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Chapter-I: AZAD College

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AZAD College

INFORMATION SYSTEMS
By: M Rafeeq
Chapter- I
OVER VIEW OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

I. Concepts of Systems and Organizations:


Purpose:
The role of MIS is to inform management, whether the limits have been exceeded or are
likely to be exceeded.
The initial concept of MIS was to process data from the organization and present in the
form of reports at regular intervals.
E.g.: sales expenses, Attendance or labor hours of employee.
The following are the basic roles of MIS:
1. Hardware administration
2. Database administration
3. Software development
4. Software training and support
5. Establish corporate computing standards
6. Provide access to corporate data
7. Support end-user development
8. Chief Information Officer (CIO)

Definitions:
Data: A data is a collection of number of related observations or raw facts. (Or) Individual
elements of a transaction. [Data is raw material of information]
The data can be text, audio, video, number, images or any combination of these.
E.g.: item number, item quantity, price on sales order transaction.
Information: Information is data placed in meaningful and useful context for an end user.
System: A system is a group of interrelated components working together towards a common
goal by accepting inputs and producing output in an organized transformation process.
A system is an integrated set of components or entities that interact to achieve a particular
function or goal.
Management: “It is the art of getting things done through and with the people in formally
organized groups.”
Information system: A set of people, procedures and resources that collects, transforms and
disseminates information in an organization.
Knowledge
Information
Systems
Systems
Data Information (Interpret, Knowledge
(Aggregate,
relate,
summarize,
synthesize,
analyze, etc)
etc)

A computer-based information system uses hardware, software and people resources to


transform data resources into information products for end-users.

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Fig: - An Information system model

Management Information System: An information system that provides information to


support managerial decision-making.
E.g.: Information reporting system, Executive information system, or Decision support
system.
The MIS is defined as an integrated system of man and machine for providing the
information that supports the operation, the management and the decision-making functions in
the organization.
The MIS is designed to provide information for effective planning and tactical decision-
making.
End User: Any one who uses an information system or the information it produces.

Information systems can be formal or informal.


1. Formal Systems:
These are designed and developed using a set of well-established organizational policies,
procedures, and principles to co-ordinate and facilitate communication between different
functional units and the process they support and to meet the over all information needs of
the business. These systems can be manual or automated.
2. Informal Systems:
These systems do not follow any formal or pre-established rules for collecting,
processing, storing or disseminating data.

Successful IS managers are effective at both the:


- General management component
- Technical component
IS manger’s job are interrelated in 3 different ways:
1. Through formal job description.
2. Through the day-to-day tasks and activities.
3. Through the real job-making good, timely decisions.
Users of Information
1) Users of information within the organization:
1. Accounting - This department creates and maintains qualitative data of cash flow, payroll,
profit or loss, current financial position of firm and control of expenses.
2. Finance - This department is in charge related to borrowing, funding, data related to capital
structure, shareholders.

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3. Personnel - This department is related to service contracts, fringe benefits, and
hourly/monthly rates. Management seeks information pertaining to the number of full-time
and part-time employees, supervisor reports and manpower.
4. Public relations - This bridges the gap between the outside world and the organization.
E.g.: Union contract negotiations.
5. Sales - This department produces information pertaining to sales of regional, total sales
forecast, actual sales and periodic sales reports.
6. Market research - This department gather information pertaining to the firm’s market
potential consumer behavior and competitive circumstances.
7. Production - Data is maintained to utilization, scheduling priority, number of machines,
equipment’s and facilities.
8. Purchasing - This is responsible for receiving a constant flow of raw material, machinery,
equipment, and office supplies.

2) Users of information outside the organization:


1) Government - Government requires various information’s regarding income-tax matters
and other regulations.
2) Auditor - A certified public accountant is responsible for determining the validity of the
firm’s financial statements.
3) Shareholders - Shareholders are interested in information relating to the annual earnings
and projection of future expansion.
4) Customer - Requires unlimited amounts of information depending upon the type of
business firm with which they deals.

Types of Information Systems (Classification of Information Systems): -


Information
Systems

Supports for Operations Management Supports for


Business Information Information Management
operations decision-
Systems Systems making

Transaction Process Office Information Decision Executive


Processing control Automation Reporting Support Information
Systems Systems Systems Systems Systems Systems

Processing Control Office Prespecified Interactive Information


Business Of physical communication Reporting Decision For top
Transactions Process & productivity Support Management

Fig: - A Conceptual view of Information systems


1. Operations Information Systems: -
These Information Systems process the data used in business operations.
1) Transaction-Processing Systems (TPS) record and process data resulting from
business transactions, update databases and produces a variety of documents and
reports.

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2) Operational decisions that control physical process are produces by Process control
systems (PCS).
3) Office communications and productivity are supported Office automation systems
(OAS).
2. Management Information Systems: -
These IS’s provide information to support management decision Making.
1) Prescribed and preplanned reporting to managers is accomplished by Information
reporting systems (IRS).
2) Interactive and Ad hoc support for decision-making by managers is accomplished by
Decision support systems (DSS).
3) Critical information for top management is provided by Executive information
systems (EIS).

Information support for Decision-making, Planning and Control: -


Management Information System has two components:
1. Internal data Processing
2. Externally Organizing Information
1. Internal data Processing: -
Internal information arises from the routine data processing activity in the
organization and it summarizes the organizations operations. This information
contributes for formulation of policies and making decisions for managers.
The management has total control on internal data and has a high degree of
accuracy.
2. Externally Organizing Information: -
The reliability of the information source is a major concern in external
information. If the source is reliable the information is supposed to be accurate, yet it is
critical for long-term decisions.
The management has little control on external information and cannot be sure of
its accuracy.

Levels of management: -

Activities of an organization
Top
Level Strategic planning

Middle level Tactical planning

First-line Management OPerational planning

a) Top-level - Senior executives. [CEO]


- Play important role in establishing goals of organization.
- Interact with external environment i.e., financial institutions, political
figures, important suppliers and demands.

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Strategic Information: -
The strategic level management is mostly concerned with planning information
and control of information is very limited.
Strategic information environs about population changes, natural resources, new
technologies, new products, competitors, political, legal and economic changes. Top
management needs strategic information for is long-term planning, which affects the
whole or a significant part of the organization over a long period of time.

b) Middle level – Responsible for allocating resources.


- Implement plans by supervising lower –level managers under
responsibility.
E.g.: - Allocating money to trading, establishments, budgets to achieve sales.

Tactical Information: -
Tactical information is required for short-term planning by middle level
managers. Sales analysis, forecasts, budgeting, etc are tactical information. This
information arises mostly from current internal activities and from externally such as
competitor information. Its impact is short term and affects only a department.

c) First line supervisors -Responsible for day-to-day operations.


E.g.: - Order entry, credit checking, inventory control and preventive maintenance.

Operational Information: -
Operational level management requires a large amount of control information and
small amount of planning information.
Operational information relates to very short period that may be a few hours to a
few weeks. It may be about current stock levels inventory, outstanding orders, work
schedule for next shift, etc. This information can be generated from current activity data
arising from internal sources. This information is of immediate use and covers only a
limited area of operation of the organization.

System concept:

Input Process Output

Fig: Parts of a System

A system may have single input and multiple outputs or may have several inputs and
outputs.
All the systems operate in an environment. The environment may influence the
system in its design and performance.

Environment

Input Process Output

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Definition:
A system is an integrated set of components, or entities, that interact to achieve a
particular function or goal.
Systems are composed of interrelated and interdependent subsystems.
E.g.: College class (consists of instructor, students, text books & facilities).
or
A system is a group of interrelated components working together towards a common
goal by accepting inputs and producing outputs in an organized transformation process.
A system (also called Dynamic system) has basic interacting components or
functions.

1. Input: Involves capturing and assembling elements that enter the system to be processed.
E.g.: Raw materials, data.
. 2. Processing: Involves transformation processing that converts input into output.
E.g.; manufacturing process, data calculation.
3. Output: Involves transferring elements that have been produced by the transformation
process to the ultimate destination.
E.g.: finished products, human services.

ENVIRONMENT

Feedback signals Feedback signals


Control

Control signals Control signals

Input Process Output

System Boundary

OTHER SYSTEMS

Fig.: Fundamental components and characteristics of a system.

ENVIRONMENT

SYSTEM

Subsystem Logical
6 Boundaries
AZAD College

Accounting
Department

Business org.

Society at large

Fig: A system has one or more subsystems and an environment.


The boundaries separating are logical, not physical boundaries.

System boundaries:
Every system has a boundary that defines its scope of activities.
E.g.: -Responsibility in handling class, & responsibility in managing, motivating
and evaluating the performance etc.
System boundaries are also established within a business system.
Sub system:
Systems may consist of numerous subsystems, each of which has elements, interactions
and objectives.
Subsystems perform specialized tasks related to the overall objectives of the total
system. E.g.: - An education system consists of individual courses that are subsystems and
each gains different knowledge.
In business system, various functions are subsystems.
E.g.: Marketing, personnel, production and finance are subsystems.
Each subsystem uses its resources to meet specific objectives.
Interface:
An interface is a connection of system or subsystem boundaries.
An interface serves as medium to convey the output from our system to the input of another
system.
E.g.: Interface between inventory control and purchasing.

SYSTEMS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT:


The systems environment consists of people, organizations and other systems that supply
data or receive data from the system.
Various kinds of systems may interact with the environment in different ways.
1) Open systems:( All living organisms)
Operate in external environment and exchange information and material with that
environment.
Open systems need to receive feedback to change and to continue to exist in its
environment.
E.g.: - Marketing system operates in an environment of competition.
2) Closed systems :(All non living organisms)
It is relatively self-contained and doesn’t exchange information with its
environment.
Closed systems do not get the feedback, as they need from the external
environment.
E.g.: - Training programs to graduates --- not able to get jobs --- go else where
training.
Differences of closed and open systems:
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Closed systems Open systems
1. All non-living organisms 1. All living organisms
2. These systems have no interaction 2. Have interaction with the environment.
with the environment. 3. As they interact, they import and export
3. These are self-contained and self- output.
maintaining as they do not interact 4. Dynamic & flexible
with environment. 5. There are effected by environmental
4. These are rigid & static factors and they have to be adjusted
5. These are generally mechanical according to environment.
6. There is no feed back mechanism 6. Feed back mechanism help to maintain a
equilibrium

System feedback:
Feedback is an indicator of current performance rates when compare to a set of
standards with effective feedback, continuing adjustments in the activities of a system can
be made to assure that the system achieves its goals.
Measuring performance against a standard is an effective control mechanism.
Feedback usually increases efforts.
E.g.: Feedback of new products fare in certain markets.
Feedback of students from the examination

Input process output

Feedback
The information systems providing feedback can be used to allocate resources
effectively, such as inventory and personnel are called tactical system.

System Entropy:
It is a state/condition that occur without maintenance.
E.g.: - Employees not having opportunities to learn new concept and techniques.
The process of maintaining system means entropy is to be reduced.

System Stress and Change:


Every time systems change because of new business opportunities, new technologies
and identified problems.
Systems may also change as a result of stresses. It is easier to deal with change, but
stress requires rethinking existing work methods and organization.
E.g.: - To get profitability of sales manager should develop effective procedures.
E.g.: - Training and orientation programs for new employees helps to minimize the stress.
Control:
Systems have internal standards to make sure that data is processed accurately.
Password security procedure is a type of control designed to protect against
authorized access and up date of data.
With out controls the data printed out on reports may be inaccurate, and managers
may not be able to trust the information system to provide valid results.

WORKING OF A SYSTEM:
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E.g. Cricket team.
To achieve its objectives i.e., to win.
Manager recruit players, organizes training Programmes.
Accepts feedback from external environment to organize its resources more
effectively. Feedback can be from sports writers, team manager, fans, and coach’s gives
about their performance
Goal is to win. So recruit highly talented players
New players have to be brought to fill critical positions and others need to be
retrained.
Purpose of this system is to become competitive in its environment
System concepts in business:
System is divided into interrelated parts called subsystems, designed to accomplish
goals.
Each subsystem is a self-contained and a part of a larger system
For E.g.: -
Marketing research subsystem obtains information from customers, about modification
of products and services. This Marketing Research subsystem transmits this information to
manufacturing subsystem that builds product design in its processes. Finally the marketing
subsystem sells the finished products to customer.
If technical problem occurs service subsystem is need to provide follow-up support.
The interactions are below:
Market Research subsystem:
Input Process Output
Customer
Needs
Manufacturing subsystem:

Input Process Output


Finished
Goods
Marketing subsystem:

Input Process Output


Product
Service subsystem: In use

Input Process Output

SYSTEM APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING:


E.g.:(Dealers of Micro computers)
The system approach is a valuable method of problem solving that takes into
accounts the goals, environment and internal working of the system.
Following are the steps for problem solving.
1. Define the problem.
2. Gather data describing the problem.
3. Identify alternative solutions.

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4. Evaluate these alternatives.
5. Select and implement the best alternative.
6. Follow up to determine where the solution is working.

1.Define the problem:


-“A problem well defined is half solved”.
-Wrong problem is identified and important parts of the system study.
[Sales people not meeting the sales quota]… Problem identified.

2.Gather data describing problem:


-Collecting more information about the identified problem.
-Input resources should be analyzed.
-Work methods and procedure also need to be studied.
-Identify competitor’s environment.
[Competitors are charging lower prices].... Gathered data.

3.Identify alternative solutions:


Alternative 1: Investigate alternative manufactures of microcomputers to obtain product
at a lower cost/unit.
Alternative 2: Decrease cost of sales by introducing mail order.
Use sales persons for large accounts only.
Each alternative supports different strategy. Find lower cost manufactures goods.

4.Evaluate the alternatives:


-Evaluate each alternative so that organization to achieve its objectives.
-Owner’s objective is to increase sales, lower cost products.
-Final alternative would offer customers additional levels of service and technical
supports that add value to the firm’s product.

5. Select and implement the best alternative:


Owner decides to develop and implement a program to reduce the cost of sales
overhead. Also provide billing and authorizing credit transactions.

6. Follow up to determine whether the solution is working:


-Last step is follow up
-Owner needs to determine whether the system is meeting its goals or not. If not,
make changes in management standard resources and procedures to achieve the
objectives.
-Every manager needs feedback to determine whether the goals of the system are
being achieved or not.

USING INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR FEEDBACK: -


Business environment is making it necessary to use Information Systems to provide
feedback.
Flexibility, responsiveness, competitiveness and effectiveness are required to sense and to
respond to the changes in customer needs.
Success depends upon the ability to Sense, Interpret, Decide and Act upon information.
So, in today’s environment manager should be able to respond to competitors in a real-time

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basis. Collected feedback consists of changing information models that can react to changes
in the external environment.
Nolan and Haeckel referred this responsiveness as “Managing by Wire”.
Business Learning Loop
What’s going on out here?
(Environmental information)

SENSE INTERPRET

ACT DECIDE

How do we do things around here?


(Business processes)

Fig.: - Business Learning Loop

Learning Organization: -
The key to sustain competitive advantage is: To learn and the ability to learn faster
than the competitor.

The fifth discipline: The Art and Practice of the learning Organization.
Def.: - (Peter Singe)
Organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results
they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where
collective aspiration is set free and where people are continually learning how to learn
together”.

The five disciplines of the Learning Organization are:


1. Personal mastery
2. Mental models
3. Building shared vision
4. Team learning
5. Systems thinking

1. Personal mastery: It clarifies personal vision, focuses on energies, develops patience


and sees reality objectively. It is the foundation of learning organization and requires
life long learning.
2. Mental models: It includes biases, predispositions and prejudices that get in the way
of clear communications, open inquiry and learningful conversations.
3. Building shared vision: It binds people together around a common identity and a
sense of destiny; where there is a vision people bind together – not because they are
told to, but because they want to.
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4. Team learning: Teams are the fundamental learning units in most of the
organizations. Unless teams can learn the organization cannot learn.
5. Systems thinking: It is essential to achieve the vision of the organization. The vision
of the future cannot be achieved without an understanding of the forces that must be
mastered to achieve these goals, and the systems approach provides this
understanding.

II. Frame work for Information Systems: -

Strategic
Planning Support for
(Long-range decisions
Plans)
Tactical Demand
(Budget reports
Plans)

Operations Scheduled
(Day-to-day reports
transactions)

1. Operational Systems: -
- Primary concern to collect, validate and record transactional data describing
acquisition.
E.g.: - Financial data like accounts receivable, payable, payroll and receipts.
- For sales invoice is generated
- Involves in order processing, inventory and billing. (Original transactions)
Characteristics of Operational Information Systems
a) Repetitiveness – Information is generated at periodic intervals, such as daily,
weekly or monthly.
b) Predictability – Information usually does not contain any surprises or unexpected
results. E.g.: - Customers are billed for what they purchased during the month.
c) Emphasis on the past – Information describes past activities of the organization.
E.g.: - Pay roll system, stock reports, invoices, etc.
d) Detailed nature – Information with all necessary data.
E.g.: - Customers invoices (consists of data ordered, purchased, quantity, price etc.)
e) Internal data – Data on internal sources i.e., internal documents.
E.g.: - Time cards, employee master records.
f) Structured form – Data input is generally structured
g) Great accuracy – Input and output information is highly accurate and carefully
checked.

2. Tactical Systems: -
For middle level managers the information need is to monitor and control
operations and to allocate their resources effectively.

Tactical systems generate a variety of reports. They are:


1) Summary reports – Provide management with important total, averages on
the activities of the organization.
E.g.: - Total weekly sales, by person, by product, by region, etc.

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2) Exception reports – Warns managers when results from a particular
operation exceeds or likely to exceed.
E.g.: - Overtime hours, sales personnel’s sales are decreased.
3) Adhoc reports – Reports that managers need, usually quickly, that may
never be needed again. This is to solve a unique problem.
E.g.: - Total number of employees absent during the week.

Characteristics of Tactical Information Systems: -


a) Periodic nature – Information produced periodically.
E.g.: Weekly reports
- Can also produce information when it is needed, i.e., Adhoc reports.
b) Unexpected findings - Produce unexpected information.
E.g.: Difficulty is due to the relationship with the type of position and type of
employer ---- for credit
c) Comparative Nature - Information is comparative rather than merely descriptive.
E.g.: feed back of any system, comparing last month sales with this month.
d) Summary form - Not detailed, but in a limited form
E.g.: Reports on credit balances that are over due.

3. Strategic planning systems: -


These provide by top managers to make long-range planning decisions for the
organizations.

Characteristics of Strategic Planning Systems


a) Adhoc basis – Information may be produced either regularly or periodically.
E.g.: Balance Sheet, Income Sheet.
b) Unexpected information – Unexpected information produced by a system.
E.g.: Economic forecast.
c) Predictive nature - Information is usually of future events rather than descriptive of
past events.
d) Summary form - Long-range planners are not usually interested in detailed
information.
e) External Data - Data used for input to the system maybe acquired from sources
external to the organization.
E.g.: Rates of borrowed Capital, political, Govt., customers, suppliers
f) Unstructured format - Data used for input to the system may contain data that are
unstructured in format.
E.g.: Opinion of Sales people, store buyers.

III. Evolution of Data Processing Information Systems: -


Data processing was introduced to automate specific tasks. The evolution of data
processing was given by Nolan in his article “Managing the crises in Data Processing”.
The growth of Data Processing involves:
1. Growth in technology and application development.
2. Growth in planning and control strategies.
3. Changes in user involvement.

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The evolution of data processing depends on achieving a balance among technology,
application development, user involvement and organizational control.
Nolan has given a Six-stage theory in order to experience the growth characteristics in
the organization.
1. Initiation
2. Contagion
3. Control
4. Integration
5. Data administration
6. Maturity

1. Initiation: In this stage cost effective transaction processing systems like accounts
receivable and payroll are introduced. It requires technical specialists from accounting
department. This stage has few controls over data processing expenditure and users
have “hands off ” attitude.
2. Contagion: In this stage a proliferation of applications occurs and data processing
specialists will be given the go-ahead to pursue different automation opportunities. In
this stage expenditures will be increased (i.e., for computers and personnel) so
corporate management is concerned about the benefits for the investment in
information systems.
3. Control: To control data processing expenditures management organizes steering
committees with representatives from user areas, who become responsible for setting
priorities for application development projects. MIS controls all its internal activities;
makes project development plans and system development activities.
4. Integration: Existing information systems are integrated by using database and
telecommunications technologies.
5. Data administration: Introduction of data base technologies shifts from traditional
files supporting one application to design logical database supporting multiple
applications.
6. Maturity: Due to arriving new technologies and competitors a number of changes will
occur

IV. STRATEGIC USES OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS:


These are goal oriented i.e., these systems are designed to support organizational
goal and direction setting.
Decisions that will impact on organization for more than a year are often viewed as
stronger.
E.g.: Long term forecasting, market research and technology, planning and assessment

1. To improve operational efficiency --- cut cost and improve the quality and delivery
of its products or services. E.g.: Computerized.
2. To promote business innovation --- production of new products, services (ATM)
and processes (CAD).
3. To build strategic information resources --- to meet challenges from the
competitive forces to confront any organization.

Using Information Technology for Competitive Advantage: -

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Due to increasing development in Information Technology (E.g.: -
Telecommunications, computer-aided design and office automation) organizations are
looking for new business opportunities and strategies.
Gregory parsons have given three-level framework to help managers to assess the
current and potential effect of Information Technology.
The three levels that affect IT are:
1. Industry level
2. Firm level
3. Strategy level
1. Industry level: IT changes the nature of the industry, where the firm competes
with other firms. IT at Industry level effect on:
a) Products and Services: IT changes the nature of the product and services by
altering the product development cycle or by increasing the speed of the
distribution.
E.g.: - Videoconferencing --- used in chain hotels.
Computer based word processing
b) Production economics: IT changes the nature of the production economics.
E.g.: - National wide Inventory tracking
c) Markets: IT changes the nature of markets, as many consumers are computer
literate.
E.g.: - ATM’s (Automated Teller Machine)
POS systems (Point Of Sale)
2. Firm level: There are five competitive forces, which determine the effect of
Information Technology.
a) Buyers: This force reduces industry’s profit, which can be controlled by
information technology using introducing switching costs.
E.g.: - Analyze buyer profitability
Analyze the profitability of specific market groups
b) Suppliers: Firms can compete more effectively if there are able to control the
power of suppliers.
E.g.: - Robots used in production
c) Substitute products: Customer finding cost-effective substitute products and
services will hurt the firm’s profits. So, firm should reduce cost in order not to
go to substitute products.
d) New entrants: New entrants can draw profits from firms in an industry, if they
create effective entry barriers by constructing on-line telecommunication
systems networks.
E.g.: - Airline industry with on-line reservation systems.
e) Rivals: All industries have competitors, and are valuable because it enables to
establish profits from successful firms.
E.g.: - ATM network, on-line reservation systems

3. Strategy level: The three generic strategies to achieve competitive edge are:
a) Low-cost leadership: It is the ability to reduce costs or to improve
productivity with out incurring additional costs.
E.g.: -Office automation, Inventory Control Systems
Production control systems
b) Product differentiation: It is an added value or having unique features to a
product to improve its image, quality or service.
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E.g.: - Computer-aided Design is used in shoe, automobiles for better
quality product designs.
c) Market specialization: It is achieved by concentrating on a particular market
(Niche product) i.e. it provides information about the profitability of specific
market segments, which enables manufactures to address these specific needs.
E.g.: - Electronic library access

The Strategic Impact of the Internet and Electronic Commerce: -


Internet is a worldwide entity, which is defined as network of networks, communicating
among all computers connected to these networks.
It provides the infra structure for a variety of functions such as e-mail, web access and
file transfer to the World Wide Web.
E-Commerce is associated with the buying and selling of information, products and
services via computer networks (Internet).
Electronic commerce is a modern business methodology, which addresses the need of
organizations, merchants, and consumers to cut costs for improving the quality of goods and
services and increasing the speed of service delivery. Using these computer networks corporate
people can retrieve information for decision-making.

Business uses of the Internet (Electronic Market place): -


1. Globalization: -
As companies move into the international market place, the Internet provides a
global communications network i.e., creating a global business. The Internet allows
companies of any size to interact customers on a worldwide basis.
2. Competitive advantage: -
Using Internet as a marketing tool, businesses can provide up-to-date
information about products, technological developments and research of prospective
customers of users.
3. Information access: -
Businesses can access information, including government databases, industry
statistics and competitors.
4. Cost containment: -
Doing business electronically is much less expensive than using paper
communications, phone contact and information by mail.
5. Sales and marketing: -
Customers can obtain information about products, services, advertisements,
prices, schedules, contact persons, service capabilities and business opportunities.
6. Electronic communications: -
Business accesses to an international electronic communications network that
facilities communications and interactions among customers, vendor and competitors.

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