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Definition of Computer : Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with Information. The term ‘computer is derived
from the Latin term‘computare’, this means to calculate.

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these data under the control of set
of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) Charles Babbage is called the " Father" of the computer. The First
mechanical computer designed by charles Babbage was called Analytical Engine.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

SECONDARY MEMORY

OUTPUT UNIT
INPUT UNIT PRIMARY MEMORY

ALU C.U

ALU

1. Input Unit : This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system.The input unit takes data fromC.P.U
us to the
computer in an organized manner for processing. C.U
2. Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage.. Primary memory provides space for storing
data and instructions.
The storage unit performs the following major functions:
• All data and instructions are stored here before and after processing.
• Intermediate results of processing are also stored here.
3. Processing: The task of performing operations like arithmetic and logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing
Unit (CPU) takes data and instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions given and the
type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit.

4.Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)  Logical Unit

 :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage unit. The actual processing of the data and
instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.
Control Unit (CU)
The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that things are done in proper fashion.
Control Unit is responsible  for  co ordinating various operations using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which
computer programs and instructions are executed.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) 

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You may call CPU as the brain of any
computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the
computer functions by activating and controlling the operations.
5. Output: This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly the output produced by the
computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer before being given to you in human readable form. Again
the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER ARE:

1. Speed: - Computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that we take hours to complete. Therefore, we
determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second).
2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed with the same accuracy. The errors
in computer are due to human and inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without creating any error. If
millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability
it overpowers human being in routine type of work.
4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your computer to prepare payroll
slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any information can be stored
and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a
computer and when to lose or retrieve these data.
6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It performs the instructions at
tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own
decision as you can.
7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get tired even after long hours of
work. It does not distinguish between users.
8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You can also store data in secondary
storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your computer and can be carried to other computers.
GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
The various generations of computers an listed below:

(i) First Generation (1946-1954) : 

The digital computes using electronic valves (Vacuum tubes) are known as first generation computers. the first 'computer' to use
electronic valves (ie. vacuum tubes). The high cost of vacuum tubes prevented their use for main memory. The vacuum tube consumes
a lot of power. These computers were large in size and writing programs on them was difficult. Some of the computers of this
generation were:
Mark I , ENIAC,EDVAC,EDSAC: 
Limitations of First Generation Computer
Followings are the major drawbacks of First generation computers.
1.  They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.
2. They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
3.  They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
4.  Their computing capabilities were limited.
5. They were not so accurate and reliable.
6.  They used machine level language for programming.
7.  They were very expensive.
(ii)  Second Generation (1955-1964) : 
The second-generation computer used transistors for CPU components & magnetic cores for main memory & magnetic disks for
secondary memory. They used high-level languages such as FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1960) & COBOL (1960 - 1961).
I/O processor was included to control I/O operations. Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky Vacuum tubes in the
first generation computer. Transistors are smaller than Vacuum tubes and have higher operating speed. They have no filament and
require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer got reduced considerably.
It is in the second generation that the concept of Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input and
output units were developed. The programming languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period. Some of
the computers of the Second Generation were                                                                            

1. IBM 1620: 2. IBM 1401: 3. CDC 3600:

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Features:
1.  Transistors were used instead of Vacuum Tube.
2.  Processing speed is faster than First Generation Computers (Micro Second)
3.  Smaller in Size (51 square feet)
4. The input and output devices were faster.

(iii) Third Generation (1964-1977) : By the development of a small chip consisting of the capacity of the 300 transistors. These ICs are
popularly known as Chips. A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of  silicon. Some of the
computers developed during this period were IBM-360, ICL-1900, IBM-370, and VAX-750. Higher level language such as BASIC  was
developed during this period.  Computers of this generation were small in size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very
high. Very soon ICs Were replaced by LSI (Large Scale Integration), which consisted about 100 components. An IC containing about
100 components is called LSI.
Features:
1. They used Integrated Circuit (IC) chips in place of the transistors.
2. Semi conductor memory devices were used.
3.  The size was greatly reduced, the speed of processing was high, they were   more accurate and reliable.
4.  Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) were also developed.
5.  The mini computers were introduced in this generation.
6. They used high level language for programming.
Example: IBM 360, IBM 370 etc.

(iv) Fourth Generation : An IC containing about 100 components is called LSI (Large Scale Integration) and the one, which has more
than 1000 such components, is called as VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration). It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a
single silicon chip called microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s  central
processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC)
replaced LSICs. Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be placed on a table. The personal
computer (PC) that you see in your school is a Fourth Generation Computer Main memory used fast semiconductors chips up to 4 M
bits size. Hard disks were used as secondary memory. Keyboards, dot matrix printers etc. were developed. OS-such as  MS-DOS,
UNIX, Apple’s Macintosh were available. Object oriented language, C++ etc were developed.
Features:
1.  They used Microprocessor (VLSI) as their main switching element.
2. They are also called as micro computers or personal computers.
3.  Their size varies from desktop to laptop or palmtop.
4.  They have very high speed of processing; they are 100% accurate, reliable,   diligent and versatile.
5.  They have very large storage capacity.
Example: IBM PC, Apple-Macintosh etc.

(v)    Fifth Generation (1991- continued) : 5th generation computers use ULSI (Ultra-Large Scale Integration) chips. Millions of
transistors are placed in a single IC in ULSI chips. 64 bit microprocessors have been developed during this period. Data flow & EPIC
architecture of these processors have been developed. RISC & CISC, both types of designs are used in modern processors. Memory
chips and flash memory up to 1 GB, hard disks up to 600 GB & optical disks up to 50 GB have been developed. fifth generation digital
computer will be Artificial intelligence.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data handling and functionality.
According to functionality, computers are classified as :

Analog Computer 
 An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as
electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved
Digital Computer
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 A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number
system
Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)
 A combination of computers those are capable of inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer
system setup offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations.
Types of digital computers

1. Super Computer
The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that
require immense amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.
The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few
programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.
2. Mainframe Computer
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy
that starts with a simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputers at the top, mainframes
are just below supercomputers. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more
simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe.
3. Mini Computer
A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction
between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and
workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users
simultaneously.
4.  Micro Computer or Personal Computer

 Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a
desktop computer and larger than a notebook computer.
Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the screen serves
both as an input and output device.
5. Workstations
A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context, workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine)
in contrast to a "server" or "mainframe."
6. Embedded Computers : Computers which are designed for a specific purpose are known as embedded omputers for ex atm
machine , digital clock
COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER

HARDWARE SOFTWARE

INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES STORAGE SYSTEM APPLICATION

DEVICES SOFTWARE SOFTWARE

Hardware: Electromechanical devices which are connected to the computer to perform any specific task are known as hardware.

Software : A set of programs used to instruct the hardware and help the computer and user for the efficient functioning of task are
known as software.

Hardware can be divided into the following sub categories.

1. Input Devices: an input device is any peripheral (piece of computer hardware equipment) used to provide data and control
signals to the computer. Input devices convert the data & instructins from the human readable form to computer readable from
i.e machine language.
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Types of input devices

1. Keyborad :a keyboard is a typewriter-style device, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keysA keyboard typically has
characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol.
Types of keys

Key types
Alphanumeric Keys
Alphabetical, numeric, and punctuation keys are used in the same fashion as a typewriter keyboard to enter their respective symbol
into a word processing program, text editor, data spreadsheet, or other program. Many of these keys will produce different symbols
when modifier keys or shift keys are pressed. The alphabetic characters become uppercase when the shift key or Caps Lock key is
depressed. The numeric characters become symbols or punctuation marks when the shift key is depressed. The alphabetical, numeric,
and punctuation keys can also have other functions when they are pressed at the same time as some modifier keys.
Special Character Keys : They are used to type special symbols like # $ % ^ & etc
Function Keys : designed for special function and used with combination of Alt and ctrl to perform specific tasks There are 12 function
keys ina keyboard ranging from F1- F12

Control keys : Keys that are not get printed for ex ctrl , alt , caps lock etc

Mouse :  a mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion relative to its supporting surface. Physically,
a mouse consists of an object held under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons.
The mouse sometimes features other elements, such as "wheels", which allow the user to perform various system-dependent
operations, or extra buttons or features that can add more control or dimensional input. The mouse's motion typically translates into
the motion of a pointer on a display, which allows for fine control of agraphical user interface.
Types of mouse
1. Mechanical Mouse : Mouse having roller ball to generate motion
2. Optical Mouse: Mouse using laser light to generate movement

Image Scanners and OCR

Image scanner converts any printed image into electronic form by shining light onto the image and sensing the intensity of light
reflection at every point. Thus they digitize printed images for storage and manipulation in a computer.
Color scanners use filters to separate the components of color into the primary additive color (RGB)
after scanning, when it is a photo we can use photo shop application to change the properties of picture like adjusting contrast,
changing color etc.

Scanners come in a range of size from hand held model to flat bed scanners that sit on desktop.`
Hand held scanners or portable but require multiple passes to scan a single page because they are not wide as paper.
Flat bed scanners offered high quality reproduction since it can scan a page in single pass (Xerox m/c).

3. OCR
When it is a text document we can use Optical character recognition (OCR) software to translate scanned text into editable
electronic documents.
Image is first stored as bit map. A bit map is grid of dots, each dot is represented by one or more bits.
OCR translate the array of dots into letters and numbers.
For that, it looks at each character and tries to match the character with its own assumption. OCR extremely complex and not 100%
accurate. 
It is used to convert the fax into editable document.

4. Microphones and Speech Recognition

Microphones can accept auditory input. A microphone requires a sound card in the PC.
A sound card is a special device which translate analog sound signal from the microphone into digital codes the computer can store
and process .This process is called digitizing. Vice-versa can also be done by sound card.
By this we can record our voice and store it as file in computer. We can use it in presentations, webpages or email it to others.
With speech recognition software (voice recognition), you can use your microphone to dictate text, navigate programs, and choose
commands.

SRS takes the smallest individual sound in a language called phonemes, and translate them into text.
Some problem occurs are
1.Differentiating sound for eg: during the process of two and too.
2. To isolate background noise.
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3. Need of pause between words.

Newer software overcome these problems by training with speech patterns and pronunciation.
Other types of audio i/p are CD, tape player, radio…
MIDI-Musical Instrument Digital interface
A MIDI port or adapter is used to connect the musical instruments to computer.

5. Video Input

Applications like video conferencing and video chat needs video files to be communicated between computers.
PC video cameras digitize full-motion images and can transmit them in n/w. eg:webcam
It breaks images into pixels and each pixel’s color and characteristics are stored as digital code.
Video capture card is used to connect video devices to PC.
Digital cameras are portable, handheld device that capture still images.
Difference between normal film camera and digital camera.
Video images may be compressed to use less memory and storage space for passing in network.

Output Devices : An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data
processing carried out by computer system which converts the electronically generated information into human-readable form

Output Devices
Output is data that has been processed into a used form, called information. An output device is any hardware component that can
display information to a user. The main and most common output devices in a computer system are the Printer and the V.D.U.

Computer Monitors

  A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics, and video information to the user. Information on a display device is
called a soft copy because it exists electronically and is displayed only for a temporary period. Display devices can be monochrome,
gray scale or colour. Two main types of display devices are
CRT monitors and
LCD monitors.
A video card is required to display colour on a monitor. The quality of a display device depends on its
resolution, dot pitch, and refresh rate. Many display devices today also have features that help address ergonomic issues.

Advantages of Visual Display devices include

1. The time to display the image is fast.
2. Screen displays can include text, graphics, and colours.
3. Display devices are usually quiet.
4. No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.
Disadvantages of Visual Display devices include
1. Information produced on the screen is only temporary, and will be lost when the
2. Power of the display device is turned off.
3. Needs a separate device to produce the hard copy.

Display Screen vs. Monitor

The term monitor, however, usually refers to the entire box, whereas display screen can
mean just the screen. In addition, the term monitor often implies graphics capabilities.
Most display screens work under the same principle as a television, using a cathode ray
tube (CRT). Consequently, the term CRT is often used in place of display screen.
Types of Monitors
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
CRT, abbreviation of cathode-ray tube, the technology used in most televisions and computer display screens. A CRT works by moving
an electron beam back and forth across the back of the screen. Each time the beam makes a pass across the screen, it lights up
phosphor dots on the inside of the glass tube, thereby illuminating the active portions of the screen. By drawing many such lines from
the top to the bottom of the screen, it creates an entire screenful of images.
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
A type of display used in digital watches and many portable computers (such as laptop
computers). LCD displays utilize two sheets of polarizing material with a liquid crystal
solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid causes the crystals
to align so that light cannot pass through them. Each crystal, therefore, is like a shutter,
either allowing light to pass through or blocking the light.
Most LCD screens used in notebook computers are backlit to make them easier to read.
An LCD projector is a device for giving presentations generated on a computer. They are the modern equivalent to the slide projector
and overhead projector used in the past.
LCD projectors place a small LCD panel, almost always color, in front of a bright lamp, with the imagery on the LCD being provided
by an attached computer or other video source such as a VCR, DVD, or a cable box.

3. Flat Panel Display (FPD)

Portable, laptop, and notebook computers are microcomputers that have become smaller and smaller in size and weight. One of the
devices that has made their development possible is the flat-panel monitor. These compact devices consume little power, and their flat
profile allows them to provide a full screen in a small display unit. Early flat-panel displays were monochrome, but new technologies allow
these screens to
display colour
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Classification of monitors

There are many ways to classify monitors. The most basic is in terms of colour capabilities, which separates monitors into three classes:
1. Monochrome : Monochrome monitors actually display two colours, one for the background and one for the foreground. The colours
can be black and white, green and black, or amber and black.
2. Gray-scale : A gray-scale monitor is a special type of monochrome monitor capable of displaying different shades of gray.
3. Colour: Colour monitors can display anywhere from 16 to over 1 million different colours. Colour monitors are sometimes called
RGB monitors because they accept three separate signals -- red, green, and blue.

1.A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium such as paper. Printed information is often
called hard copy because the information exists physically and is a more permanent form of output than that presented on a
VDU (Monitor). Printers can be grouped into impact and non-impact printers.
a) An impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by striking a mechanism against an ink ribbon that
physically contacts the paper.
b) A non-impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper without actually striking the paper.

1. Daisy Wheel printer

A daisywheel printer is an impact printer that uses a wheel as a print head.As the wheel rotates, a hammer strikes the backside of the
spoke and presses it against the paper to print a character.
Advantages of a daisywheel printer
Can print letter quality characters.
Disadvantages of a daisywheel printer
1.Printing speed is very slow.
2. Cannot print graphics

Dot-Matrix Printer
A dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces printed images with a print head striking mechanism. Most dot-matrix
printers use continuous-form paper. A higher number of pins on the print
head means more dots are printed, which results in higher print quality (i.e., a 24-pin
printer has better print quality than a 9-pin printer). The speed of a dot-matrix printer is normally measured by the number of
characters per second (cps) it can print.
Advantages of dot-matrix printers
1. Dot-matrix printers can print multipart forms.
2. Dot-matrix printers can withstand dusty environment, vibrations, and extreme temperature.

Disadvantages of dot-matrix printers

1. Dot-matrix printers are generally noisy because of the striking mechanism.
2. Print quality of dot-matrix printers is not as good as those from ink-jet printers and laser printers.

Line Printer glossary pg.158

A line printer is a high-speed impact printer that prints an entire line at a time. The speed of a line printer is measured by the number
of lines per minute (lpm) it can print. Line printers are often used with mainframes, minicomputers, or with a network in applications
such as manufacturing, distribution, or shipping.

Ink-Jet printer glossary pg.157

An ink-jet printer in a non-impact printer that forms characters and graphics by spraying tiny drops of liquid ink onto a piece of
paper. Ink-jet printers can produce letter-quality text and graphics in both black-and-white and colours. Some ink-jet printers can
print photo-quality images on any type of paper. Printer resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi). The speed of an ink-jet printer is
measured in lines per minute (lpm).

Advantages of inkjet printers include

1. Inkjet printers are generally quiet.
2. Inkjet printers can produce high quality colour output.
Disadvantages of inkjet printers include
1. Specialized papers are required to produce high quality colour output.
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2. The ink cartridges and specialized papers are expensive.

3. The ink may smear when printed on ordinary paper.

Laser Printer
The mechanism of how a laser printer works is similar to a photocopier. Laser printers are also known as page printers
because they process and store the entire page before they actually print it. Most laser printers today can print text and
graphics in very high quality resolutions, ranging from 600 dpi to 1200 dpi. Laser printers can print text at speeds of four to
over thirty pages per minute.
Advantages of laser printers include
Laser printers are generally quiet and fast.
Laser printers can produce high quality output on ordinary papers.
The cost per page of toner cartridges is lower than other printers.
Disadvantages of laser printers include
The initial cost of laser printers can be high.
Laser printers are more expensive than dot-matrix printers and ink-jet printers

Plotter
A plotter is a large printer that generates high-quality documents by moving ink pens over the surface of a page. Plotters are
particularly useful to engineers and architects, as they produce high-quality blueprints, maps, and floor plans. Two basic types of
plotters are pen plotters and flat bed plotters.

Advantages of plotters include

Can print on large printers.
High quality printing

Introduction
All computer systems need to store data. This is done:
_ Temporarily while a program is running. This is stored in main memory.
_ Long-term to preserve programs and data while not in use. This is called backing storage.

Main memory holds all of the essential memory that tells your computer how to be a computer. Backing storage holds the information that you
store on backup storage devices.

Main Memory
Main memory holds programs and data that the user is currently working with. For example:
A word-processed document that is being edited will be loaded into Main memory.
An email program that is currently transmitting a message will be loaded into main
memory.
When you switch on the computer system, a program found in main memory will boot (start up) the computer system.
These are the two main types of main memory

Random Access Memory (RAM):

RAM is a volatile memory. In the computer, RAM is the working memory. Data can be read (retrieved) from or written (stored) into RAM.
RAM chips will remember what you tell them and can even change to remember new information. But, when
the computer is turned off, RAM forgets everything you told it. This is why it is so important to save your work on a computer - if the computer
gets turned off, RAM will lose all of your work!

The data in RAM is lost when the computer is turned off so it is known as volatile memory. To keep data the user must save it to backing
storebefore the computer is turned off.
o The process of transferring data/programs from backing store into RAM so they can be used is known as loading.
o The process of transferring data/programs from RAM to backing store so that they will be retained when a computer is turned off is known as
saving.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

ROM holds information that is built into it. ROM chips are loaded with data and programs during manufacture and can only be read by
computer. However, the contents of the chips are not lost when the power is switched off (non-volatile). ROM is used to form a computer's
permanent store of vital information or of programs that must be readily available but protected from accidental or deliberate change by the
user. Frequently used programs essential to the normal running of the computer are stored in ROM. These usually include the bootstrap loader
and BIOS, which runs when the computer is switched on to get it started. Only the computer manufacturer or experienced technicians can
provide these programs in
ROM and once done, they cannot be changed. Consequently, you cannot put any of your
own data or programs in ROM.

Secondary Memory Or Secondary storage

Secondary storage are used to store data permanently for future use.

Magnetic Media
Magnetic tape
Magnetic tape is a narrow plastic ribbon coated with an easily magnetisable material on which data can be recorded. It is used in sound
recording, audiovisual systems (videotape), and backups.
Tape is still used to make backup copies of important data. Information is recorded on the tape
in binary form, with two different strengths of signal representing 1 and 0.
The device that reads the tape is the Tape Drive or Tape Unit.
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Magnetic Discs - Hard Disks

The hard disk is a magnetic disk, usually fixed in the drive (internal) although nowadays there also exist external hard disks. Access to data is
far faster than access to floppy disks. Hard disks store far more data than floppy disks. They are more reliable then floppy disks - there is better
protection against dirt. Hard disks are used to store the operating system, application software and users' files. A hard disk is made of a rigid
disk which is coated with a magnetisable material. Hard disks spin much more quickly than floppy disks and the disk read/write head is
positioned very close to the disk (thousandths of a millimeter away).
Because the disk head is positioned so close to the disk hard drives can easily be damaged by dust or vibration. Therefore the disk, the drive
head and all the electronics needed to operate the drive are built together into a sealed unit. This picture shows a hard disk drive with the case
removed.Usually (as in the picture above) several physical disks are contained in one hard disk unit. Each disk is known as a platter. Typical
hard disk capacities for a home PC now start at up to 320 GB.

Floppy Disks
Consists of a plastic case that measures 3 1/2 by 5 inches. Inside that case is a very thin piece of plastic (see picture at right) that is coated with
microscopic iron particles (magnetic). This disk is much like the tape inside a video or audio cassette. Never touch the inner disk - you could
damage the data that is stored on it. Floppy disks are the smallest type of storage, holding only 1.44MB. Access to data is much slower than for
hard disk. The data on the disk can be protected by sliding a small write-protect tab which prevents the contents of the disk from being
changed.
Optical Media
An optical disk is a storage medium in which laser technology is used to record and read large volumes of digital data.

Compact Disks
CDs use pit and flat surfaces to store information much the same way floppies and hard disks use magnetic and nonmagnetic storage. Inside
the CD-Rom is a laser that reflects light off of the surface of the disk to an electric eye. Compact disks are exchangeable and easy to transport.
Access to data is faster than access to floppy disks but slower than hard disks. CDs typically hold 650 or 700 megabytes of data, and are used in
distributing large amounts of text and graphics, such as encyclopedias, catalogues, and technical manuals. As with a hard disk the drive head in
an optical drive can move directly to any file on the disk so optical disks are direct access.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk - Read Only Memory) - The data is written onto the CDROM disk before it is sold and can not be changed by the
user. CD-ROMs are used for applications such as distributing software, digital videos or multimedia products.
CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable) - A CD-R disk is blank when it is supplied. The user can write data to it just once. After data has been
written to the disk it can not be changed. CD-Rs are often used for making permanent backups of data and distributing software when only a
small number of copies are required.
CD-RW (Compact Disk - Rewriteable) - CD-RW disks can be read from and written to.

DVDs
DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disk - Read Only Memory) - DVD disks are able to store much more data than CD disks. The DVD standard
includes disk capacities up to 30Gb. DVD-ROM disks can be read from but can not be written to.
DVD-RAM (Digital Versatile Disk - Random Access Memory) - DVD-RAM disks have all of the benefits of DVD-ROM disks and can be
written to as well. These very high capacity disks are ideal for producing backups.
Because of their high capacity, DVD disks are used to store high quality video such as complete movies.

Software
Computer software , is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the instructions for telling
a computer what to do and how to do it. ,  it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer
hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software
Types of software
System software
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer hardware to provide basic functionality and to
provide a platform for running application software. System software includes device drivers, operating systems, servers, utilities,
and window systems.
System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware components, so that they can work
together harmoniously.
Programming software
Programming software includes tools in the form of programs or applications that software developers use to create, debug, maintain, or
otherwise support other programs and applications. The term usually refers to relatively simple programs such
as compilers, debuggers, interpreters, linkers, and text editors, that can be combined together to accomplish a task, much as one might use
multiple hand tools to fix a physical object. Programming tools are intended to assist a programmer in writing computer programs, and they
may be combined in an integrated development environment (IDE) to more easily manage all of these functions.

Application software
Application software is developed to perform in any task those benefits from computation. It is a set of programs that
allows the computer to perform a specific data processing job for the user. It is a broad category, and
encompasses software of many kinds, including the internet browser being used to display this page.example are Ms
Office, Tally , banking software etc.

OPERATING SYSTEM
Integrated set of programs that controls the resources(the CPU, memory, I/O devices, etc.) of a computer system
§ Provides its users with an interface or virtual machine that is more convenient to use.
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§ Two primary objectives of an OS are:

§ Making a computer system convenient to use
§ Managing the resources of a computer system

Types of Operating System

Real-time
A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating
systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main
objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They have an event-driven or time-
sharing design and often aspects of both. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external
events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.
Multi-user
A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system concurrently. Time-sharing systems and
Internet servers can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable multiple-user access to a computer through the sharing of
time. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to multi-user operating systems, are usable by a single user at a time. Being
able to use multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network
administrator is the real user. But for a UNIX-like operating system, it is possible for two users to log in at a time and this
capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system.
Multi-tasking vs. single-tasking
When only a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped as a single-tasking system. However, when the
operating system allows the execution of multiple tasks at one time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-
tasking can be of two types: pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time
and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive
multitasking, as does AmigaOS. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other
processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking.  32-bit versions, both
Windows NT and Win9x, used pre-emptive multi-tasking. Mac OS prior to OS X used to support cooperative multitasking.
Distributed
Further information: Distributed system
A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer.
The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed
computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in
cooperation, they make a distributed system.
Embedded
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small
machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact
and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.