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From The Latin Term Computare', This Means To Calculate.: Input Unit
From The Latin Term Computare', This Means To Calculate.: Input Unit
Definition of Computer : Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The term ‘computer is derived
from the Latin term‘computare’, this means to calculate.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these data under the control of set
of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) Charles Babbage is called the " Father" of the computer. The First
mechanical computer designed by charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine.
SECONDARY MEMORY
OUTPUT UNIT
INPUT UNIT PRIMARY MEMORY
ALU C.U
ALU
1. Input Unit : This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.The input unit takes data fromC.P.U
us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing. C.U
2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.. Primary memory provides space for storing
data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing
Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the
type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.
The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any
computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the
computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.
5. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the
computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again
the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
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Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
The various generations of computers an listed below:
Features:
1. Transistors were used instead of Vacuum Tube.
2. Processing speed is faster than First Generation Computers (Micro Second)
3. Smaller in Size (51 square feet)
4. The input and output devices were faster.
(iii) Third Generation (1964-1977) : By the development of a small chip consisting of the capacity of the 300 transistors. These ICs are
popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. Some of the
computers developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC was
developed during this period. Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very
high. Very soon ICs Were replaced by LSI (Large Scale Integration), which consisted about 100 components. An IC containing about
100 components is called LSI.
Features:
1. They used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips in place of the transistors.
2. Semi conductor memory devices were used.
3. The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, they were more accurate and reliable.
4. Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) were also developed.
5. The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
6. They used high level language for programming.
Example: IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.
(iv) Fourth Generation : An IC containing about 100 components is called LSI (Large Scale Integration) and the one, which has more
than 1000 such components, is called as VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a
single silicon chip called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central
processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC)
replaced LSICs. Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal
computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth Generation Computer Main memory used fast semiconductors chips up to 4 M
bits size. Hard disks were used as secondary memory. Keyboards, dot matrix printers etc. were developed. OS-such as MS-DOS,
UNIX, Apple’s Macintosh were available. Object oriented language, C++ etc were developed.
Features:
1. They used Microprocessor (VLSI) as their main switching element.
2. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
3. Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
4. They have very high speed of processing; they are 100% accurate, reliable, diligent and versatile.
5. They have very large storage capacity.
Example: IBM PC, Apple-Macintosh etc.
(v) Fifth Generation (1991- continued) : 5th generation computers use ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale Integration) chips. Millions of
transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips. 64 bit microprocessors have been developed during this period. Data flow & EPIC
architecture of these processors have been developed. RISC & CISC, both types of designs are used in modern processors. Memory
chips and flash memory up to 1 GB, hard disks up to 600 GB & optical disks up to 50 GB have been developed. fifth generation digital
computer will be Artificial intelligence.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data handling and functionality.
According to functionality, computers are classified as :
Analog Computer
An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved
Digital Computer
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A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number
system
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer
system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations.
Types of digital computers
1. Super Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few
programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
2. Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy
that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes
are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more
simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
3. Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction
between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users
simultaneously.
4. Micro Computer or Personal Computer
Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a
desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves
both as an input and output device.
5. Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine)
in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
6. Embedded Computers : Computers which are designed for a specific purpose are known as embedded omputers for ex atm
machine , digital clock
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER
HARDWARE SOFTWARE
Hardware: Electromechanical devices which are connected to the computer to perform any specific task are known as hardware.
Software : A set of programs used to instruct the hardware and help the computer and user for the efficient functioning of task are
known as software.
1. Input Devices: an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control
signals to the computer. Input devices convert the data & instructins from the human readable form to computer readable from
i.e machine language.
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1. Keyborad :a keyboard is a typewriter-style device, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keysA keyboard typically has
characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol.
Types of keys
Key types
Alphanumeric Keys
Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol
into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols
when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is
depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric,
and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.
Special Character Keys : They are used to type special symbols like # $ % ^ & etc
Function Keys : designed for special function and used with combination of Alt and ctrl to perform specific tasks There are 12 function
keys ina keyboard ranging from F1- F12
Control keys : Keys that are not get printed for ex ctrl , alt , caps lock etc
Mouse : a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically,
a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.
The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent
operations, or extra buttons or features that can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into
the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of agraphical user interface.
Types of mouse
1. Mechanical Mouse : Mouse having roller ball to generate motion
2. Optical Mouse: Mouse using laser light to generate movement
Image scanner converts any printed image into electronic form by shining light onto the image and sensing the intensity of light
reflection at every point. Thus they digitize printed images for storage and manipulation in a computer.
Color scanners use filters to separate the components of color into the primary additive color (RGB)
after scanning, when it is a photo we can use photo shop application to change the properties of picture like adjusting contrast,
changing color etc.
Scanners come in a range of size from hand held model to flat bed scanners that sit on desktop.`
Hand held scanners or portable but require multiple passes to scan a single page because they are not wide as paper.
Flat bed scanners offered high quality reproduction since it can scan a page in single pass (Xerox m/c).
3. OCR
When it is a text document we can use Optical character recognition (OCR) software to translate scanned text into editable
electronic documents.
Image is first stored as bit map. A bit map is grid of dots, each dot is represented by one or more bits.
OCR translate the array of dots into letters and numbers.
For that, it looks at each character and tries to match the character with its own assumption. OCR extremely complex and not 100%
accurate.
It is used to convert the fax into editable document.
Microphones can accept auditory input. A microphone requires a sound card in the PC.
A sound card is a special device which translate analog sound signal from the microphone into digital codes the computer can store
and process .This process is called digitizing. Vice-versa can also be done by sound card.
By this we can record our voice and store it as file in computer. We can use it in presentations, webpages or email it to others.
With speech recognition software (voice recognition), you can use your microphone to dictate text, navigate programs, and choose
commands.
SRS takes the smallest individual sound in a language called phonemes, and translate them into text.
Some problem occurs are
1.Differentiating sound for eg: during the process of two and too.
2. To isolate background noise.
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5. Video Input
Applications like video conferencing and video chat needs video files to be communicated between computers.
PC video cameras digitize full-motion images and can transmit them in n/w. eg:webcam
It breaks images into pixels and each pixel’s color and characteristics are stored as digital code.
Video capture card is used to connect video devices to PC.
Digital cameras are portable, handheld device that capture still images.
Difference between normal film camera and digital camera.
Video images may be compressed to use less memory and storage space for passing in network.
Output Devices : An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data
processing carried out by computer system which converts the electronically generated information into human-readable form
Output Devices
Output is data that has been processed into a used form, called information. An output device is any hardware component that can
display information to a user. The main and most common output devices in a computer system are the Printer and the V.D.U.
Computer Monitors
A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics, and video information to the user. Information on a display device is
called a soft copy because it exists electronically and is displayed only for a temporary period. Display devices can be monochrome,
gray scale or colour. Two main types of display devices are
CRT monitors and
LCD monitors.
A video card is required to display colour on a monitor. The quality of a display device depends on its
resolution, dot pitch, and refresh rate. Many display devices today also have features that help address ergonomic issues.
.
Classification of monitors
There are many ways to classify monitors. The most basic is in terms of colour capabilities, which separates monitors into three classes:
1. Monochrome : Monochrome monitors actually display two colours, one for the background and one for the foreground. The colours
can be black and white, green and black, or amber and black.
2. Gray-scale : A gray-scale monitor is a special type of monochrome monitor capable of displaying different shades of gray.
3. Colour: Colour monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different colours. Colour monitors are sometimes called
RGB monitors because they accept three separate signals -- red, green, and blue.
1.A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper. Printed information is often
called hard copy because the information exists physically and is a more permanent form of output than that presented on a
VDU (Monitor). Printers can be grouped into impact and non-impact printers.
a) An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an ink ribbon that
physically contacts the paper.
b) A non-impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper.
Dot-Matrix Printer
A dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images with a print head striking mechanism. Most dot-matrix
printers use continuous-form paper. A higher number of pins on the print
head means more dots are printed, which results in higher print quality (i.e., a 24-pin
printer has better print quality than a 9-pin printer). The speed of a dot-matrix printer is normally measured by the number of
characters per second (cps) it can print.
Advantages of dot-matrix printers
1. Dot-matrix printers can print multipart forms.
2. Dot-matrix printers can withstand dusty environment, vibrations, and extreme temperature.
Laser Printer
The mechanism of how a laser printer works is similar to a photocopier. Laser printers are also known as page printers
because they process and store the entire page before they actually print it. Most laser printers today can print text and
graphics in very high quality resolutions, ranging from 600 dpi to 1200 dpi. Laser printers can print text at speeds of four to
over thirty pages per minute.
Advantages of laser printers include
Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers.
Disadvantages of laser printers include
The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers
Plotter
A plotter is a large printer that generates high-quality documents by moving ink pens over the surface of a page. Plotters are
particularly useful to engineers and architects, as they produce high-quality blueprints, maps, and floor plans. Two basic types of
plotters are pen plotters and flat bed plotters.
Introduction
All computer systems need to store data. This is done:
_ Temporarily while a program is running. This is stored in main memory.
_ Long-term to preserve programs and data while not in use. This is called backing storage.
Main memory holds all of the essential memory that tells your computer how to be a computer. Backing storage holds the information that you
store on backup storage devices.
Main Memory
Main memory holds programs and data that the user is currently working with. For example:
A word-processed document that is being edited will be loaded into Main memory.
An email program that is currently transmitting a message will be loaded into main
memory.
When you switch on the computer system, a program found in main memory will boot (start up) the computer system.
These are the two main types of main memory
The data in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off so it is known as volatile memory. To keep data the user must save it to backing
storebefore the computer is turned off.
o The process of transferring data/programs from backing store into RAM so they can be used is known as loading.
o The process of transferring data/programs from RAM to backing store so that they will be retained when a computer is turned off is known as
saving.
ROM holds information that is built into it. ROM chips are loaded with data and programs during manufacture and can only be read by
computer. However, the contents of the chips are not lost when the power is switched off (non-volatile). ROM is used to form a computer's
permanent store of vital information or of programs that must be readily available but protected from accidental or deliberate change by the
user. Frequently used programs essential to the normal running of the computer are stored in ROM. These usually include the bootstrap loader
and BIOS, which runs when the computer is switched on to get it started. Only the computer manufacturer or experienced technicians can
provide these programs in
ROM and once done, they cannot be changed. Consequently, you cannot put any of your
own data or programs in ROM.
Magnetic Media
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a narrow plastic ribbon coated with an easily magnetisable material on which data can be recorded. It is used in sound
recording, audiovisual systems (videotape), and backups.
Tape is still used to make backup copies of important data. Information is recorded on the tape
in binary form, with two different strengths of signal representing 1 and 0.
The device that reads the tape is the Tape Drive or Tape Unit.
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Floppy Disks
Consists of a plastic case that measures 3 1/2 by 5 inches. Inside that case is a very thin piece of plastic (see picture at right) that is coated with
microscopic iron particles (magnetic). This disk is much like the tape inside a video or audio cassette. Never touch the inner disk - you could
damage the data that is stored on it. Floppy disks are the smallest type of storage, holding only 1.44MB. Access to data is much slower than for
hard disk. The data on the disk can be protected by sliding a small write-protect tab which prevents the contents of the disk from being
changed.
Optical Media
An optical disk is a storage medium in which laser technology is used to record and read large volumes of digital data.
Compact Disks
CDs use pit and flat surfaces to store information much the same way floppies and hard disks use magnetic and nonmagnetic storage. Inside
the CD-Rom is a laser that reflects light off of the surface of the disk to an electric eye. Compact disks are exchangeable and easy to transport.
Access to data is faster than access to floppy disks but slower than hard disks. CDs typically hold 650 or 700 megabytes of data, and are used in
distributing large amounts of text and graphics, such as encyclopedias, catalogues, and technical manuals. As with a hard disk the drive head in
an optical drive can move directly to any file on the disk so optical disks are direct access.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory) - The data is written onto the CDROM disk before it is sold and can not be changed by the
user. CD-ROMs are used for applications such as distributing software, digital videos or multimedia products.
CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable) - A CD-R disk is blank when it is supplied. The user can write data to it just once. After data has been
written to the disk it can not be changed. CD-Rs are often used for making permanent backups of data and distributing software when only a
small number of copies are required.
CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewriteable) - CD-RW disks can be read from and written to.
DVDs
DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk - Read Only Memory) - DVD disks are able to store much more data than CD disks. The DVD standard
includes disk capacities up to 30Gb. DVD-ROM disks can be read from but can not be written to.
DVD-RAM (Digital Versatile Disk - Random Access Memory) - DVD-RAM disks have all of the benefits of DVD-ROM disks and can be
written to as well. These very high capacity disks are ideal for producing backups.
Because of their high capacity, DVD disks are used to store high quality video such as complete movies.
Software
Computer software , is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling
a computer what to do and how to do it. , it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer
hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software
Types of software
System software
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware to provide basic functionality and to
provide a platform for running application software. System software includes device drivers, operating systems, servers, utilities,
and window systems.
System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that they can work
together harmoniously.
Programming software
Programming software includes tools in the form of programs or applications that software developers use to create, debug, maintain, or
otherwise support other programs and applications. The term usually refers to relatively simple programs such
as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use
multiple hand tools to fix a physical object. Programming tools are intended to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and they
may be combined in an integrated development environment (IDE) to more easily manage all of these functions.
Application software
Application software is developed to perform in any task those benefits from computation. It is a set of programs that
allows the computer to perform a specific data processing job for the user. It is a broad category, and
encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet browser being used to display this page.example are Ms
Office, Tally , banking software etc.
OPERATING SYSTEM
Integrated set of programs that controls the resources(the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer system
§ Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is more convenient to use.
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