Anatomy & Physiology

of Animals

Instructional Materials Service

Texas A&M University

- 8392 -

1
Menu
Anatomy & Physiology of Animals
• Introduction
• Integumentary System
• Skeletal System
• Muscular System
• Circulatory System
• Digestive System
• Respiratory System
• Nervous System
• Urinary System
• Endocrine System

2
Menu
 Introduction

3
Menu
 Anatomy
Anatomy is the study of form and structure.

• Gross anatomy is the study of structures

that can be seen with the naked eye.

• Microscopic anatomy is the study of

structures that require a microscope to be
seen.
4
Menu
 Physiology
• Physiology is related to the functions of
the body and all its parts, including cells,
tissues and organs.

• The study of anatomy and physiology is

generally divided into the function and
integration of ten organ systems.

5
Menu
 Organ Systems
1. Integumentary system (skin)
2. Skeletal system (bones)
3. Muscular system (muscles)
4. Circulatory system (heart & blood
vessels)
5. Digestive system (stomach & intestines)

6
Menu
 Organ Systems
6. Nervous system (nerves)
7. Respiratory system (lungs &
passageways)
8. Urinary system (kidneys & bladder)
9. Endocrine system (glands & hormones)
10. Reproductive system (organs involved
in producing offspring)

7
Menu
 Integumentary System

8
Menu
 Integumentary System
The integumentary system is the exterior
covering of the body and is essential for:

• Regulating body temperature

• Balancing water
• Protecting internal organs

9
Menu
 Integumentary System
The integumentary system consists of skin
and skin appendages, including:

• Hair
• Nails
• Horns
• Sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands

10
Menu
 Skin (Function)
• The primary function of skin is to act as
a protective layer against disease,
infection, the sun, and other potentially
harmful elements.

11
Menu
 Skin (Epidermis)
• The skin of animals consists of two layers, the
epidermis and the dermis.

• The epidermis is the outer layer of the skin and

contains no blood cells.

• The epidermis is a superficial covering of

stratified epithelial tissue comprised of an
external layer of dead cells sitting on a lower
layer of living cells.

12
Menu
 Skin (Dermis)
• The dermis is the inner layer of the skin
and contains blood vessels, lymph
vessels, nerves, glands, hair follicles, and
muscle fibers.

• The dermis is a deeper layer of dense,

irregular connective tissue.

13
Menu
 Skin

14
Menu
 Skin
Skin Appendages (modified extensions) derived
from the skin include:

• Hair
• Scales
• Hoofs
• Feathers
• Claws
• Horns
• Nails

15
Menu
 Skin
• Coat coverings differ between animals species.

• Goats, horses, cattle, and swine have hair;

sheep have wool, and poultry have feathers.

• Hair, wool and feather are all comprised of

protein and are essential for regulating body
temperature.

16
Menu
 Skin
• Each hair follicle has a small bundle of smooth
muscle fibers (arrector pili) that can contract to
pull the hair perpendicular to the skin surface.

• The arrector pili muscles are stimulated to

contract involuntarily by the nervous system in
times of stress or cold.

• When all hairs are standing perpendicular, they

trap more air and keep the animal’s body
warmer.

17
Menu
 Glands
• The principle glands of the skin are sweat
glands and sebaceous glands.

• Sweat glands release water to cool the

body.

• Sebaceous glands secrete oil substances

to lubricate the skin and hair.
18
Menu
 Sensory Receptors
Sensory receptors in the dermis of the skin
detect touch, pain, heat, and cold. Sensory
receptors include:

• Merkel cells
• Meissner’s corpuscles
• Paccinian corpuscles
• Free nerve endings

19
Menu
 Sensory Receptors
• Merkel cells respond to very light pressure.

• Meissner’s corpuscles are sensitive to

touch and are found in delicate areas such
as the lips and fingertips.

20
Menu
 Sensory Receptors
• Paccinian corpuscles detect pressure.

• Free nerve endings sense heat and cold

as well as touch.

21
Menu
 Skeletal System

22
Menu
 Skeletal System
• The skeletal system is the framework of
the body.

• The skeletal system is made up of

bones and connective tissue and
provides structural support for all of the
other organ systems.

23
Menu
 Skeleton of a Goat

24
Menu
 Skeletal System
• The skeletal system protects the organs of
the body.

• The skull protects the brain, ribs protect the

lungs, and vertebrae protect the spinal cord.

• The skeleton also works in conjunction with

the muscles to allow movement of the
different body parts.

25
Menu
 Skeletal System
The skeleton is made up of the axial skeleton
and the appendicular skeleton.

The axial skeleton consists of those bones on

the midline of the body including:

• Skull
• Vertebrae
• Ribs
• Sternum
26
Menu
 Skeletal System
The appendicular skeleton is comprised of
those bones coming off the midline of the
body including:

• Forelegs (arms)
• Hindlegs (legs)
• Bones in the pelvic region

27
Menu
 Bones
Bones are divided into four classes.

• Long bones
• Flat bones
• Short bones
• Irregular bones

28
Menu
 Bones
• Long bones, found in the limbs, are the
supporting columns and levers for the
skeletal system and the body.

• Flat bones protect the body’s organs and

serve as an area of muscle attachment.

29
Menu
 Bones
• Short bones, such as the bones in the
knee hock joint, diffuse concussion,
diminish friction, and change the direction
of tendons.

• Irregular bones are those found in the

vertebral column.

30
Menu
 Bones
• Bone is made up of organic and
inorganic matter.

• The organic matter is mostly collagen

and gives bone flexibility and resilience.

• The inorganic matter is mostly tricalcium

phosphate and gives bone rigidity and
hardness.
31
Menu
 Bones
• The inner core of the bone is soft tissue
called bone marrow.

• Some of bone marrow consists of yellow

fat, called yellow marrow.

32
Menu
 Bones
• The outer portion of bone marrow is
comprised of red tissue, called red
marrow.

• The red marrow is responsible for blood

cell and platelet formation.

33
Menu
 Bones
• Bone is a living tissue that changes
constantly.

• Bone undergoes continuous deposition

(creation of new bone material) and
resorption (removal of old bone material).

34
Menu
 Bones
• Bone is formed from cartilage when the
animal is an embryo. This process is
known as endochondral ossification or
endochondral bone formation.

35
Menu
 Bones
• The bone forming cells are known as
osteoblasts.

• Osteoblasts develop into osteocytes, or

mature bone cells.

36
Menu
 Formation of Bone Cells
at a Growth Plate

37
Menu
 Longitudinal Section of a Long Bone
In a Young Animal

38
Menu
 Bones
Bone formation occurs at a growth plate:

• Primary ossification occurs at the

metaphyseal growth plate.

• Secondary ossification occurs at the

epiphyseal growth plate. The secondary
ossification site is in the center of the
epiphysis.
39
Menu
Bone Formation in a Long Bone

40
Menu
 Connective Tissue
Connective tissue binds tissues together
to give form and strength to organs and
provide protection and leverage.

41
Menu
 Connective Tissue
Four types of connective tissues exist
within the skeletal system:

• Ligaments
• Tendons
• Cartilage
• Fascia

42
Menu
 Ligaments / Tendons
• Ligaments connect bone to bone

• Tendons attach muscle to bone

43
Menu
 Cartilage
Three types of cartilage found in the body:

• Hyaline cartilage is found on the ends of

bones and acts as cushioning in joints.

• Elastic cartilage makes up body parts

such as the ears.

• Fibrocartilage provides cushioning

between the inter vertebral discs.

44
Menu
 Fascia
• Fascia is located between the skin and the
underlying muscle or bone. It is comprised
of two layers. The top layer, superficial
fascia, is attached to the skin while the
bottom layer, deep fascia, covers the
muscle or bone.

45
Menu
 Joints
Joints are articulations (unions) between
bones. Three types of joints are found in
the body:

• Freely movable
• Partially/Slightly movable
• Immovable

46
Menu
 Joints
• Joints can be highly movable – for
example, the shoulder

• Partially movable – for example, the ribs

• Immovable – for example, suture joints

between the plates of the skull.

47
Menu
 Synovial Joints
Allow the greatest range of movement such as:

• Gliding
• Flexion
• Extension
• Hyperextension
• Rotation
• Adduction
• Abduction
• Circumduction
48
Menu
 Synovial Joint

49
Menu
 Muscular System

50
Menu
 Muscular System
• The muscular system, in conjunction with
the skeletal system, allows the movement
of internal structures, limbs, and the body
as a whole.

51
Menu
 Muscles
Muscles can be categorized by their:

• Function
(skeletal, visceral, or cardiac)

• Activation method
(voluntary or involuntary)

• Physiology
(smooth, striated or unstrained)

52
Menu
 Skeletal Muscles
• Skeletal muscles are striated, voluntary
muscles that are involved in the movement
of the skeleton.

• Skeletal muscles can be intentionally

controlled by the animal.

53
Menu
 Visceral Muscles
• Smooth or visceral muscles are
involuntary, unstraited muscles found in
the digestive organs and blood vessels of
the body.

• Visceral muscles function automatically

and can not be controlled by the animal.

54
Menu
 Cardiac Muscles
• Cardiac muscle is involuntary, striated
muscle found only in the heart.

• No conscious control of cardiac muscle

occurs in the animal, but it can be
regulated by the autonomic nervous
system.

55
Menu
 Superficial Muscles of a Horse

56
Menu
 Movement
Skeletal muscles can be divided into
four functional groups:

• Flexors
• Extensors
• Abductors
• Adductors

57
Menu
 Movement
• Many muscles work in pairs so that when
one contracts (flexes or shortens) the
other one relaxes (extends or lengthens).
This relationship is know as antagonism.

• Muscles that work together to perform a

movement are referred to as synergists.

58
Menu
 Movement

• Flexor muscles
decrease the
angle between
two lever bones
when they
contract.

Example: Biceps

59
Menu
 Movement
• Extensor muscles
increase the angle
between two lever
(bones) when they
contract.

Example: Triceps

60
Menu
 Movement
• Abductor muscles
move limbs away
from the median
plane (the middle
or main part of the
body).

Example: Deltoids

61
Menu
 Movement
• Adductor muscles pull limbs toward the
median plane (middle or main part of the
body). Example: Pectoralis Major

62
Menu
 Attachment
• Most skeletal muscles attach to two
different bones.

• The point of origin is on the most stable

or least movable bone while the
insertion point is on the more movable
bone.

63
Menu
 Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• Skeletal muscle is made up of bundles of
fibers or cells that stretch from one tendon,
or connective tissue, to the other tendon.

• These bundles of fibers lie parallel to each

other within the muscle sheath making the
muscle appear striped, or striated.

64
Menu
 Structure of Skeletal Muscle
• Each bundle consists of fibers, which are
individual cells with multiple nuclei.

• Individual muscle fibers are made up of

bundles of myofibrils enclosed in a series
of sarcomeres. They are made up of thick
filaments of myosin and thin filaments of
actin.

65
Menu
Structure of Skeletal Muscles

66
Menu
 Contraction
• Muscle contraction occurs as a result of a
process known as sliding-filament action.

• Each individual sarcomere contracts as a

result of the actin and myosin filaments
sliding over each other.

67
Menu
 Muscle Contraction
• Energy utilized for muscle contraction
comes primarily from non-protein sources
such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
glycogen and body fats.

68
Menu
 Circulatory System

69
Menu
 Circulatory System
The circulatory system includes the heart,
veins, capillaries, arteries, lymph vessels, and
lymph glands. The circulatory system is
responsible for:

• Distributing blood throughout the body

• Removing wastes
• Mounting immune responses to infection
• Aiding in regulating body temperature

70
Menu
 Blood
• Blood provides organs, tissues and cells
with oxygen, nutrients, gasses, hormones,
and antibodies, and removes carbon
dioxide and metabolic wastes.

71
Menu
 Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system is responsible for
draining fluid from the body and is an
important defense mechanism against
infection.

72
Menu
 Heart
• The heart is a muscle and is divided into
the left and right side. Each side is made
up of an atrium and a ventricle.

• The atria receive blood, either from the

lungs or the rest of the body.

73
Menu
 Heart
• Blood then passes into the ventricle before
being pumped out of the heart again.

• Deoxygenated or venous blood coming

from the body enters the right atrium,
passes through the right V.A.
(atrioventricular) valve and into the right
ventricle.

74
Menu
 Heart
• It is then pumped through the pulmonary
artery to the lungs.

• Oxygenated or arterial blood returns from

the lungs via the pulmonary vein and
enters the left atrium; it then passes
through the left A.V. valve and into the left
ventricle before being pumped out of the
heart to the rest of the body via the aorta.
75
Menu
 Heart

76
Menu
 Blood Vessels
Five types of blood vessels exist within
the body:

• Arteries
• Arterioles
• Veins
• Venules
• Capillaries

77
Menu
 Blood Vessels
• Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood
away from the heart.

• Arterioles are small arterial branches that

deliver blood to capillaries.

78
Menu
 Blood Vessels
• Veins are blood vessels that convey
blood from tissues back to the heart.

• Venules are small veins that collect blood

from capillaries and delivers it to a vein.

79
Menu
 Blood Vessels
• Blood vessels gradually become smaller
as they migrate away from the heart.

• Arteries divide into arterioles and veins

divide into venules.

80
Menu
 Capillaries
• Capillaries are the smallest blood
vessels. Capillaries are involved in the
transfer of oxygen, nutrients and gases to
the cells of the body and the removal of
carbon dioxide and metabolic waste.

• Capillaries have very thin membranes, so

the components of blood can diffuse
across the membrane and enter cells.
81
Menu
 Capillaries
• Interaction of molecules flowing in and
out of blood at the capillary bed.

82
Menu
 Circulation Systems
The two main circulation systems within
the body are the:

• Pulmonary System
• Systemic System

83
Menu
 Circulation System
• The pulmonary system delivers blood to
and from the lungs.

• The systemic system circulates blood

throughout the rest of the body.

84
Menu
 Composition of Blood
Blood is composed of:

• Red cells (erythrocytes),

• White blood cells (leukocytes)
• Platelets (thrombocytes)
• Plasma

85
Menu
 Blood
• Red blood cells are the most numerous
and contain a protein called hemoglobin.

• Hemoglobin contains the mineral iron and

is responsible for carry oxygen in the
blood.

• Red blood cells deliver oxygen to cells and

aid in the removal of carbon dioxide.
86
Menu
 Blood
• White blood cells are responsible for the
body’s immune response, or defense
against infection.

• There are two types of white blood cells,

granulocytes and agranulocytes (lymphoid
cells) which aid in combating foreign
bodies, bacteria, viruses and other
infective agents.
87
Menu
 Blood
• Platelet (thrombocyte) is a fragment of
cytoplasm enclosed in a cell membrane
and lacking a nucleus; found in
circulating blood, platelets play a role in
clotting.

• Plasma is the yellowish extracellular

fluid found in blood vessels. Plasma is
90% water.
88
Menu
 Lymphatic System
• They lymphatic system is comprised of
lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph
organs and areas of lymph tissue within
the intestinal wall.

• Lymphatic organs include bone, marrow,

tonsils, thymus, and the spleen.

89
Menu
 Lymphatic System
• The lymphatic system maintains internal
fluid balance and is an important
component of the body’s immune system.

• Lymph vessels are thin-walled and

blind-ended. They originate in the body
tissue and take lymph towards the heart.

90
Menu
 Lymphatic System
• Lymph nodes are located throughout the
body along the lymph vessels.

• Lymph nodes filter lymph and act as a

barrier against infection by harboring
lymphocytes, monocytes and plasma cells.

91
Menu
 Lymphatic System

92
Menu
 Digestive System

93
Menu
 Digestive System
The digestive system is made up of:

• Mouth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach (or stomachs)
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Anus
94
Menu
 Digestive System
• The digestive system breaks down
various nutrients found in feed into
molecules that can be used by the
cells of the body.

95
Menu
 Digestive System
Stages of the digestive process include:

• Biting
• Chewing
• Swallowing and mixing of food
• Digestion and absorption of nutrients
• Excretion of waste

96
Menu
 Digestive System
• Digestion is the chemical breakdown of
complex food into simple nutrients and
ultimately into molecules that are small
enough to pass across the wall of the
intestines.

• The passage of molecules across the

intestinal wall in to the blood or lymph
system is called absorption.
97
Menu
 Digestive System
• Animals such as cattle, sheep, horses,
and rabbits, which depend entirely on
plants for food are called herbivores.

• Other species, such as dogs and cats,

which depend almost entirely on the flesh
of other animals for food, are called
carnivores.

98
Menu
 Digestive System
• Species such as swine, poultry, and
humans, which consume both flesh and
plants, are called omnivores.

• Different species of animals have digestive

tracts adapted to the most efficient use of
the feed they consume.

99
Menu
 Digestive System
• Food must be broken down chemically
into molecules before it can enter the
blood stream of an animal and be used
by its cells.

100
Menu
 Digestive System
Most food that is eaten by animals can
be broken down into:

• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Vitamins and minerals

101
Menu
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are polysaccharides, which
are made up of multiple monosaccharides.

• Polysaccharides include, starch, cellulose,

hemicellulose, and glycogen.

102
Menu
 Carbohydrates

103
Menu
 Digestive System
• Starch is made up of multiple glucose
molecules; therefore glucose is a
monosaccharide.

• Enzymes that hydrolyze polysaccharides

are named after the specific
polysaccharide that they break down.

104
Menu
 Digestive System
• Starch is broken down by amylase,
cellulose is broken down by cullulase and
sucrose is broken down by sucrase.

• The suffix “ase” indicates that the

compound is an enzyme.

105
Menu
 Proteins
• To maintain metabolic function, animals must
obtain amino acids from their diet to be able to
synthesize protein.

• Proteins are broken down into amino acids by

enzymes called proteases and peptidases.

• Proteases break down large protein molecules

and peptidases break down small protein
molecules.

106
Menu
 Proteins

107
Menu
 Lipids
Lipids (fats) fall into three categories:

• Triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Waxes

108
Menu
 Triglycerides
• Triglycerides are made up of glycerol
molecule and three fatty acid molecules.

• Enzymes called lipases break down

triglycerides.

109
Menu
 Lipids

110
Menu
 Digestive System
Animals can be divided into three groups
based on their digestive systems:

• Ruminants
• Monogastrics
• Hindgut

111
Menu
 Ruminants
Sheep, cattle, goats, and deer are ruminant
animals. They have four stomachs instead of one.

The four stomachs are:

• Rumen
• Reticulum
• Abomasum
• Omasum

112
Menu
 Rumen
• The largest chamber of the of the ruminant
stomach

• Contains millions of microbes, bacteria, and

protozoa

• Lining composed of many papillae that aid in

the absorption of nutrients

• Produces a large amount of methane gas,

mainly methane and carbon dioxide

113
Menu
 Rumen
• When an animal eats, these microbes,
bacteria, and protozoa digest the food
as it enters the rumen.

• Nutrients are then released to be used

by the ruminant animal.

114
Menu
 Digestive System (Cow)

115
Menu
 Monogastrics
• Swine and poultry are monogastric
animals, which means they have a single
glandular stomach.

• Swine have a digestive system that is

anatomically and physiologically similar to
the human digestive system.

116
Menu
 Digestive System (Pig)

117
Menu
 Hindgut
• Horses, donkeys, and rabbits are
examples of hindgut fermenters.

• Hindgut fermemeters have a larger than

normal cecum or hindgut.

• These animal require microbes to break

down cellulose so that they can digest
high-fiber plant material such as grass.
118
Menu
 Digestive System (Horse)

119
Menu
 Digestive System
The digestive system is made up of:

• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Non-ruminant Stomach
• Ruminant Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Accessory digestive organs

120
Menu
 Mouth
• The tongue and lips are used to select
food that that animal intends to ingest.

• Food is chewed or physically broken

down to smaller pieces by a process
called mastication.

121
Menu
 Mouth
Saliva provides:

• Lubrication so the food may be swallowed

• Enzymes that break down the nutrients

Food moves down the esophagus to the

stomach in a wave-like motion called
peristalsis.
122
Menu
 Esophagus
• The esophagus is a tube-like tract that
connects the pharynx to the stomach.

• When an animal swallows, the larynx rises

so that the epiglottis closes off the trachea,
thus preventing food from entering the air
passageway.

123
Menu
 Non-ruminant Stomach
• The non-ruminant stomach is a storage
chamber that holds food particles.

• The breakdown of food particles by

enzymes continues in the stomach.

124
Menu
 Ruminant Stomach
• Food particles enter the rumen and microbes
start eating or digesting these particles.

• The microbes produce waste or by-products

which can then be used by the animal. Some of
the microbes pass into the intestines where they
are digested by the animal.

• Ruminants get their main source of protein

(approximately 70%) from digesting the
microbes that pass into the small intestine.
125
Menu
 Ruminant Stomach
• All ruminants are herbivores. They
consume grasses and other plant
materials containing larges amount of
cellulose.

• Microorganisms in the digestive system

of ruminants synthesize all amino acids
essential to the animal.

126
Menu
 Ruminant Stomach
• Methane and carbon dioxide gas is
expelled by belching and, to a lesser
extent, absorbed into the blood.

• If the gases are allowed to accumulate in

the rumen, they may cause bloat (an
abnormal inflation or distension of the
rumen).

127
Menu
 Ruminant Stomach
• Ruminants chew food, then swallow it and
start to digest it.

• They are then able to regurgitate the food

and remasticate it (chew it more). This
function helps to break down the fibrous
material further and allows the microbes
the access food particles.

128
Menu
 Ruminant Stomach

129
Menu
 Small Intestine
Absorption is the main function of the small
intestine. The small intestine includes:

• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum

The inside the small intestine is covered by villi,

highly vasculated, finger-like projections that
greatly increase the absorptive surface area.
130
Menu
 Large Intestine
The large intestine consists of:

• Cecum
• Ascending colon
• Transverse colon
• Descending colon
• Sigmoid colon

131
Menu
 Large Intestine
• The large intestine removes water and
prepares the dry waste matter for feces
and finally defecation.

• Fecal material is excreted via the rectum.

It passes through the rectum and then
exits the body through the anus.

132
Menu
Accessory Digestive Organs
Accessory digestive organs are
associated with the digestive system:

• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• Liver
• Gallbladder

133
Menu
 Salivary Glands
• Salvia has pH balancing properties and
provides enzymes that begin the chemical
breakdown of nutrients.

134
Menu
 Pancreas
The pancreas is made up of an endocrine
and exocrine gland.

• The endocrine gland produces insulin.

• The exocrine gland produces enzymes.

135
Menu
 Liver
• Molecules in the liver are converted to
compounds that animals need for tissue
growth, nerve formation, enzyme
synthesis, and many other functions.

• The liver also excretes bile, which is

stored in the gallbladder.

136
Menu
 Gallbladder
• The gallbladder is where bile is stored.

• Bile has properties that allow it to

emulsify fats, increasing the efficiency at
which they are digested.

137
Menu
 Digestive System (Poultry)
• Poultry do not have teeth to physically
break down their food. The glandular
stomach of poultry is called proventriculus.

• Before reaching the proventriculus, food is

stored in an enlargement of the gullet,
called the crop, where it is softened.

138
Menu
 Digestive System (Poultry)
• Feed passes from the proventriculus to the
ventriculus, or gizzard, which crushes and
grinds coarse feed.

139
Menu
 Digestive System (Poultry)
• Feed passes from the gizzard into the
duodenum.

• Pancreatic juices are secreted containing

enzymes that aid in the digestion of
carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins.

• Liver bile, which is also secreted into the

duodenum, aids in the digestion of lipids.

• Absorption takes place in the small intestine.

140
Menu
Digestive System (Poultry)

141
Menu
 Respiratory System

142
Menu
 Respiratory System
• Provides oxygen to the blood.

• Excretes waste gases such as carbon

dioxide.

• Creates noise via the voice box (in most

animals) or the syrinx (in birds)

143
Menu
 Respiratory System
The respiratory system includes:

• Lungs
• Nostrils
• Nasal cavity
• Pharynx
• Larynx
• Trachea
144
Menu
 Respiratory System
• Nostrils are the external openings of the
respiratory tract that lead to the nasal cavity.

• Air and food pass through the pharynx, but not

at the same time.

• The Larynx controls breathing and prevents

the inhalation of foreign objects into the lungs.

145
Menu
 Trachea
• The trachea (windpipe) contains rings of
cartilage that are rigid and prevent it from
collapsing.

• The trachea enters the chest cavity as a

single tube to the base of the heart where
it divides into to two braches called
primary bronchi.

146
Menu
 Bronchi / Lungs
• Each bronchi passes into one of the lungs.

• Inside the lungs, the bronchi branch into

smaller bronchi and finally into very small
tubes called bronchioles.

147
Menu
 Respiratory System

148
Menu
 Respiratory System
• The bronchioles open into alveolar ducts,
which lead to the smallest portions of the
respiratory system called alveoli.

• Oxygen is diffused from the bloodstream

into the alveoli so it can be exhaled out of
the body.

149
Menu
 Lungs
The primary function of the lungs is to
exchange gases with the atmosphere.

• Gas absorbed by the lungs during

inhalation is oxygen.

• Gas exhaled is carbon dioxide.

150
Menu
 Inhalation
• Muscles of the diaphragm contract
causing the thoracic cavity to enlarge
and a vacuum to be created. The lungs
to expand and air is drawn into them.

151
Menu
 Exhalation
• The diaphragm muscles relax, causing
contraction of the chest muscles, which
decreases the thoracic cavity size,
resulting in the retraction of alveolar
elastic fibers.

152
Menu
 Breathing Rates
• Breathing rates of animals are controlled
by nerve cells in a portion of the brain
called the medulla oblongata.

• The rate at which the brain stimulates

breathing is affected by the carbon dioxide
content of the blood, body temperature,
and messages from other parts of the
brain.
153
Menu
 Nervous System

154
Menu
 Nervous System (Parts)
The nervous system is composed to two
major parts.

• The central nervous system includes

the brain and spinal cord.

• The peripheral nervous system

includes nerves found in all other
regions of the body.
155
Menu
 Nervous System (Function)
Functions of the nervous system include:

• Coordinating physical movement of the

body.

• Responding to the action of all the senses;

hearing, sight, smell, taste, and touch.

156
Menu
 Nervous System
Nerve cells or neurons, consist of:

• A single long fiber (axon)

• Several branched threads (dendrites)

157
Menu
 Nervous System

158
Menu
 Nervous System
• Dendrites receive messages from other
nerves or organs.

• An electrical impulse passes along the

axon and is then conducted (passed on) to
another dendrite or to an effector organ,
such as a muscle, which is stimulated to
move or react.

159
Menu
 Nervous System
• The space between the axon terminals of
one neuron and subsequent dendrites of
the next neuron is a synapse.

• Before an impulse can reach the brain, it

must travel along a series of neurons and
synapses. Some impulses are sent directly
to an effector organ.

160
Menu
 Nervous System
• Nerves occur as single neurons or in
bundles, called nerve trunks.

• Ganglions are the nerve bundles that

occur outside of the brain and spinal cord.

161
Menu
 Nervous System
• Nerves that receive stimuli and carry them
to the central nervous system are known
as the sensory or afferent neurons.

• Nerves that carry messages from the brain

to muscles or glands are called motor or
efferent neurons.

162
Menu
 Brain
The brain is made up of four major parts:

• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata

163
Menu
 Brain

164
Menu
 Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is the largest part of the
brain.

• The cerebrum is responsible for the

decision-making or thinking processes that
control voluntary muscle activity and for
reactions to stimuli that are processed by
the senses.

165
Menu
 Cerebrum
The cerebrum is divided into the left and
right side or hemisphere. Each hemisphere
is divided into four lobes:

• Frontal
• Parietal
• Temporal
• Occipital
166
Menu
 Brain

167
Menu
 Brain
• The right hemisphere processes
creative and emotional stimuli.

• The left hemisphere processes actions

and is involved in learning.

• The right side controls the left side of

the body and the left side controls the
right.
168
Menu
 Cerebellum
• The Cerebellum serves as a
coordinator of messages from other
parts of the brain to the body.

• The Cerebellum also coordinates the

action of voluntary muscles in activities
such as walking, running, eating, and
talking.

169
Menu
 Brain (Reflex Actions)
• Involuntary (reflex actions), such as
blinking, vomiting, breathing, and
swallowing are controlled by the pons
and medulla oblongata, which act
independently of the other two parts of
the brain.

170
Menu
 Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is located at the center of
the vertebral column.

• The spinal cord is the main avenue for

message transferal between the brain and
the other parts of the body.

171
Menu
 Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is divided into segments; A pair
of spinal nerves extends to the body from each
part.

• The spinal cord receives messages from

sensory nerve fibers in various parts of the body
and transmits them to the brain.

• Motor nerve fibers in the spinal cord then

transmit the response from the brain back to the
body.

172
Menu
 Peripheral Nervous System
• The peripheral nervous system is
responsible for transmitting messages
between the outer part of the body and the
brain.

• The peripheral nervous system is made up

of somatic and autonomic nerves.

173
Menu
 Peripheral Nervous System
• Somatic nerves include all the nerve
structures located outside the brain and
spinal cord.

• They convey sensations from sensory

organs such as the eyes and nose.

174
Menu
Peripheral Nervous System
• Autonomic nerves are also located
outside of the central nervous system.

• Autonomic nerves control the functions

of muscles in internal organs, such as
the heart and stomach.

175
Menu
 Urinary System

176
Menu
 Urinary System
The urinary system:

• Removes wastes

• Helps maintain the correct balance of

water and minerals in the body

177
Menu
 Urinary System

178
Menu
 Urinary System
The urinary system includes the:

• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Bladder
• Urethra

179
Menu
 Urinary System (Kidney)
Each kidney is composed of:

• An outer tissue layer, call the

renal cortex

• An inner portion called the

renal medulla

180
Menu
 Urinary System

181
Menu
 Kidneys
• Filter waste products from the blood
including mineral salts, urea, uric acid,
and creatinine.

• Regulate blood composition and maintain

normal internal life support conditions.

182
Menu
 Ureters
Ureters are the tubules connecting the
kidneys with the bladder. They are
responsible for:

• Transporting urine from the kidneys to

the bladder.

183
Menu
 Urinary
System
(anterior or ventral view)

184
Menu
 Bladder / Urethra
• The bladder is an expandable sac that
stores the urine until it is excreted from
the animal’s body.

• Urine passes through an elastic tube

called the urethra to be removed from
the body.

185
Menu
 Endocrine System

186
Menu
 Endocrine System
• A network of glands that secrete
hormones, which provide chemical control
of various functions of the body.

• Endocrine glands secrete chemical

compounds called hormones into the
blood system.

187
Menu
 Endocrine System
• Hormones are secreted from a secretory
cell in a gland and act on a target cell at
another part of the body.

• Target cells must have receptors for the

specific hormone.

188
Menu
 Endocrine System

189
Menu
 Hormones
Hormones play an important role in body
functions including:

• Growth
• Fattening
• Reproduction
• Lactation
• Egg Laying

190
Menu
 Hormones
There are three types of hormones
that can be grouped by their chemical
structure:

• Steroids
• Peptides
• Amines

191
Menu
 Steroids
• Lipids that are secreted by the gonads,
adrenal cortex and placenta.

• Two common steroid hormones are

progesterone and testosterone.

192
Menu
 Peptides
• Short chains of amino acids secreted by
the pituitary gland, parathyroid gland,
heart, stomach, kidneys, and liver.

• Peptide hormones include oxytocin,

luteinizing hormone, thyrotropin releasing
hormone.

193
Menu
 Amines
• Secreted from the adrenal medulla and
the thyroid.

• Amine hormones include epinephrine,

norepinephrine, T3 (triiodothyroxin), and
T4 (tetraiodothyroxin).

194
Menu
 Hypothalamus Gland
• The hypothalamus gland is located
directly above the pituitary gland near
the base of the brain.

• The hypothalamus gland coordinates

hormonal activity in the pituitary gland.

195
Menu
 Pituitary Gland
• Stimulatory and inhibitory hormones are
produced by the hypothalamus and transported
to the anterior pituitary.

• Hormones are transported to the anterior

pituitary through the blood.

• The hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, travel

to the pituitary by means of nerve cells.

196
Menu
 Pituitary Gland
• The pituitary gland is located at the base
of the brain.

• It is composed of two parts, the anterior

and posterior pituitary glands.

• The pituitary controls the hormonal

secretions of numerous endocrine glands.
197
Menu
 Endocrine System

198
Menu
 Thyroid Gland
Thyroid Gland consists of two connected lobes
located on either side of the trachea or windpipe.

• Thyroxine, produced by the thyroid gland

controls body metabolism and growth.

• Calcitonin, also produced by the thyroid controls

the calcium level in the blood and promotes the
incorporation of calcium into the bone.

199
Menu
 Parathyroid Glands
• The parathyroid glands include four small
gland embedded in the thyroid.

• The parathyroid glands produce

parathyroid hormone, which maintains the
level of calcium and phosphorus in the
blood.

200
Menu
 Adrenal Glands
• The adrenal glands, consisting of the a
medulla and a cortex, are located in front
of the center of the kidneys.

• The medulla produces norephinephrine,

which helps maintain blood pressure and
stimulates smooth muscles.

201
Menu
 Adrenal Glands
• The cortex produces steroids, which are
involved in carbohydrate and fat
metabolism.

• The production of hormones by endocrine

glands is carefully balanced, and an
imbalance can result in illness or improper
development of the animal.

202
Menu
 Acknowledgements
Claire Barrett, Student Technician, Department of Animal Science,
Texas A&M University, researched and developed the
information in this PowerPoint presentation.

Dr. M. Craig Edwards, Curriculum Specialist, Instructional

Materials Service, Texas A&M University, reviewed and edited
the information in this PowerPoint presentation.

Larry Ermis, Curriculum Specialist, Instructional Materials Service,

Texas A&M University, reviewed and edited this PowerPoint.

Christine Stetter, Artist, Instructional Materials Service, Texas A&M

University, illustrated and developed this PowerPoint
presentation.

203
Menu
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Reproduction or redistribution of all, or
part, of this presentation without
written permission is prohibited.
Instructional Materials Service
Texas A&M University
2588 TAMUS
College Station, Texas 77843-2588
http://www-ims.tamu.edu
2006
204
Menu