Module 3 - 4
Module 3 - 4
Module 3 - 4
1 Introduction 4
1.1 Objectives................................................................................................................................ 4
2 Learning outcome 4
3 Urbanisation – concept and definitions 4
3.1 Urbanisation - concept............................................................................................................ 4
3.2 Defining urbanisation.............................................................................................................. 4
3.3 Spatial dimensions of urbanisation......................................................................................... 5
3.3.1 Urban hierarchy .............................................................................................................. 5
3.3.2 Urban primacy................................................................................................................. 5
3.3.3 Urban Sprawl................................................................................................................... 5
3.3.4 Over urbanisation and under urbanisation..................................................................... 6
4 Determinants of Urbanisation 6
4.1 What prompted urbanisation? ............................................................................................... 6
4.1.1 Industrialization and resultant economic growth........................................................... 6
4.1.2 Economic growth due to resource – exports .................................................................. 6
4.2 Causes of increasing urbanisation rates ................................................................................. 6
4.2.1 Natural increase .............................................................................................................. 6
4.2.2 Rural – urban migration .................................................................................................. 7
4.2.3 Reclassification of urban boundaries .............................................................................. 7
4.2.4 Circular migration ........................................................................................................... 7
5 Global level trends 7
5.1 Increasing urban population ................................................................................................... 7
5.2 Uneven urbanisation............................................................................................................... 8
5.3 Unplanned urban growth, energy consumption and carbon emissions................................. 9
6 Global level implications of urbanisation 10
6.1 Generalized implications....................................................................................................... 10
7 Urbanisation Trends in India 11
7.1 Urbanization trend in different states .................................................................................. 12
7.2 Urban settlements by class-sizes .......................................................................................... 14
8 Distinction of urbanisation 17
9 Urbanization pattern in Indian cities 17
9.1 Urban Sprawl......................................................................................................................... 17
9.2 Conurbations......................................................................................................................... 18
9.3 Multicity agglomerations ...................................................................................................... 19
10 Implications of urbanization 19
10.1 Housing shortage .................................................................................................................. 19
10.2 Increasing urban poverty ...................................................................................................... 21
10.3 Increasing pollution............................................................................................................... 21
10.4 Overcrowding and Congestion.............................................................................................. 22
10.5 Lack of Infrastructure ............................................................................................................ 22
10.6 Increase in crime ................................................................................................................... 23
10.7 Haphazard Growth of Real Estate Sector.............................................................................. 24
10.8 Unsuccessful urban governance ........................................................................................... 24
11 Aspect wise implications of Urbanisation in India 25
11.1 Physical implications of urbanisation ................................................................................... 25
11.1.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 25
11.1.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 26
11.2 Social implications of urbanisation ....................................................................................... 28
11.2.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 28
11.2.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 31
11.3 Economic implications of urbanisation ................................................................................. 31
11.3.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 31
11.3.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 32
11.4 Environmental Implications of Urbanization ........................................................................ 33
11.4.1 Positive Implications ..................................................................................................... 33
11.4.2 Negative Implications.................................................................................................... 33
11.5 Governance implications of urbanisation ............................................................................. 33
11.5.1 Positive implications ..................................................................................................... 33
11.5.2 Negative implications.................................................................................................... 34
12 Issues in Mega Cities 34
13 Summary 35
13.1 References ............................................................................................................................ 35
13.2 Related links .......................................................................................................................... 36
1 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
Urbanisation is a global phenomenon involving an increase in the proportion of the population that is
urban against the non-urban population, the trends of which has positive as well as negative implications
on the entire world. The objective of this module includes explaining the concept of urbanisation, its
determinants, dimensions and the global level trends and implications.
2 Learning outcome
After studying this module, you should be able to –
• Understand the concept of urbanisation, its determinants and dimensions
• Understand the global level trends and the broad implications
• Understand in detail the varied implications of urbanisation in developed and developing
countries
• Issues in Mega Cities
Before 1850, no society could be described as being fundamentally urban in nature (Davis, 1969). However,
by 2008, half of the world’s population resided in urban areas. With the steadily increasing rate of
urbanisation (see figure 1), the global urban population in 2015 has reached 53.85% according to the United
Nations Population Divisions (World Bank Open Data, accessed 2017).
In certain countries, inorder to minimize the costs of urbanisation, there are restrictions on rural-urban
migration, the use of capital-intensive production technologies in manufacturing and labour-intensive
modes of production in agriculture which lead to under urbanisation (Pacione.M., 2001). Under
urbanisation is defined as the extent to which the actual rate of urbanisation falls short of the rate that would
have occurred if there had been perfect and instantaneous adjustments of the population to productivity
advantages (Maoxing Ran & Brian J. L. Berry, 2013).
4 Determinants of Urbanisation
4.1 What prompted urbanisation?
4.1.1 Industrialization and resultant economic growth
• ‘Production cities’
• Developed countries mostly
• London city, Singapore city
b. Pull factors
• High urban wages
• Better employment opportunities
• Better access to infrastructure and services
Urban centres occupy less than 5% of the world’s land mass but account for 70% of both global energy
consumption and carbon emissions (Sustainable Urbanization Policy Brief, year)
Write about same population cities with difference in carbon emissions - Atlanta and Barcelona
Figure 2 - Population ages 65 and above of global urban population (% of total)
Better wages
Helps eradicate
rural poverty
Challenges in Exclusion and Unemployment Pollution More pressure
providing rising inequality among youth on improvement
urban services Consumption of of existing
towards the Rising mental Low wage resources and governance
city periphery health issues and employment in energy mechanisms
as the city crimes/ fear of informal sector
sprawls crime Climate change
India’s urban population has increased from 25.8 million (10.83%) in 1901 to 377.11 million (31.2%) in
2011. There is more than fourteen times increase in the country’s urban population since 1901. The fast
pace of urbanization can be attributed to many factors such as rural to urban migration, re-classification of
cities, and natural growth rate of urban population. For example, in 1991- 2001, 21% rural farmers migrated
to urban sector for livelihood because of the expectation of higher employment opportunities, higher wages
better lifestyle, etc. in urban areas. Second reason is rural- urban reclassification of cities. However, the
natural growth in population accounted for about 59.4% rise in urban population in 1991-2001 which
decreased to 44% in 2001-11. Higher productivity in urban area, more employment opportunities, and better
lifestyle, etc. attract more firms and also people towards urban areas. Large scale migration from rural to
urban areas increases the urban GDP and economic growth rate, which in turn helps to reduce dependency
on agriculture and poverty in rural areas. (Chetana Rani, 2016)
In 1901, Delhi had the highest levels of urban to total population at 40-50%. Among the states, Gujarat and
Manipur had 20- 30% urban population. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Karnataka, TamilNadu and West Bengal had 10- 20% urban population. Jammu & Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, Uttrakhand, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
Andhra Pradesh and Kerala had urban population below 10%. In 1921, the share of urban population in
Jammu & Kashmir and Andhra Pradesh increased from below 10% to 10-20% whereas it decreased in
Madhya Pradesh from 10-20% to below 10%. In 1951, post-independence, the share of urban population
in Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh and Kerala increased from below 10% to 10-20%. In Punjab, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, TamilNadu & West Bengal, it increased from 10-20% to 20-30%. Delhi was declared as the
National Capital Territory of Delhi and the levels of urban population increased from 40-50% to Above
50%.
*Data for Arunachal Pradesh (1901, 1921 & 1951), Sikkim, Mizoram and Goa (1901 & 1921) is not available.
In 1971, the share of urban population in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura and
Manipur increased from below 10% to 10-20%. In Goa, it increased from 10-20% to 20-30%. The level of
urban population increased from 20-30% to 30-40% in Maharashtra and TamilNadu.In 1991, the share of
urban population in Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Nagaland, Assam, Bihar and Orissa increased from below
10% to 10-20%. In Jammu & Kashmir, Haryana, Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Kerala, Andhra
Pradesh, Jharkhand and Manipur, share of urban population increased from 10-20% to 20-30%. It increased
from 20-30% to 30-40% in Gujarat and Karnataka. Goa and Mizoram had a rapid increase in urban
population from 20-30% to 40-50%.
In 2011, the share of urban population in Himachal Pradesh increased from below 10% to 10-20%. In Uttar
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Meghalaya, Tripura and Nagaland, share of urban population increased from 10-
20% to 20-30%. It increased from 20-30% to 30-40% in Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, West Bengal,
Manipur, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala. In Gujarat, Maharashtra and TamilNadu, levels of urban population
increased from 30-40% to 40-50%. Urban Population in Kerala saw a rapid increase from 20-30% to 40-
50%. Goa and Mizoram had urban population above 50%.
Figure 4 Percentage of urban population from 1901-2011
Settlements
(in Lakhs)
Million
Rural
Mega Plus
Year Cities Cities I II III IV V VI
23 43 130 391 744 479
1901 0 1 (1.27%) (2.38%) (7.18%) (21.60%) (41.10%) (26.46%) 1810 7.28
21 40 135 364 707 485
1911 0 2 (1.20%) (2.38%) (7.71%) (20.78%) (40.35%) (27.68%) 1752 7.20
27 45 145 370 734 571
1921 0 2 (1.43%) (2.38%) (7.66%) (19.56%) (38.79%) (30.18%) 1892 6.86
33 56 183 434 800 509
1931 0 2 (1.64%) (2.78%) (9.08%) (21.54%) (39.70%) (25.26%) 2015 6.97
47 74 242 498 920 407
1941 0 2 (2.15%) (3.38%) (11.06%) (22.76%) (42.05%) (18.60%) 2188 6.56
71 91 327 608 1124 569
1951 0 5 (2.54%) (3.26%) (11.72%) (21.79%) (40.29%) (20.39%) 2790 6.11
95 129 437 719 711 172
1961 0 7 (4.20%) (5.70%) (19.31%) (31.77%) (31.42%) (7.60%) 2263 6.16
139 173 558 827 623 147
1971 0 9 (5.63%) (7.01%) (22.62%) (33.52%) (25.25%) (5.96%) 2467 6.25
206 270 743 1059 758 253
1981 0 12 (6.26%) (8.21%) (22.59%) (32.20%) (23.05%) (7.69%) 3289 6.27
277 345 947 1167 740 197
1991 0 23 (7.54%) (9.39%) (25.78%) (31.77%) (20.15%) (5.36%) 3673 6.34
358 401 1151 1344 888 191
2001 3 35 (8.26%) (9.25%) (26.56%) (31.02%) (20.49%) (4.41%) 4333 6.38
452 605 1905 2233 2187 498
2011 3 53 (5.74%) (7.68%) (24.18%) (28.34%) (27.75%) (6.32%) 7880 6.41
• Total No. of Urban settlements in India has increased from 1810 in 1901 to 7880 in 2011 whereas
the number of rural settlements has decreased from 7.28 Lakh in 1901 to 6.41 Lakh in 2011.
• There was only one Million Plus City in 1901 i.e. Kolkata. In 2011, there are 53 Million Plus Cities,
out of which 3 are Mega cities i.e. Delhi, Greater Mumbai and Kolkata.
• Share of Class- I settlements increased from 1.27% in 1901 to 5.74% in 2011. During the same
period, share of Class- II settlements increased from 2.38% to 7.68%, Class- III from 7.18% to
24.18% and Class- IV from 21.60% to 28.34%.
• There has been a decrease in the share of Class-V settlements from 41.10% in 1901 to 27.75% in
2011 and Class- VI settlements from 26.46% to 6.32%.
• The absolute number of Class- V settlements has increased by 3 times from 744 in 1901 to 2187 in
2011. There has been a very small increase in Class- VI settlements from 479 in 1901 to 498 in
2011.
Figure 5 Changing city class size
Table 3 Percentage of urban to total population
Percentage of urban to total population
1901 0 0.83 25.37 11.2 15.6 20.8 20.1 6.1 10.85 89.15
1911 0 1.31 26.29 10.5 16.4 19.7 19.3 6.5 10.29 89.71
1921 0 1.65 28.35 10.3 15.9 18.2 18.6 7.0 11.18 88.82
1931 0 1.32 29.98 11.6 16.8 18.0 17.1 5.2 11.99 88.01
1941 0 1.97 36.53 11.4 16.3 15.7 15.0 3.1 13.86 86.14
1951 0 3.45 41.35 9.9 15.7 13.6 12.9 3.1 17.29 82.71
1961 0 4.44 47.26 11.2 16.9 12.7 6.8 0.7 17.97 82.03
1971 0 5.28 52.12 10.9 16.0 10.9 4.4 0.4 19.91 80.09
1981 0 6.48 54.12 11.6 14.3 9.5 3.5 0.5 23.33 76.67
1991 0 8.55 56.85 10.9 13.1 7.7 2.6 0.3 25.7 74.30
2001 4.12 11.99 52.72 9.67 12.2 6.8 2.3 0.2 27.82 72.18
2011 3.99 43 24.55 8.68 11.3 6.2 2.1 0.18 31.16 68.84
• Proportion of Urban to total Population in the last century has increased about three times from
10.85% in 1901 to 31.16% in 2011
• Rural to total population has decreased from 89.15% in 1901 to 68.84% in 2011
• Share of urban to total population in Class- I settlements (i.e. Large Cities only, excluding the Mega
and Metro Cities) decreased very slightly from 25.37% in 1901 to 24.55% in 2011. Considering
the Mega and Metro Cities also, this share has increased from 26.2% to 71.54% overall.
• In 2011, about 4% of the total urban population lived in Mega Cities and 43% in Metro Cities/
Million Plus Cities.
• Percentage of urban to total population in Classes- II to VI has decreased over the years. It came
down from 11.2% to 8.68% in Class- II, 15.6% to 11.3% in Class- III, 20.8% to 6.2% in Class- IV,
20.1% to 2.1% in Class- V and 6.1% to 0.1% in Class- VI settlements from 1901 to 2011.
Indian urban population in 2011 was 31.2% of the total population. Over 5 decades, annual rate of
Urbanisation ranged between 2.7- 3.8%. Following were the observed changes due to the increasing
population:
• 5 times GDP by 2030
• 270 Million people net increase in working- age population
• 70% of net new employment will be generated in cities
• Rs. 81.8 Lakh Crore capital investment needed for urban demands
• 68 Metro cities, up from 53
• 91 million MIG households, up from 22 million today
8 Distinction of urbanisation
The Census of India has defined Urbanization on description of 2001 census as ‘statutory towns’ and
‘census towns’. The distinction facilitates to understand or discriminate between rural and urban concepts.
• The statutory towns comprise of all places with Municipality, Corporation and Cantonment Board
or Notified Town Area Committee or the area specified under state law.
• The census town includes the places which satisfy following criteria
(a) A minimum population of 5000 people
(b) At least 75 percent of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits and
(c) a density of population of at least 400 persons per square kilometer.
Urban sprawl is the rapid expansion of the geographic extent of cities and towns. For major cities like Delhi,
Mumbai, Hyderabad, and Kolkata, population growth has been fastest on their peripheries in areas beyond
their official administrative boundaries. India’s largest cities have a significant portion of both population
and built-up areas outside ULB boundaries. In most cases, the proportion of built- up area outside ULB
boundaries is greater than the proportion of population outside the administrative boundaries, implying
relatively low-density sprawl. Built-up area is growing faster than population in nearly all of the largest
cities, especially between 2000-2011.(IIHS 2011). The share of India’s population living in areas with
urban-like features in 2010 as recorded by UN was 55.3%.
Figure 6 Urban sprawl in Mumbai
9.2 Conurbations
Due to rapid increase in population and industrial and technological
development, the city boundary expands and one urban center
combines with another in a slow but continuous process of urbanisation.
Figure 8 Conurbations
9.3 Multicity agglomerations
India added seven multicity agglomerations from 1999 to 2010 when it had 30 of the 45 agglomerations.
Multicity agglomerations are defined as a continuously lit belt of urbanization containing two or more cities,
each of which had a population of at least 100,000 living within its administrative boundaries in 2010. An
example of two or more agglomerations merging is that of the Delhi and Lahore agglomerations, which
now form a continuously lit belt.
Figure 9 Map created from night-time lights of cities recorded by satellites, Lahore , Delhi & the
surrounding Punjab form continuous urban corridors, or agglomerations.
Source: https://makanaka.wordpress.com/tag/lahore/
10 Implications of urbanization
The increasing urbanization in India has a many implications on the various aspects of the cities. Some of
the implications are as follows:
The comparison of concentrations of particulate matter (smaller than 10 microns PM10) shows that Delhi
is amongst the highest emissions cities. (WHO2014). Not just the air quality but the surface and ground
water quality in cities is degrading for example the lakes of Bangalore, have been degrading. The causes of
this increasing pollution in urban areas are as follows:
• Increasing built up
• Inefficient modes of transport
• Fuel and waste
burning
• Coal fired
power plants
• Industrial
activities.
10.4 Overcrowding and Congestion
Due to the increasing population in Indian cities, there is
observed more congestion in the cities. Urban dwellers today
face a challenge of increasing traffic jams on the roads.
Lack of public modes of transport and accessibility of public
transport in all parts of the cities specifically the peripheries.
According to a study done by the
BCG group, Kolkata is found to
be the most congested city
during the peak ours, followed by
Bangalore, Mumbai and Delhi.
Lack of modal integration in mega and metropolitan cities. The built traditional heritage is often neglected
(Fig 6) as more and more development efforts are streamlined for ensuring urban infrastructural facilities
and services. As to the physical infrastructure of Indian cities, most areas have inadequate/poor quality of
physical infrastructure-transportation networks (Fig 7) and a mix of modes (Fig 8), less quantum of potable
water (Fig 9), absence of proper sanitation and waste disposal mechanisms (Fig 10). Inadequacy of higher
level of social infrastructure, specifically education (Fig 11) and health (Fig 12) is also observed in Indian
cities/ urban areas.
Figure 25 - Poor quality of infrastructure networks Figure 26 - Mix of transport modes
Figure 27 - Less quantum of potable water Figure 28 - Lack of waste disposal mechanisms
Urban sprawl leads to loss of farmlands, most often resulting in formation of urban villages,
commonly seen in many of the Indian cities. Being a total deviant from the foreign concept of
‘urban villages’, these areas in India, are more easily identified by narrow lanes and heaps of
garbage.
Figure 38 - Life expectancy: comparison (males) Figure 39 - Life expectancy comp. (females)
As to the family health status, selected indicators corresponding to ten family health
parameters were assessed for rural and urban population, figures derived from National Family
Health Survey - 4 (International Institution of Population Studies, 2016). The ten parameters
included were: (1) good maternity & infant care; (2) good delivery care; (3) child immunizations
and Vitamin A supplementation; (4) absence of Anaemia in children; (5) treatment of childhood
diseases; (6) good child feeding practices; (7) good nutritional status of children; (8) frequent health
check up; (9) good awareness of health issues; and (10) absence of gender based violence. Upon
comparing the family health status, the indicators showed that family health status is generally
better in urban areas than rural in terms of more awareness of health issues, better accessibility to
healthcare facilities and more frequent health checkups.
For the rural-urban comparison of number of girls per boys, the sex ratio (overall) and child
sex ratio were the indicators. Sex ratio (overall), the number of females per 1000 males, though
was found to be lesser in urban areas (Figure 23), the decadal increase is more when compared to
rural areas (Census 2011). And as to the child sex ratio, the number of girls per thousand boys in
the age group, 0 to 6 years, though it has been declining at a national level, (a major issue), the
decline was found lesser in urban areas (Figure 24).
Figure 41 - Sex ratio: rural-urban comparison Figure 42 - Child sex ratio: comparison
As to the working population, the Work Participation Rate (WPR), calculated as the
percentage of total workers to total population is founder to be higher in urban areas for male
population and also the trend is steadily increasing (Figure 25). For females, though WPR is lesser,
the trend is increasing in urban areas when it has declined in rural areas in 2001-2011(Figure 26).
Also the percentage of workers in urban women for age cohorts 20-49 is steadily increasing (Figure
27) (Census 2011).
The undesirable economic implications of urbanisation include - growth of informal sector due to
unemployment/underemployment in formal sector. Urban areas are characterized by high competition
for jobs; hence the non-poor tend to cluster in formal employment while poor residents work in more
insecure and very low paid informal sector activities (Grant, 2012). In 2009-10, as per the NSS 67th
survey, 2009- 2010 report on informal sector, workers in informal sector accounted for 17% of the total
rural workforce and 46% of the urban workforce (Figure 31).
Delhi is seeing a rapid increase in the vehicles on road on a daily basis leading to poor air quality.
Mumbai’s carbon footprint is double the national average of 1.4 tones of carbon dioxide, has poor air
quality with PM10, PM2.5 and SO2 considerably above the permissible levels. Kolkata is 3rd most polluted
city in terms of NO2 levels and 12th most polluted city in terms of PM10 levels according to the statement
given by Ministry of Environment and Forests in August 2010.
As per the 2015 livability index of ‘The Economist’ Intelligence Unit from amongst 140 cities, rank of:
New Delhi was 110 and Mumbai was 115. The average ranking for all developing country cities outside
of South Asia was 103. The livability index for Indian cities is very low suggesting poor infrastructural
facilities and many environmental problems.
Urbanisation in India also leads to governance issues like multiplicity of authorities or lack of
coordinated efforts between multiple institutions and resultant overlapping of powers, functions and
jurisdictions. Poor institutional capabilities in terms of skilled manpower, also is an undesirable
economic implication in India. It can be seen that the gap between people trained and people placed
(National Skill Development Corporation report, 2013) is large. Poor accountability and transparency
of governance mechanisms is yet another implication. Poor financial capabilities and/ or procedural
delays and/ or lack of proper implementation and monitoring mechanisms often lead to a gap between
time bound targets and actual achievements as well as between budgetary outlays and actual
expenditure.
Mega cities are cities with more than 10 million population. The megacities face a lot of issues which
makes it vulnerable to risks of disasters. The issues faced by mega cities are as follows:
The mega cities face a lot of disaster risks which are as follows :
• Fire
• Flood
• Earthquakes
• Accidents/Stampedes
- Industries
- Transportation
- Festivals and pilgrimage related
- Ethnic conflicts
• Epidemics
• Occupation related
• High Mobility related risks
• Risks related to violation in setback regulations
13 Summary
• Urbanisation impacts an area in terms of multiple aspects – physical, social, economic and
governance implications; as well as various sectors: shelter, infrastructure, environment and
heritage
• The desirable social implications of urbanisation in India include increase in literacy rate, life
expectancy and family health status, more number of girls per boys, increase in working population,
better participation of women in workforce
• The undesirable economic implications of urbanisation in India include growth of informal sector,
widening gap between rich and poor due to increasing cost of living, food insecurity/ increasing
imports due to decrease in agricultural land and productivity
13.1 References
Census 2011. (2014). Rural-urban distribution of popultaion in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India.
Gerben, J. (2007). Urbanization and urban crime. Geographical and Environmental Research, 453-502.
Glaeser, E., & Sacerdote, B. (1999). Why Is There More Crime in Cities? Journal of political economy,
225-258.
Grant, U. (2012). Urbanization and the Employment Opportunities of youth in developing countries .
UNESCO.
International Institution of Population Studies. (2016). National Family Health Survey 4, 2015-16.
Mumbai: Ministry of Health and Family welfare.
Malik, A. (2016). Urbanization and Crime: A Relational Analysis. IOSR Journal Of Humanities And
Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) , 68-74.
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB). (2010). Crime in India. New Delhi: Ministry of Home affairs,
Government of India.
National Sample Survey Office . (2011). Employment and Unemployment Survey : NSS 66th round: July
2009 - June 2010. Kolkata: National Sample Survey Office .
S.C, B. (1993). Peasant labour and colonial capital: Rural Bengal since 1770. In C. University, New
Cambridge History of India Vol III.2 (p. 26). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shelly, L. (1981). Crime and Modernization: The Impact of Industrialization and Modernization on
Crime. Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press.
Suprita, B. (2016). Planned development in peri-urban areas of Kolkata. New Delhi: School of Planning
and Architecture (SPA) Delhi.
World Economic Forum. (2015). Invclusive growth and development report. online.