a control mechanism that increases or decreases a stimulus instead of
maintaining it
osteon: subunit of compact bone
positive feedback loop:feedback to a control mechanism that continues the direction of a stimulus
sagittal plane: plane cutting through an animal separating the individual into right and left sides
set point: midpoint or target point in homeostasis
squamous epithelia: type of epithelia made of flat cells, specialized in aiding diffusion or preventing abrasion
standard metabolic rate (SMR): metabolic rate at rest in ectothermic animals
stratified epithelia: multiple layers of epithelial cells
torpor: decrease in activity and metabolism that allows an animal to survive adverse conditions
ventral cavity: body cavity on the anterior or front portion of an animal that includes the thoracic cavities and the
abdominopelvic cavities

4TH HUMAN IMPACTS TO BIODIVERSITY

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Habitat Fragmentation

Ecosystem conversion and ecosystem degradation contributes to habitat fragmentation. Habitat loss from exploitation
of resources, agricultural conversion, and urbanization is the largest factor contributing to the loss of biodiversity. The
consequent fragmentation of habitat results in small isolated patches of land that cannot maintain populations of
species into the future. Tweedsmuir Provincial Park, at 974,046 hectares, is British Columbia’s largest provincial park
and is big enough to maintain much of the composition, structure and function of biodiversity within the protected
area. However, smaller provincial parks, such as Buccaneer Bay at less than one hectare in size, will not be able to
maintain all of its original biodiversity in isolation. Scientists report that the effect of habitat fragmentation on
biodiversity may not be fully realized for decades after habitat is degraded. Therefore, habitat connectivity must be
considered in current management practices to prevent the devastating effects of fragmentation on biodiversity.

Exotic Species Introductions

Infestation by alien species, such as the Codling Moth, is also a major threat to BC ecosystems. The intentional and
inadvertent introductions of a wide variety of species to ecosystems in which they do not belong have resulted in
ecosystems that differ radically in structure and function from those originally present. Exotic species are typically
introduced into ecosystems without their co-evolved predators and parasites, which enables an alien invader to out-
compete native species with similar ecological requirements. In British Columbia, plants such as Knapweed,
introduced to arid grasslands, and Purple Loosestrife, introduced to marsh and riparian areas, are rapidly becoming
dominant plant species in their respective ecosystems. The interactions between native species are altered or
destroyed by these exotic species, and can result in the loss of native biodiversity.

Pollution

Atmospheric and hydrologic pollution have far-reaching negative effects on biodiversity. Pollution from burning fossil
fuels such as oil, coal and gas can remain in the air as particle pollutants or fall to the ground as acid rain. Acid rain,
which is primarily composed of sulfuric and nitric acid, causes acidification of lakes, streams and sensitive forest soils,
and contributes to slower forest growth and tree damage at high elevations. In addition, chemical pollutants such as
pesticides and herbicides leach into soils and watersheds. Some fish species, such as salmonids, require small
freshwater streams to spawn. Polluted streams result in the abandonment of traditional spawning areas and ultimately
in the loss of salmon populations. Species’ sensitivity to pollution is variable. However, many species are vulnerable to
the indirect effects of pollution through the concentration of toxic chemicals in top predators of food chains and
disruption of predator-prey interactions.

Global Climate Change

Carbon dioxide released from burning fossil fuels and biomass, deforestation, and agricultural practices contributes to
greenhouse gases, which prevent heat from escaping the earth’s surface. With the increase in temperature expected
from increasing greenhouse gases, there will be higher levels of air pollution, greater variability in weather patterns,
and changes in the distribution of vegetation in the landscape. Some species will not be able to adapt to these
changes in the environment and will become extinct. However, it is expected that many plant and animal species will
attempt to disperse to higher latitudes and altitudes as the temperature increases. Therefore, any barriers in the
landscape, such as highways and urban areas that prevent movement to more hospitable environments, will result in
loss of biodiversity.

Corridors and Connectivity

Such threats to biodiversity may cause the extinction of many species. Maintaining the connectivity of the landscape
could offset their impacts on biodiversity. The corridor concept proposes that refuges connected by corridors will have
higher immigration rates than isolated patches of natural habitat. This can offset extinction by promoting gene flow
and preventing inbreeding. Corridors composed of naturally occurring or restored strips of land that connect large
habitat patches may facilitate the movement of species between patches, and decrease the effects of threats to
biodiversity. Habitat patches connected by corridors must always be large enough to maintain populations of species,
especially for large-bodied vertebrates.

The effectiveness of wildlife corridors depends on many corridor design parameters, which include habitat type and
structural stage, length and width, and level of human activity in and around the corridor. Individual species require
different scales of connectivity. Some species are able to disperse in very narrow strips of natural vegetation, such as
hedgerows, whereas other species require large habitat patches close together with very short migration distances
through unsuitable habitat. Solely retaining or enhancing narrow strips of vegetation between habitat refuges cannot
maintain biodiversity; the habitat values of the overall landscape must be retained.

QUESTION:

Among the given threats, what do you think is the greatest threat to biodiversity? Explain.

STEWARDSHIP

Environmental stewardship refers to responsible use and protection of the natural

environment through conservation and sustainable practices. Aldo Leopold (1887–1949) championed environmental
stewardship based on a land ethic "dealing with man's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon
it.

Resilience-Based Ecosystem Stewardship

Resilience-Based Ecosystem Stewardship emphasizes resilience as a basic feature of the changing world as well
as ecosystems that provide a suite of ecosystem services rather than a single resource, and stewardship that
recognizes resource managers as an integral part of the systems they manage. [2] Resilience refers to the ability of a
system to absorb disturbance and still maintain its basic function and structure. [3]

Different types of environmental stewards

One author suggests that there are 3 types of environmental stewards: doers, donors, and practitioners. Doers go out
and help the cause by taking action. For example, the doers in an oil spill would be the volunteers that go along the
beach and help clean up the oil from the beaches. A donor is the person that financially helps the cause. They can do
anything from donating their money, to hosting public events to raise funds. They are typically governmental
agencies. Lastly there are practitioners. They work on a day-to-day basis to steer governmental agencies, scientists,
stakeholder groups, or any other group toward a stewardship outcome. Together these 3 groups make up
environmental stewards and with the help keep the ecosystem running healthily. Anybody can be an environmental
steward by being aware and knowledgeable of the world around them and making sure they do as little as possible to
negatively impact our world. Without these groups it would be hard to get any sort of sustainability in our increasingly
industrially based world.