ORIGINAL
ORIGINAL
ORIGINAL
Polyethylene has the simplest structure of all the polymers .other names of
polyethylene are Polymethylene, polyethylene. Polyethylene is the most widely
used plastic material throughout the world, and high density polyethylene is the
most widely used type of polyethylene.
1
1.2 WORLDWIDE USAGE OF THE MOST COMMON PLASTIC
TYPES
The chart given below shows the world wide usage of the most common plastic
types in 2000. It is clear from the chart that polyethylene is most widely used
plastic material
5.10% PE
11.60% 40.30% PP
PVC
21.10%
PS
21.90%
ABS/SAN
2
LDPE has a high degree of branching, which means that the chains do pack into
the crystal structure as well. It has therefore less strong intermolecular forces as
the instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction is less. This results in a lower
tensile strength and increased ductility. LDPE is created by free radical
polymerization
HDPE has a low degree of branching and thus stronger intermolecular forces
and tensile strength. The lack of branching is ensured by an appropriate choice
of catalyst (e.g. Ziegler-Natta catalysts) and reaction conditions. Another
important grade of polyethylene is LDDPE i.e. linear low density polyethylene
LLDPE is a substantially linear polymer, with significant numbers of short
branches, commonly made by copolymerization of ethylene with longer-chain
olefins.
The chart given below showing the worldwide usage of different grades of
polyethylene in 2000
LDPE,
24.5 HDPE
HDPE,
47.4 LLDPE
LDPE
LLDPE,
28.2
3
High density polyethylene consumption in Pakistan is 105000 tons in year 2005.
Unfortunately Pakistan has no plant for the production of Polyethylene.
4
Shortly, thereafter, yet another transition metal catalyst capable of polymerizing
ethylene at low pressure was discovered in Germany. This approach uses a
transitional metal halide, or other complex activated by an aluminum alkyl co
catalyst .transitions metal compound of group IVa through Via (Ti proffered) was
claimed.
Although the standard oil discovery came first, commercialization was slow.
Three plants were eventually built between 1961 and 1971, but the process had
poor economics and was soon scrapped .In contrast the Phillips and Ziegler
discoveries were commercialized rapidly and still exist today in more advanced
forms. At Phillips the first plants were brought on stream in 1955 and 1956.while
the first Ziegler plant was brought on stream in late 1956 by Hochest .A second
one was built in 1957 by Hercules.
At the end of 1970s considerable interest in what became known as linear low
density polyethylene (LLDPE) which are intermediate in properties and structure
to high pressure and low pressure materials .while strictly speaking these are
copolymers it is more convenient to consider them alongside the homopolymer.
The very low density polyethylene was introduced by Union Carbide in 1985
were closely related.
By the 1990s there was enormous activity in the development of a further type of
polyethylene based on misallocate catalysis methods. Commercial catalyzed
polyethylene production started in 1990s and it is estimated in 2000
Metallocene–catalyzed polyethylene will comprise about 2% of the total
polyethylene market
By the mid 1990s capacity for polyethylene production was about 50,000, 000
t.p.a much greater than any other type of plastic material .of this capacity about
40% was for HDPE ,36% for LDPE and about 24% for LLDPE.
5
1.5 Properties of HDPE
Property value
Density(g/cm3) 0.960
Tensile strength(p.s.i) 42000
Elongation (%) 40
Modulus (p.s.i) 140000
Crystalline % 87
Linear thermal expansion coefficient 1.3*10^-4
Water absorption (%) .02
Oxygen index 17
Volume resitivity(log ohm.cm) 17
Molding pressure range Psi 12000-15000
Thermal conductivity(cal.cm/sec.cm2) 0.00011-0.00012
6
1.6 Commercial application of HDPE
Its high chemical stability facilitate the processing of HDPE by many conventional
techniques .some of the most common application include injection molding,
blow molding, blown and cast film, pipe and tubing, and wire and table coating.
Injection molding HDPE is injected into a metal mold at 200-260 0C and pressure
will be in the range of (690-1380 atm).the mold is then cold and opened and the
solid article, which is now in the shape of mould, is removed.
Blow molding articles account for the largest single use of HDPE. This technique
is used for rapid processing of large quantities of articles Of relatively simple
configuarations.,such as bottles and simple containers.
The impermeability, stiffness and higher softening temperature of HDPE make it
useful for making its film by blown film extrusion.
Pipes and tubes can also be made by HDPE.HDPE pipe is used in low pressure
applications for transporting potable water, gas, acids, liquid
hydrocarbons,oils,salt water, and others chemicals and solvents.
Excellent electrical properties and moisture resistance make HDPE ideal for
cable and wire coating. Use includes power, communications and control,
applications.
Due to low water absorption HDPE ropes are used in marine applications where
it has a clear advantage over nylon.
Large items such as tote boxes fuel tanks, water storage tanks are often made
by rotational molding operation of HDPE.
7
PROCESS SELECTION
All the processes currently in use for the production of HDPE fall into three
categories:
(a) Solution processes
(b) Slurry processes
(c) Gas Phase Polymerization.
These processes, the economics of which are well established, use second and
third generation catalysts, are capable of continuous or discontinuous operation,
and are run as nearly closed loops, causing a minimum of pollution. For the most
efficient HDPE production technology, low investment costs, consistency of
product, low operating costs and the yield of polymer per gram of catalyst are
important considerations.
Each of these polymerization processes has their pros and cons with regard to
these factors.
Solution Processes
The earliest commercial HDPE plants used a solution process in which the
polymer dissolves in a hydrocarbon solvent as it is formed. Cyclohexane was
8
commonly used as a solvent at 120-150 0C. Polymerization ensues giving out
large heat energy. Some processes use water jacketing to remove reaction heat,
while in others cooling is done by monomer refrigeration. Solution processes are
generally run at moderately high pressures
and temperatures and require heavier wall reactors than other processes.
However, because of the beneficial effect of increased temperature on reaction
rates, catalyst efficiencies are usually higher with short residence times. This
allows a higher production rate for a given size reactor. Processes can be highly
automated. For example, product molecular weight can be controlled by
monitoring reaction parameters, and reactor conditions can be changed via
feedback loops. This type of process is inherently limited in the amount of
polymer which can be kept in solution: 35-40% is the absolute maximum. Also,
making high molecular weight polymer gives difficulties by putting high torque on
the stirrer, dropping out of the solution as gel, and fouling the reactor. Thus, it is
more difficult to make extrusion blow molding grades of HDPE with solution
processes, particularly those requiring a very high molecular weight component
for high melt strength and die swell. On the other hand, solution processes
generally excel in producing injection molding grades, where narrow MWDs and
lower MWDs are required.
Slurry Processes
9
powders, suitable for rotomoulding, directly in the reactor, thus cutting out the
expensive grinding step.
Reactors used for slurry processes may take any of several forms, from kettles to
loop-type designs. The latter have high surface-to volume ratios, which are
advantageous for controlling reactor temperature, so necessary in maintaining
molecular weight and molecular weight distribution as desired. A disadvantage of
the slurry type process is the greater difficulty of automation, since there are
fewer ways to immediately sense any changes in the product itself. Also, slurry
processes tend to make more 'twilight' material in switching from one grade to
another. Also, many processes are susceptible to fouling.
In practice, most slurry processes, unless modified, tend to yield very high
molecular weight materials which are not commercially useful. Thus, a "chain
stopper" or chain transfer agent is often required. For Ziegler-type catalysts,
hydrogen is generally used; it tends to give a "clean" product and is not
extensively expensive.
Because of their tendency to make higher molecular weights, most slurry
processes perform well in making blow molding grades; in some instances,
however, tandem reactors may be required for broad MWDs. Injection moulding
grades are harder to make. Suspension polymerization, like the Hoechst-Ziegler
technology, is still one of the most mature, flexible, versatile and widely used
Processes. It is the only technology capable of producing the wider range of
HDPE polymers - and polymerisation of ultra-high Molecular weight HDPE as
well.
Unlike solution or slurry processes, the original gas phase processes employed
no hydrocarbon diluent. Union carbide introduced the first gas phase technology
in1968, and other firms soon developed the approach still further, such as
Naphthicime, British Petroleum, BASF, and Amoco. In this technology, solid
catalysts are used for ethylene polymerization or its copolymerization with light
10
comonomeres in the gas phase. the system van be agitated by mechanical
devices, such as horizontal paddles or screws, but more often by a gas stream of
ethylene which fluidizes the polyethylene particles bed.
During the last one decade, vapour phase processes have become a commercial
reality. Initially there were many problems, such as preparation of a suitable
catalyst, excessive catalyst particle size and finding catalyst of sufficiently high
activities along with the desired MW and MWD. Still another problem was in heat
removal and in maintaining constant temperatures. Several companies have
been very active in research, one being Union Carbide, which solved most of
the technical problems listed above about five years back. Since then it has been
the most widely used HDPE process. Reportedly, the process may require two,
or perhaps more, different supported catalysts to make a complete grade slate.
As already described, the process operates on a fluidized bed principle. At start
up, a bed of catalyst-rich polymer is fluidized by an upward stream of ethylene
hydrogen, and possibly a carrier gas. As the particles begin to grow due to build
up of polymer, larger particles tend to fall to the bottom of the reactor, where they
are drawn off through a special valve system.
Reaction temperature is controlled by introducing chilled monomer through the
bottom porous plate. For satisfactory conversions, a number of passes are
required. The product from the reactors is low in ash and can be palletized
without further purification. By its very nature, a fluidized process is expected to
yield broad MWD products. In general this comparatively new technology has
some limitations with respect to flexibility and consistency.
Now the below table will describe the selection of process
11
2.2 PROCESS SELECTION
12
Disadvantages 1. Very 1. Difficult method for 1.High pressure is
high residence preparation of required
time suitable catalyst 2.High temperature
2. Difficult 2. Heat removal is required
y of automation problem 3.Due to high
3. low rate 3. Excessive particle temperature and
of reaction size catalyst pressure thick walled
4. low 4. High equipment reactor will be
production rate cost required
5. Very low
conversion
6. Compression cost
is very high
There are various methods for the production of HDPE by solution polymerization
such as DuPont process, Stamicarbon process and Phillips solution
polymerization process, but I have selected the
Phillips solution polymerization process due to the following advantages
1. Conversion is more.
2. Catalyst is more reliable
3. Different grades of HDPE can be produced by using the Phillips catalyst
just by varying the proportion of its components.
13
Preparation of the Phillips catalyst requires careful attention to details in order to
obtain the high catalyst activities required. The catalyst contains usually about 2-
5% by weight of by weight of chromic oxide supported on silica- alumina.
The silica alumina support may be used in the form of granules (14/28mesh) or
pellets (5/32 inch).the preferred support has large pore size and a low surface
area to facilitate the dissolution of the coating of the polymer that is sub
sequentially formed. A particular active catalyst is characterized by a surface
area/weight ratio of 400-600m2/gm and a pore diameter of 65-150A0 .
Chromic oxide catalysts are activated, before being used for polymerization by
contacting the finely divided material with air for several hours at temperatures
from 400-9750C.After activation the catalyst is cooled in dry air and stored until
used. the chromium on the surface of the catalyst should be in hexavelent state.
Our catalyst contains about 5 % chromium supported on silica-alumina.
Solvent Properties
Physical properties
14
Critical pressure =30835mm Hg
Flash point = -18.4oC
Chemical properties
Common uses
Monomer Properties
Molecular formula
C2-H4
Physical properties
15
Boiling point: –104°C
Explosive Limits: 2.7 mol%–36 mol%
Automatic Ignition Temperature: 543°C in air at atmospheric pressure.
Colourless compressed gas with sweet Odour. Slightly soluble in water, soluble
in most organic solvents.
End Uses
Ethylene is the major raw material at the Orica Botany, Botany, New South
Wales Site for the manufacture of polythene, ethylene oxide and its range of
derivatives. Ethylene is also used for the
Manufacture of polyester fibre and film, vinyl acetate and a range of alcohols and
solvents.
Production process
Ethylene is basically obtained from refinery it but it can be prepared form the
dehydrogenation of ethylene that is also a component of petroleum refinary This
is a light fraction of hydrocarbon extracted from underground gas fields in the
Cooper Basin in naphtha, a light fraction produced in the distillation of crude oil
and purchased
Personal protection
16
Wear impervious gloves, full face shield or chemical goggles, rubber boots and
overalls. Use with adequate ventilation. If inhalation risk exists wear air supplied
mask. Avoid all contact with liquid product to prevent cold burn situations.
First of all the ethylene has been compressed to 20atm and the catalyst has
been slurred with the cyclohexane solvent. Then both of the stream has been
sent to the reactor where the polymerization of ethylene takes place at
1400C.Catalyst contain about 5 % chromium oxide, supported on silica-alumina.
Concentration of ethylene within the reactor may be 10-15% by weight of the
total mixture. Solvent has been used to remove the part of the heat of the
reaction, to dissolve the monomer and polymer, to reduce the viscosity of the
mixture, to promote good polymer growth and to prevent adhesion of HDPE
powder and catalyst with the walls of the reactor. Conversion within the reactor is
17
95%. Heat of reaction will be removed by cooling coil by circulating the cooling
water within the coil.
After the reactor the separation process will be started. Mixture Of solvent,
catalyst, HDPE and unconverted ethylene gas has been sent to horizontal gas-
liquid separator where the ethylene will be recovered from the top by reduction
of pressure and then the remaining mixture will be sent to the first centrifuge
where the catalyst that is in undissolved form will be removed by devolving high
centrifugal force.
HDPE comes from centrifuge contains some cyclohexane contents and we want
to reduce these contents up to .002%. For this purpose we use rotary air dryer.
In rotary air dryer we use air as a heating media to remove cyclohexane contents
up to required extent. The HDPE powder leaving the dryer is about 99.9% pure.
MATERIAL BALANCE
18
3.1 BASIS
19
Equipmen Ethylen Cyclohexan Catalys HDPE air Water Total
t e e t
Reactor 1661.25 10668.39 23.5877 -------- --------- 18562 197978.22
(in) 5
Reactor 83.0625 10668 23.5877 1578.18 18562 197978.22
(out) 5
At the end we will get the almost pure HDPE that will contain only .026% solvent
and the remainining solvent will be separated as the side stream by using hot air.
REACTOR
20
4.1 GENERAL
21
reacting fluid may vary point to point within the reactor, depending on the
endothermic or exothermic character of the reaction, the rate of heat addition or
removal from the system, and the flow pattern of the fluid through the vessels. In
effect, then, many factors must be accounted for in predicting the performance of
a reactor.
How best to treat these factors is the main problem of the reactor design.
Homogeneous Reactors
Heterogeneous Reactors
22
In Heterogeneous Reactors two or possibly three, phases are involved, common
examples are gas – liquid, liquid – solid, and liquid – liquid systems. In cases
where one of the phases is a solid, it is quite often present as a catalyst; gas –
solid catalytic reactors particularly form an important class of Heterogeneous
catalytic Reactors. In a gas – solid catalytic reactor, the reaction takes place on
the surface of catalyst and hence heterogeneous. However, bubbling a gas
through a liquid may serve just to dissolve the gas in the liquid where it then
reacts homogeneously. The reaction is then homogeneous but the reactor is
heterogeneous itself.
Generally, a heterogeneous reactor exhibits a greater variety of configurations
and contacting pattern than homogeneous reactors.
23
The stirred – tank reactor has certain advantages because of the uniform
temperature, pressure, and composition attained as a result of mixing. As
mentioned, it is possible to operate such a reactor under isothermal conditions
even when the heat of reaction is high impossibility is the usual in the tubular
type. Where a small temperature variation is desired, for example, to minimize
side reactions or avoid unfavorable rates, the opportunity for isothermal operation
at the optimum temperature is a distinct advantage. Stirred – tank reactors by
virtue of their large volumes provide a long residence time. This, combined with
the isothermal nature of the reactor, permits operation at the optimum
temperature for a long time. For rate equation of certain type the selectivity in
multiple reactions may be greater in tank reactors than in tubular – flow reactors
for the same residence time.
However, for high – pressure reactions it is usually necessary, because of cost
considerations, to use small – diameter tubular reactors rather than tank types.
Tank reactors that are to be operated at high pressures require a large wall
thickness and complex sealing arrangements for the mixer shaft, factors which
increase both initial and maintenance costs.
The rate of heat transfer per unit mass of the reaction mixture is generally lower
in the tank type than in the tubular reactor.
In Summary stirred – tank reactors can be used when the heat of reaction is high
but only if the temperature level obtained in their isothermal operation is
satisfactory from other stand points. If reactions are endothermic and a high
temperature is required, tubular reactors are usually indicated.
We have to consider the following factors for the reactor selection criteria
1- Conversion
2- Selectivity
3- Productivity
24
4- Yield
5- Heat exchange
6- Mixing
7- Catalyst Distribution
8- Hold-up Time
9- Availability
10-Compatibility with processing
11-Energy utilization
12-Safety
13-Economics
1. Mixing of Reactants
2. Good Temperature Control
3. High heat and mass transfer efficiencies
4. Useful for slow reactions requiring large hold up time
5. Uniform Composition throughout the reactor
6. Distribution of Catalyst
7. For Liquid-Liquid system
8. Ease of Automatic Control
9. Less Man power requirement
25
500 559 75 54
750 807 97 60
1000 1075 118 66
1200 1253 66
1500 1554 72
135
2000 2083 78
155
25000 2756 84
191
3000 3272 90
230
3500 3827 96
256
4000 4354 102
283
5000 5388 108
304
6000 6601 120
353
8000 8765 132
395
10000 10775 144
466
540
26
7. jacket selection
8. Impeller selection
9. Impeller specifications
10. Baffles Dimensions
11. Power calculations
12. Mechanical design
1. Data collection
Given Data
27
Wt. average density of the 575.46Kg/m3
mixture
Total vol .flow rate of the 21.466m3/hr
mixture
Temperature of reactor 140co
Pressure inside the reactor 20 atm
Viscosity in the reactor 2.3cp
Conversion 95%
2. Rate Of Reaction
Rate equation
-rp= Kki kp [A][RH][M]2
Kt
Where
K = .023lit/mol/sec
Ki = 26.33lit/mol/sec
Kp = 23.20lit/mol/sec
Kt = .005sec-1
28
V/Fa0=Xa/-ra
Conversion=95%
Fa0=molar f low rate of the total mixture=186.57Kgmol/hr
Volume of the reaction mixture=35.40m3/hr
Allowances of the reactor =10%
Volume of the reactor =35.40+.1*35.40 = 38.940 m 3
Taking it as standard 40m3
X A
C Ao r A
29
=height of the reactor = 1.25*3.40
H = 4.30m
7. Jacket Selection
Types of Impellers
30
Moderate Viscous Viscous Liquids Viscous Liquids
Liquids
Flow Pattern For Axial Flow For Radial and For Radial and
Tangential Flow Tangential Flow,
sometimes Axial
Flow also.
Types Square Pitched Flat Paddle, Flat, Vertical,
Marine Propellers Anchor Agitator Curved, and
Pitched Blade
Blades 3-blade,4-Blade 2 and 4 bladed 2-8 Blades But 6-
Toothed Paddles Blade is used as
standard
RPM Ranges 400-800,1150- 20-150 50-250
1750
I have selected the flat blade turbine impeller due to following advantages
1. Turbines are effective over a wide range of viscosity
2. It is generally required slower speed
3. It can circulate the material in the radial direction in a good manner
4. It can operate at slower speed.
5. Cost is low.
Construction of flat blade turbine impeller has been shown below
31
4.7 IMPELLER DESIGN
E / Dt = 1/3
E = 1.13m
32
For the depth of the liquid in the vessel
H / Dt =1
H = 3.40m
Baffles
Baffles are used to prevent vortexing and rotation of the liquid mass as a whole
Baffle width = Dt/12 = 0.2833m
Baffle offset = Da/2 = 0.565m
Power Calculation
Nq = q/(nDa3)
Nq = flow number
n = revolution per second
Da = dia of impeller
Q = D^2*3.14/4*Vs
Where Vs = superficial velocity=.2439m/sec
q = (Dt 2 *3.14*.2439)/4
= (3.40^2*3.14*.2439)/4
=2.006373m3/sec
Diameter of the impeller = 1.133m
Speed = n = 1.2651rev/sec
rev/min = 75.9066rev/min
33
As power P = Kt*n3*Da5* r
= 5.75*(1.4^3)*1.133^5*575.4
= 16950watt
= 16.950kwatt
Power = 0.47kwatt/m3
Shell Thickness
Formula
P * Di
e C
2* f P
Where
e=thickness of shell
P=internal pressure=20atm=2026kpa
ft=permissible stress=1.65*105 kpa
C=corrosion allowance=3mm
2026 * 3.40
e 3 *10 3
2 * (1.65 *10 ) 2026
5
e= .024m
Dome Head
Selected=Ellipsoidal
Thickness calculation
Pi * Di
e
2 * J * f 0.2 * Pi
34
J=joint efficiency=0.85
2026 * 3.40
e
2 * 1.65 * 105 * 0.85 0.2 * 2026
e =0.024m
e =2.2
Wv = 266.11N
STRESS CALCULATIONS
Longitudinal Stress
Pi * Di
h
2*t
2026 * 3.40
h
2 * 0.024
=1.43*105Kpa
Circumferential Stress
Pi * Di
h
4*t
35
1013.25 * 5.429
h
4 * 0.019
h 7.17*104KPa
Formula:
Wv
w
* ( Di t ) * t
266.11
w
* (3.40 0.024) * 0.024
w 1031N / m 2
Materials of construction
For Reactor
Stainless steel
Type 302
Cr=17 %, Ni=8 % , C (max) =0.15 %
Have good corrosion resistance
Excellent mechanical properties
Easy to fabricate
For Blades
Stainless steel
Type 316
18% Cr, 8%Ni , 2.5%Mo , 0.08%C
Mo improves general corrosion and pitting resistance and high
36
Temperature strength over that of type 302
Shows good mechanical properties over large flow rates
For Baffles
Stainless steel
Type 405
11.50% Cr , 0.08%C
Good weld ability and cladding properties
Have limited harden ability
Mostly use for Baffles, Tower Lining and heat Exchanger Tubing
Identification:
Item Reactor
No. required 1
Operation: Continuous
Type: Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
Temperature: 140 0C Pressure: 2026kPa
Design Data:
Volume: 40 m3
Length: 4.30m Impeller type: Vertical flat blade turbine
Power required: 0.47 kw/m3 No. of blades: Six
Blade material: stainless steel 316 Impeller diameter: 0.937 m
Shell material: stainless steel 302 Baffle width: 0.187 m
Blade width : 0.226 m Diameter: 3.40 m
No. of baffles: Four Impeller speed: 84 rpm
37
Baffles material: stainless steel 405
Jacket type: dimple jacket
PHASE SEPARATOR
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The containers in which the feedstock, intermediate products, and final products
are held are generically known as vessels. Relatively large capacity vessels are
called storage tanks, and small capacity vessels are called drums. In a refinery,
38
drums are widely used not only as procesr, units but also as utility and off-site
facilities.
The types of drums and their internal construction vary, depending upon the kind
of services in which the drums are used; mainly they are used for the following
purposes:
- Vapor-Liquid Separation
- Liquid Surge
- Liquid-Liquid Settling
The typical names of drums used in a refinery are summarized in Table 4-1
together with their functions.
39
Component separation is frequently followed by phase separation. Phase
separators can be classified according to phases in contact: liquid-gas, liquid-
liquid, liquid-solid solid-gas, and solid-solid.
Here we have to consider the gas-liquid separator, because we have to remove
the unconverted ethylene gas from the solvent cyclohexane.althoug the mixture
will also contain catalyst and HDPE in solid form, but both substances will be in
dissolved form in cyclohexane. So we consider the basic separation between
ethylene gas and cyclohexane liquid.
40
on the wires and coalesce until the drops become heavy enough to break away
from the wire and fall to the bottom of the separator. Because of the large free
volume of the pad (97 to 99%) the pressure drop across the pad is usually less
than 1.0 in. of water. The separation efficiency of a pad is about 99.9% or
greater.
The major objective in sizing a gas-liquid separator is to lower the gas velocity
sufficiently to reduce the number of liquid droplets from being entrained in the
gas. Thus, the separator must be determined. The separator is also designed as
an accumulator for the liquid portion of the stream. Thus, the liquid height is
calculated by allowing sufficient surge time to dampen flow rate variations of the
liquid stream. This liquid height will also be sufficient to allow vapor bubbles to
rise to the top of the liquid before being trapped in the outlet stream at the bottom
of the vessel. This can be achieved by reducing the outlet liquid velocity by
increasing the diameter of the outlet nozzle.
In a separator, there is not a single drop size but a distribution of drop sizes. To
prevent all drops from being carried out by a gas stream would require an
uneconomically large separator. Thus, a maximum gas velocity is specified so
that all but the very small drops are recovered.
Since the vertical and horizontal vapor liquid separators have the same design
equations and have similar design calculations, therefore the only parameter on
which one can be selected for our required separation is for checking the value of
L/D ratio. If L/D<5 value, then vertical gas liquid separators are used and if L/D>5
value, then horizontal gas-liquid separators are used.
However, the vertical and horizontal vapor liquid separators have the same
design equations and have similar design calculations; therefore the only
parameter on which one can be selected for our required separation is for
checking the value of L/D ratio. If L/D ratio is greater than 5 values then
horizontal separators are used.
41
Knockout Drums
These are used when the liquid content of the incoming stream is low, is a
special case of gas liquid separators. The drum is placed before the compressor
inlet to prevent liquid drops from entering and damaging the compressors.
Nozzles
Vortex Breaker
When liquid flows into the outlet nozzle at the bottom of a drum, the force of the
liquid flow causes a vortex to form in the liquid above the nozzle. The rotation of
the liquid causes a vacuum to form in the center of the vortex which will lead to
loss of suction at the draw-off pump.
To prevent this, a vortex breaker (anti-vortex baffle) is installed inside the drum at
the top of the nozzle.
Maintenance Procedures
42
Fire Prevention
Lined Drums
Some drums are lined with a special metal or Teflon, or coated with aluminum or
zinc, to protect the drums against corrosion or to prevent deterioration of the
products. Care must be taken to ensure that the lining or coating material is not
damaged during inspection or maintenance work.
Weld Inspection
Welded joints shall be visually inspected for low pressure vessels. For high
pressure vessels, welded joints shall be subjected to a magnetic particle
examination, to detect fine cracks invisible to the naked eye.
Various parts of horizontal and vertical vapor liquid separator has been shown
below
43
44
5.5 DESIGNING
45
= 0.4594m2
Diameter of the separator = (Area*4/3.14)1/2
=0.765m
Liquid level in the separator is given by the formula,
0.5* Ll * A = VL´ * ts.
Where,
Ll = liquid level in the separator, (m)
ts = residence time in the separator,(sec)= 5min
= 0.083 hr
L1 = 6.33 m
Length of the separator = L1+1.5D+0.4572
=7.93m
L/D ratio for the separator=31.71/2.87m=11.04
Identification:
Item Horizontal-Gas Liquid separator
No. required 1
Operation: Continuous
Type: Horizontal Temperature: 140 0C
Pressure 15atm
Diameter of the separator 0.765m L/D Ratio 10.36
46
HEAT EXCHANGER
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Condenser
Vaporizer
Cooler
47
6.2 SELECTION GUIDE TO HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES
Approxim
ate
relative
Significant Applications cost in
Type Limitations
feature best suited carbon
steel
construct
ion
Condensers; Temperature
liquid-liquid; gas- difference at
Fixed gas; gas-liquid; extremes of
Both tube sheets
tube cooling and about 200 oF 1.0
fixed to shell.
sheet heating, Due to
horizontal or differential
vertical, reboiling. expansion.
One tube sheet
High temperature
Floating “floats” in shell or Internal gaskets
differentials,
head or with shell, tube offer danger of
above about 200
tube bundle may or o leaking.
F extremes; dirty
sheet may not be Corrosiveness of
fluids requiring
(removabl removable from fluids on shell- 1.28
cleaning of inside
e and no shell, but back side floating
as well as outside
removabl cover can be parts. Usually
of shell,
e removed to confined to
horizontal or
bundles) expose tube horizontal units.
vertical.
ends.
Bends must be
carefully made,
High temperature
or mechanical
differentials,
damage and
which might
Only one tube danger of rupture
require provision
sheet required. can result. Tube
U-tube; for expansion in
Tubes bent in U- side velocities 0.9-1.1
U-Bundle fixed tube units.
shape. Bundle is can cause
Easily cleaned
removable. erosion of inside
conditions on
of bends. Fluid
both tube and
should be free of
shell side.
suspended
particles.
Double Each tube has Relatively small Services suitable
0.8-1.4
pipe own shell forming transfer area for finned tube.
48
service, or in
banks for larger
annular space for
applications. Piping-up a large
shell side fluid.
Especially suited number often
Usually use
for high requires cost and
externally finned
pressures in tube space.
tube.
(greater than 400
psig).
Pipe coil for
Transfer
submersion in
Condensing, or coefficient is low,
coil-box of water
relatively low requires
Pipe coil or sprayed with 0.5-0.7
heat loads on relatively large
water is simplest
sensible transfer. space if heat
type of
load is high.
exchanger.
Not well suited
Composed of for boiling or
metal-formed thin Viscous fluids, condensing; limit
Plate and plates separated corrosive fluids, 350-500 oF by
0.8-1.5
frame by gaskets. slurries, high heat gaskets. Used
Compact, easy to transfer. for liquid-liquid
clean. only; not gas-
gas.
Compact,
Process
concentric plates; Cross-flow,
corrosion,
Spiral no bypassing, condensing, 0.8-1.5
suspended
high turbulence. heating.
materials.
SELECTION CRITERIA
49
6.3 SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
In process industries, shell and tube exchangers are used in great numbers, far
more than any other type of exchanger. More than 90% of heat exchangers used
in industry are of the shell and tube type. The shell and tube heat exchangers are
the “work horses” of industrial process heat transfer. They are the first choice
because of well-established procedures for design and manufacture from a wide
variety of materials, many years of satisfactory service, and availability of codes
and standards for design and fabrication. They are produced in the widest variety
of sizes and styles. There is virtually no limit on the operating temperature and
pressure.
50
Fixed Tube Sheet Design.
Benefits
DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Composition
Hot Stream:
Cold Stream
51
Δt 2= 60 k
Cp Values
Heat Load
For HDPE
Q1 = mCpT
= 440095.14 kj / hr
For Cyclohexane
Q2 = mCpT
= 27888.55 kj / hr
Qt = Q1 + Q2
= 467983.7 kj / hr
now
Total heat lost by mixture = Total heat gained by water
So
m = Q / Cp.Δt
= 1864.17 kj / hr
LMTD
= 144.065 k
T2 T1
R 2.826
t 2 t1
52
t 2 t1
S 0.48
T1 t1
Ft = 0.9
△Tm = Ft * LMTD = 129.6584 k
Let
Ud = 850 kg / hr.m2.k
H.T Area:
H.T area = Qt / Ud . △Tm
2
= 4..25 m
16 BWG
OD = 0.019 m
ID = 0.0148 m
Pt square = 0.0254 m => k1 = 0.156
Length of tube = 4.87 m
Tube Clearance ( C ) = Pt – OD = 0.0235 m
Surface area of one tube = π*OD*L
= 0.306 m2
No. of tubes =N t = H.T Area / area of one tube
= 14
Dia of bundle = Db = OD* ( N t / k1 )
= 0.1356 m
Shell Specifications:
53
Dia of shell = 0.91 m
Baffle Spacing = B = 0.016 m
Tube Spacing = C = 0.0235 m
Af = ( ID*C*B) / Pt
= 0.03869 m2
G = m / Af
= 4.82*104 kg/m2.hr
NRe = 7.21*104
Ho / Фs = Jh*( k / De)*( Cµ / k )1/3
54
Hio / Фi = ( Hi / Фi)*( ID / OD )
= 23.83
Wall Temperature
PRESSURE DROP
Tube side
NRe = 1.07 x 103
f = 0.82
1 fG t2 L * n
Pt
2 5.22 10 10 DeS t
= 3001.83 pa
= 0.4355 Psi
55
Shell Side
Re = 7.21 x 104
f = 0.008
fG s2 N 1 D5
Ps1
5.22 1010 DeS
=8340.35 pa
= 1.21 Psi
56
SPECIFICATION SHEET FOR 1-2 PASS SHELL FIXED HEAD SHELL AND
TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
57
CENTRIFUGE
7.1 INTRODUCTION
58
Filtering Centrifuges
Sedimentation Centrifuges
59
Disc Centrifuges
7.3 SELECTION OF CENTRIFUGES
If the application is not new, there is good chance that you can find
documentation of a process that defines the type of centrifuge currently operating
on this application. This does not imply that it is the best centrifuge for the
process, but it may suggest a comfort factor in this technology. There may be a
personal or plant preference for a particular type of centrifuge for the application.
The characteristics of the solids and liquids handled in a process will influence
centrifuge selection.
If the solids are lighter than the liquid, a decanting centrifuge is not an option. If
the specific gravities are very close, but the solids are slightly heavier, a
decanting centrifuge may be considered, but only if either the particle size or the
centrifugal force improves the settling of the solids.
Particle Size
Coarse solids with particle size greater than 100 um are generally best suited for
filtering type centrifuges. Finer solids that measures less than 10um are best
60
handled in sedimentation centrifuges. Given that most solids have abroad
particle size distribution, the percentage of solids finer than 100um will influence
the overall expected recovery of solids. It may also dictate the selection of either
batch or continuous equipment.
Performance Criteria
The need to achieve a certain outcome with respect to the recovery of solids,
nature of the recovered solids or liquid and other products characteristics will
dictate the choice of equipment.
Centrate Clarity
Decanting centrifuge provides the best clarity of all centrifuge types. Filtering
centrifuges typically are not used where centrate clarity is the principle process
requirement because they use either a filter medium or a screen.
Solid Recovery
Solid Dryness
61
Filtering centrifuges provide the driest solids, while decanting centrifuges provide
the wettest solids. Since the final dryness of the solids will be tied to the particle
size of the solids, the difference in the dryness between a filtering and a
sedimentation centrifuges may be little as only a few percentage points.
Wash Efficiency
Process requirements
Logistics
The equipment that is located either immediately before or after the centrifuge
may dictate whether a batch or continuous centrifuge is used. For instance, when
batch reactor or crystallizers feed a centrifuge, which in turn feeds a continuous
dryer, a continuous centrifuge may be more appropriate because it will maintain
a steady flow of solids to dryer.
62
Continuous centrifuges are used when higher operating pressures are required.
Continuous decanters have been used in operations where pressures were as
high as 90 psig and temperatures as high as 175 C. batch centrifuges are
restricted to lower pressure applications. There does not appear to be a
restriction or preference based on temperature.
The higher the solid flow rate, the greater the tendency to use continuous
centrifugation. As a rule of thumb, batch centrifuges are applicable for loadings of
up to 1 ton/hr
Solid Concentration
Continuous filtering centrifuges,, with the possible exception of the screen bowl
design, prefer a thick feed slurry (typically 50% by weight). There are two
reasons for this: continuous filtering centrifuges may be limited by the amount of
liquid to be centrifuged.
Description
63
which is determined by Particle size, Particle shape, difference in density
between solids and liquids as well as their viscosity.
In Decanter centrifuges the cleaning of liquid takes place in cylindrical partwhere
as dewatering of solids by compression of the filter cake takes place inconical
part of the bowl. The geometry of the bowl, relation with length and diameter to
be adapted to suit the application. In most of the cases, good results are
obtained at length to diameter 2 :1 and sometimes depending upon application
2.5/3:1.
The system is continuous, compact and enclosed while offering versatility, high
performance, and low maintenance.
Application
The Decanters / Solid bowl Centrifuges are used for clarification (liquid / solid
separations), dewatering and classification duties in various process
industries.
Typical Products
64
Silicates: Asbestos, clay, etc.
Cellulose: De-inking flotation concentrate.
Operation
Separation takes place in Horizontal conical / cylindrical bowl with screw
conveyor. The slurry is fed into the bowl through a stationary inlet tube and
accelerated by specially designed inlet distributor. Centrifugal force leads to
instant sedimentation of the solids on the wall of bowl.
The conveyor, rotating in the same direction as bowl with differential speed,
conveys the solids to conical end. The solids are lifted clear of the liquid and
centrifugally dewatered before being discharged into the collecting channel.The
65
clarified liquid flows into the housing through opening in cylindrical end
of the bowl.
The solid bowl decanter centrifuge is a continuous, sedimentation type unit
comprising of three primary components: a cylinder, conical bowl; a conveyer
(e.g. a screw); and a gear unit that provides the differential speed between the
bowl and the conveyer. The centrifuge bowl rotates clockwise at the speed
required to generate the centrifugal force needed to effect the intended
separation. Slurry enters the centrifuge via a stationary pipe that empties into the
hub of the conveyer. In the hub, the feed is accelerated to the speed of the bowl
and is fed through an opening in the hub onto the inside surface of the bowl. The
slurry quickly fills the bowl to a height determined by the weir settings located at
the larger-diameter end of the bowl.
66
Diameter of bowl = 36 in = 0.9144 m => rb= 0.4572 , rp = 0.334
RPM of centrifuge = 2000 rev./min = 2000/60 Hz (rev./sec) = 33.33 Hz
Density of HDPE at 48 0C = 960 kg/m3
Density of Cyclohexane at 48 0C = 753 kg/m3
Average density of slurry at 48 0C = 779.67 kg/m3
Viscosity of Cyclohexane at 48 0C = 0.64 cP = 0.0006 Pa.sec
HDPE input to centrifuge = 1578.18 kg/hr
Cyclohexane input to centrifuge = 10668.27 kg/hr
Inlet mass flow rate to centrifuge = 12246.46 kg/hr
HDPE leaving from centrifuge = 1578.18 kg/hr
Hexane leaving from centrifuge =106.68 kg/hr
Temperature = 48 ©
Minimum particle diameter = 100 µm = 0.0001 m
Design Steps
Calculations
1. Volumetric flow rate entering
67
Volumetric flow rate = Mass flow rate / Average density
V1 = 12246.46 / 779.67
V1 = 15.707 m3/hr
2. Length of centrifuge
4. Volume Of Bowl
Volume of bowl is given below
D 2
VC L
4
VC = 3.1416*(0.9144)2* 1.5 / 4
V = 0.98 m3
4. Residence Time Of Slurry
68
VL L(r12 r22 )
VL = 3.1416* 1.5* ( 0.45722 - 0.3342 )
VL = 0.458 m3
So
t = 0.458 / 15.707
t = 0.029 hr
t = 1.75 min
Fc
Here RCF
Fg
2r
RCF
g
Where
= Angular Velocity of Bowl
2n
= 2*3.1416*33.33
= 209.44 Rad./ sec
So
RCF = (209.44)2* 0.4572 / 9.8
RCF = 2046.44
We suppose laminar flow and consider that fluid is in stokes law range that is
Reynolds number is less than 1. For this situation settling velocity is given below
d p2 ( S L ) 2 r2
vs
18
69
vs = (0.0001)2 *(207)*(209.44)2*(0.9144) / 18* (0.0006)
vs = 2.63 m / sec2
7. Pressure Developed
1. Equipment Centrifuge
70
2. Type Solid Bowl 0r Helical Conveyer
centrifuge
4. No. Required 1
71
DRYER
8.1 INTRODUCTION
“Drying is a process of removal of moisture from the solid by using hot gas/air or
steam”
It is the last step in the series of operations.
The factors governing the rates of these two processes determine the drying
rate. The methods of heat transfer in commercial dryers may utilize convection,
conduction, radiation, or a combination of these three mechanisms. Mass
transfer within the solid, however, occurs because of a concentration gradient
that is established in the drying process, which is dependent on the
characteristics of the solid. Removal of the vapor from the surface will be dictated
by the existing flow conditions provided by the dryers.
Because of the very wide range of dryer designs available on the3 market at the
present time, classification is a virtually impossible. However, the nature of
material, which is passing through dryer, provides a basis of selection of dryers.
Dryers are classified on basis of following factors:
i. Temperature and pressure in the dryer
72
ii. The method of heating
iii. The means by which moist material is transported through the dryer
iv. Any mechanical aids aimed at improving drying
v. The method by which the air is circulated
vi. The way in which the moist material is supported
vii. The heating medium, and
viii. The nature of the wet feed and the way it is introduced into the
dryer.
In selecting a dryer for a particular application two steps are of primary
importance
A listing of the dryers which are capable of handling the material to
be dried,
Eliminating the more costly alternatives on the basis of annual costs
(capital charges + operating costs).
73
8.4 DRYERS FOR HDPE
We can use following dryers for removal of n-hexane contents from HDPE
powder,
1 Reliability of unit
2 Availability of data
3 Quality of product
4 Maintenance cost
All of these factors point towards the selection of co-current direct contact rotary
dryer .
We Prefer to use co-current dryer here because on counter-current contact of
HDPE and air may lead damaging (Degradation) of HDPE.
1 Simplest in construction
Most Economical
1 Maximum contact area
2 Higher rate of heat and mass transfer
3 Low operating Cost
4 Low residence time
74
.8.6 DESIGING
Basic Parameters to be Designed
1 Area of Dryer
2 Diameter of Dryer
3 Volume of Dryer
4 Number of Flights
5 Residence Time
DRYER efficiency=99.60%
75
Inl Inlet Flow rate of HDPE=6312.75Kg/Hr
Cyclohexane Removed=425.023379Kg/Hr
Cp of HDPE=2.045Kj/Kg.K
Q=ms[Cps(Tsb-Tsa)+XaCpl(Tv-Tsa)+(Xa-Xb)+(Xa-Xb)y+XbCpl(Tsb-Tvb)+(Xa-
Xb)Cpv(Tva-Tvb)]
=173912.8Kj/hr
76
Amount of air needed (kg/h)
m=Q/[(1+Hb)(Tvb-Tas)Csb]
Csb =0.163
Hb =0.0001
m=3728.986Kg/hr
=0.746 m2
Diameter of Dryer
D2=4/Π*A
D =0.97471m=3.2 ft
H.T Coefficient
Ua=.5*G/D
=1280.134KJ/m3.C.hr
V = Q/U.LMTD
77
= 4.693 m3Length of Dryer
L=V/A
=6.29 m
Number of Flights
N = 3.D
=10
Rotational Speed
N*=4 RPM
Slope = 0.0699
Residence Time
Tr=0.13L/N*Dtanθ
=4.001427 min
78
8.7 SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Item DRYER
No. required 1
Operation: Continuous
Area of dryer=0.746m2
Volume of the dryer=4.693m3
Length of the dryer=6.29m
Diameter of the dryer=0.97471m
Rotational speed =4RPM
Residence time =4min
Amount of air needed =3768Kg/hr
79
INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
Measuring elements
Controller
80
Proportional action which moves the control valve indirect proportional to
the magnitude of the error.
Integral action (reset) which moves the control valve based on the time
integral of the error and the purpose of integral action is to drive the
process back to its set point when it has been disturbed.
Ideal derivative action and its purpose is to anticipate where the process is
heading by looking at the time a rate of change of the error.
Commercial Controllers
The three actions are used individually or combined in three basic controllers.
Proportional
Proportional – integral (P.L)
Proportional – Integral – derivative (P.I.D)
Comparators
A set pont has been given to the comparator. Comparator compares the
measured value with the set point value.
81
9.2 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
82
9.4 FLOW MEASUREMENT AND CONTROL
Flow indicator are used to control the amount of liquid. Also all manually
set streams require some flow indication or some easy means for occasional
sample measurement.
For accounting purposes, feed and product streams or metered. In addition
utilities to individual and grouped equipment are also metered.
Most flow measures in the industry are/ by Variable Head devices. To a lesser
extent variable area is used as are many types available as special metering
situation arise.
83
HAZOP STUDY
10.1 INTRODUCTION
A HAZOP survey is one of the most common and widely accepted methods of
systematic qualitative hazard analysis. It is used for both new or existing facilities
and can be applied to a whole plant, a production unit, or a piece of equipment It
uses as its database the usual sort of plant and process information and relies on
the judgment of engineering and safety experts in the areas with which they are
most familiar. The end result is, therefore reliable in terms of engineering and
operational expectations, but it is not quantitative and may not consider the
consequences of complex sequences of human errors.
The objectives of a HAZOP study can be summarized as follows:
To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of
a hazardous incident occurring.
84
To identify pertinent design information not currently available to the team.
2. Select the HAZOP study team. The team leader should be skilled in
HAZOP and in interpersonal techniques to facilitate successful group
interaction. As many other experts should be included in the team to
cover all aspects of design, operation, process chemistry, and safety.
The team leader should instruct the team in the HAZOP procedure and
should emphasize that the end objective of a HAZOP survey is hazard
identification; solutions to problems are a separate effort.
85
3. Collect data. Theodore16 has listed the following materials that are
usually needed:
Process description
Layout drawings
Operating procedures
Maintenance procedures
86
As well as Qualitative Increase
Reverse Logical opposite of the intent
Other than Complete substitution
4. Conduct the study. Using the information collected, the unit is divided
into study "nodes" and the sequence diagrammed in Figure , is
followed for each node. Nodes are points in the process where process
parameters (pressure, temperature, composition, etc.) have known and
intended values. These values change between nodes as a result of
the operation of various pieces of equipment' such as distillation
columns, heat exchanges, or pumps. Various forms and work sheets
have been developed to help organize the node process parameters
and control logic information.
When the nodes are identified and the parameters are identified, each node is
studied by applying the specialized guide words to each parameter. These guide
words and their meanings are key elements of the HAZOP procedure. They are
listed in Table.
Repeated cycling through this process, which considers how and why each
parameter might vary from the intended and the consequence, is the substance
of the HAZOP study.
5. Write the report. As much detail about events and their consequence
as is uncovered by the study should be recorded. Obviously, if the
HAZOP identifies a not improbable sequence of events that would
result in a disaster, appropriate follow-up action is needed. Thus,
although risk reduction action is not a part of the HAZOP, the HAZOP
may trigger the need for such action.
The HAZOP studies are time consuming and expensive. Just getting the P
& ID's up to date on an older plant may be a major engineering effort. Still, for
87
processes with significant risk, they are cost effective when balanced against the
potential loss of life, property, business, and even the future of the enterprise that
may result from a major release.
Health effects
In health effect we have to consider the following points.
What effect might cyclohexane have on my health?
How might cyclohexane enter my body?
How might I be exposed to cyclohexane?
What are the cyclohexane health guidelines?
88
How might cyclohexane enter my body?
Cyclohexane enters the body when breathed in with contaminated air or when
consumed with contaminated food or water. It can also be absorbed through skin
contact. Cyclohexane is not likely to remain in the body due to its breakdown and
removal in exhaled air and in urine.
Work safe (Maximum 8 hour time weighted average (TWA) exposure: 1,030
mg/m³)
Environmental effects
Similarly we again here have the four general questions.
What effect might cyclohexane have on the environment?
How might cyclohexane enter the environment?
Where in the environment does cyclohexane end up?
What are the cyclohexane environmental guidelines ?
89
The concentration of cyclohexane found in fish tissues is expected to be
somewhat higher than the average concentration of cyclohexane in the water
from which the fish was taken.
Cyclohexane has moderate acute toxicity to aquatic life. It has caused membrane
damage in an ornamental crop species. Insufficient data are available to evaluate
or predict the short-term effects of cyclohexane to birds or land animals.
Cyclohexane has moderate chronic toxicity to aquatic life. Insufficient data are
available to evaluate or predict the long-term effects of cyclohexane to plants,
birds, or land animals.
90
What are the cyclohexane environmental guidelines?
No national guidelines.
Sources of emissions
Industry sources
Natural sources
Transport sources
Consumer products that may contain cyclohexane
Industry sources
The primary point sources are petroleum refining, automotive repair shops, and
commercial printing and publishing.
Natural sources
Transport sources
Cyclohexane is used as a solvent, oil extractant, paint and varnish remover, and
in solid fuels.
91
Comparison to other substances
92
10.5 HAZOP STUDY OF ETHYLENE
Health effects
93
Contact with liquid ethylene will produce freezing injury to skin and eye tissue.
Inhalation
First aid
Skin
Eyes
Inhalation
94
Remove from exposure—avoid becoming a casualty. Remove contaminated
clothing and loosen remaining clothing. Allow patient to assume most
comfortable position and keep warm. Keep at rest until
fully recovered. If breathing laboured and patient cyanotic (blue), ensure airways
are clear and have qualified person give oxygen through a face mask. If
breathing has stopped apply artificial respiration at once. In the event of cardiac
arrest, apply external cardiac massage. Seek medical advice.
Ventilation
Use with adequate ventilation. DO not enter confined spaces where vapour may
have collected. Maintain concentration below recommended exposure limit.
Environmental effects
Effects
95
Inhalation : there is no evidence for inhalation. dust may cause irritation
skin contact : generally direct contact doesn’t lead to skin irritation.
Ingestion : the resin itself is inert and harmless, but certain additives could
be harmful.
First Aid
The complete MSDS for HDPE has been given in the next chapter.
97
( Air =1) °C)
Specific gravity 0.94-0.958 pH Not pertinent
( at 20 °C ) (water
=1)
4. Reactivity Data
98
5.Health Hazard Data
99
HANDLING AND Keep away from sources of ignition or heat, in dry,
STORAGE well ventilated area. In storage and working rooms
PRECAUTIONS avoid spheres spilling as a possible cause of slipping.
100
6. Preventive Measures HDPE
8. Toxicological Information
101
Individuals trained in its evaluation interpret information.
Polyethylene
No toxicology data available.
All grades of polyethylene are FDA approved and are not considered hazardous
Materials under the OSHA Hazard Communication Standard
No data is available on the adverse effects of this product on the environment. Neither COD
nor BOD data are
Available. Fish or birds may eat pellets, which may obstruct their digestive tracts.
The following chemicals are specifically listed by individual states; other product-specific
health and safety Data in other sections of the MSDS may also be applicable for state
requirements. For details on your Regulatory requirements, you should contact the
appropriate agency in your state.
102
COST ESTIMATION
Before the plant to be operated, specified money must be supplied to purchase and
install the equipment. The capital needed to supply the necessary plant facilities is
called fixed capital investment while that for the operation of the plant is called the
working principal and sum of two capitals is called total capital investment.
Is and index value for a given point in time showing the cost at that time
relative to certain base time. if the cost at any time in past is know , the equivalent
cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the original cost by the
ratio of present of index value to the index value applicable when the original cost
was obtained. There are many types of cost indexes and the most commune type
are marshall and swift all industry and process industry equipment indexes and
engineering News Record construction index.
Present cost =
Original cost *cost index value at present time/cost index value at past.
Reactor 58818
Cetrifurge1 78378
Centrifuge 2 78378
Dryer 3050
103
total 238448
Cost that do not vary with production rate. These are the bills to be paid whatever
the quantity produced is.
104
Fixed Capital = PPC * 1.45
= 810723.2 * 1.45
= ₤1175548.64
Thus Fixed Capital Cost = ₤1175548.64
105
12.4 PRODUCTION COST
Variable cost
Raw materials = 0.30 * 13371500
= ₤4011450
Miscellaneous = ₤451851.50
Shipping and packing negligible
Sub total = A = ₤4463301.5
Fixed costs
Maintenance cost = ₤4518515.08
Operating labor = ₤5*10^5
Laboratory cost =₤1*10^5
Supervision =₤1*10^5
Plant overheads = ₤2.5*10^5
Capital charges = ₤6777772.26
Local taxes = ₤903703
Insurance = ₤451851
Sub Total B=₤13601841.37
Direct Production Cost = A+B=₤18065142.84
Sales expense, General overheads, R&D=C=0.25* Direct Production Cost
=₤4516285.71
Annual Production Cost =A+B+C=₤321186669.92
Production cost/Kg= 2.569₤/Kg
REFERENCES
106
2) Rase, H.F., “ Chemical Reactor Design for Process Plants” Vol. 1,(wiley) ,
1977.
4) Turton, R., Bailie, R.C., Whiting, W.B., & Shaeiwitz, J.A.,” Analysis,
Synthesis & Design Of Chemical Processes”, Prentice Hall International.,
1998.
7) Charles, G., Hill, J.R., “ The Introduction to Chemical Engineering Kinetics &
Reactor Design.” John Wiley & Sons New York., 1977.
10) Ludwig, E.E, “Applied Process Design”, 3rd ed, vol. 2, Gulf
11) Ludwig, E.E, “Applied Process Design”, 3 rd ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
12) Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus, K.D., “Plant Design and Economics for
Chemical Engineering”, 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1999.
13) Coulson, J.m., and Richardson, J.F., “Chemical Engineering”, 4 th ed, Vol.2,
Butterworth Heminann, 1991.
107
14) .Coulson, J.M., and Richardson,J.F.,”Chemical Engineering”,4 th ed., 2nd Vol.,
Butter worth Heminann.1991.
15) Sinnot, R.K., “Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”, 3 nd ed, vol
6, Butterword Heinemann, 1999.
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