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History
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This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings,
see History of the world. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).

Herodotus (c. 484 BC – c. 425 BC), often considered the "father of history"

Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.[1]
—George Santayana

History (from Greek ἱστορία, historia, meaning 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by

investigation')[2] is the study of the past.[3][4] Events occurring before the invention of
writing systems are considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term that relates to
past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation,
and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who focus on history are
called historians. The historian's role is to place the past in context, using sources from
moments and events, and filling in the gaps to the best of their ability. [5] Written
documents are not the only sources historians use to develop their understanding of the
past. They also use material objects, oral accounts, ecological markers, art, and
artifacts as historical sources.
History also includes the academic discipline which uses narrative to describe, examine,
question, and analyze a sequence of past events, investigate the patterns of cause and
effect that are related to them.[6][7] Historians seek to understand and represent the past
through narratives. They often debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as
the significance of different causes and effects. Historians also debate the nature of
history and its usefulness by discussing the study of the discipline as an end in itself
and as a way of providing "perspective" on the problems of the present. [6][8][9][10]
Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as
the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends.
[11][12]
 History differs from myth in that it is supported by evidence. However, ancient
influences have helped spawn variant interpretations of the nature of history which have
evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history
is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and the study of certain
topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is often taught as part of
primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major
discipline in university studies.
Herodotus, a 5th-century BC Greek historian is often considered (within the Western
tradition) to be the "father of history," or, by some, the "father of lies." Along with his
contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of
human history. Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-
focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or
approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia, a state chronicle, the Spring and
Autumn Annals, was known to be compiled from as early as 722 BC although only 2nd-
century BC texts have survived.

Contents

 1Etymology
 2Description
 3History and prehistory
 4Historiography
 5Historical methods
o 5.1Marxian theory
o 5.2Potential Shortcomings in the Production of History
 6Areas of study
o 6.1Periods
 6.1.1Prehistoric periodisation
o 6.2Geographical locations
 6.2.1Regions
o 6.3Military history
o 6.4History of religion
o 6.5Social history
 6.5.1Subfields
o 6.6Cultural history
o 6.7Diplomatic history
o 6.8Economic history
o 6.9Environmental history
o 6.10World history
o 6.11People's history
o 6.12Intellectual history
 o 6.13Gender history
o 6.14Public history
o 6.15LGBTQ+ History
 7Historians
 8Judgement
 9Pseudohistory
 10Teaching
o 10.1Scholarship vs teaching
o 10.2Nationalism
o 10.3Bias in school teaching
 11See also
o 11.1Methods
o 11.2Topics
o 11.3Other themes
 12References
 13Further reading
 14External links

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from the Ancient Greek ἱστορία[13] (historía), meaning 'inquiry',

'knowledge from inquiry', or 'judge'. It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in
his History of Animals.[14] The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric
Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boiotic inscriptions (in a legal
sense, either 'judge' or 'witness', or similar). The Greek word was borrowed into
Classical Latin as historia, meaning "investigation, inquiry, research, account,
description, written account of past events, writing of history, historical narrative,
recorded knowledge of past events, story, narrative". History was borrowed from Latin
(possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær ('history, narrative, story'),
but this word fell out of use in the late Old English period. [15] Meanwhile, as Latin
became Old French (and Anglo-Norman), historia developed into forms such
as istorie, estoire, and historie, with new developments in the meaning: "account of the
events of a person's life (beginning of the 12th century), chronicle, account of events as
relevant to a group of people or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial
representation of historical events (c. 1240), body of knowledge relative to human
evolution, science (c. 1265), narrative of real or imaginary events, story (c. 1462)". [15]
It was from Anglo-Norman that history was borrowed into Middle English, and this time
the loan stuck. It appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have
become a common word in the late 14th century, with an early attestation appearing
in John Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled |
To this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle
English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning
"the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal record or study of past
events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century. [15] With the Renaissance,
older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis
Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about "Natural History".
For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that
sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason,
and poetry was provided by fantasy).[16]
In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like
Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in
general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages,
which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both
'history' and 'story'. Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from
1531. In all European languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both "what
happened with men", and "the scholarly study of the happened", the latter sense
sometimes distinguished with a capital letter, or the word historiography.[14] The
adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[17]

Description

The title page to The Historians' History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current
dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for
their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history".
History is facilitated by the formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production
of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race. [18] The modern
discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.
All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the
historical record.[19] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can
most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the
constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive
by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to
represent the "true past"). Part of the historian's role is to skillfully and objectively utilize
the vast amount of sources from the past, most often found in the archives. The process
of creating a narrative inevitably generates a silence as historians remember or
emphasize different events of the past. [20]
The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities and at
other times as part of the social sciences.[21] It can also be seen as a bridge between
those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some individual
historians strongly support one or the other classification. [22] In the 20th century,
French historian Fernand Braudel revolutionized the study of history, by using such
outside disciplines as economics, anthropology, and geography in the study of global
history.
Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing
on an oral tradition, and have attempted to answer historical questions through the
study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have also
used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of
historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is
said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three. [23] But
writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.
Archaeology is a discipline that is especially helpful in dealing with buried sites and
objects, which, once unearthed, contribute to the study of history. But archaeology
rarely stands alone. It uses narrative sources to complement its discoveries. However,
archaeology is constituted by a range of methodologies and approaches which are
independent from history; that is to say, archaeology does not "fill the gaps" within
textual sources. Indeed, "historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archaeology,
often contrasting its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For
example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland,
USA; has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents and the
material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth
apparent via the study of the total historical environment, despite the ideology of
"liberty" inherent in written documents at this time.
There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including
chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually
exclusive, and significant intersections are often present. It is possible for historians to
concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, although the
modern trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this
specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been
studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but also may be studied out of simple
intellectual curiosity.[24]

History and prehistory

Part of a series on

Human history
and prehistory

↑ before  Homo   (Pliocene epoch)

Prehistory
(three-age system)

Stone Age

Lower Paleolithic
 Homo
 Homo erectus
Middle Paleolithic

Early  Homo sapiens

Upper Paleolithic

Behavioral modernity
 Epipaleolithic
 Mesolithic
Neolithic
Cradle of civilization

Protohistory

Chalcolithic

Bronze Age
 Near East
 Europe
 India
 China
Bronze Age collapse

Iron Age
 Near East
  Europe
 India
 East Asia
 West Africa

Recorded history

Ancient history
 Earliest records
 Protohistory
Post-classical
history

Modern history
 Early
 Late
 Contemporary

↓ Future   (Holocene
epoch)

 v
 t
 e
Further information: Protohistory
The history of the world is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens
sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written
records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an
area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood.
By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be
recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of
prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain
civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America.
Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on
the Western world.[25] In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote:
The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people
cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past
and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition
means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the
past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations. [26]
This definition includes within the scope of history the strong interests of peoples, such
as Indigenous Australians and New Zealand Māori in the past, and the oral records
maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with
European civilization.

Historiography
Main article: Historiography

The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Historiography has a number of related meanings. Firstly, it can refer to how history has
been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for
example, the move from short-term biographical narrative towards long-term thematic
analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical
writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of
medieval history written during the 1960s"). Thirdly, it may refer to why history is
produced: the Philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past,
this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the
narratives, interpretations, world view, use of evidence, or method of presentation of
other historians. Professional historians also debate the question of whether history can
be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives. [27][28]

Historical methods
Further information: Historical method
 A depiction of the ancient Library of Alexandria

Historical method basics

The following questions are used by

historians in modern work.

1. When was the source, written or

unwritten, produced (date)?
2. Where was it produced
(localization)?
3. By whom was it produced
(authorship)?
4. From what pre-existing material
was it produced (analysis)?
5. In what original form was it
produced (integrity)?
6. What is the evidential value of its
contents (credibility)?
The first four are known as historical
criticism; the fifth, textual criticism; and,
together, external criticism. The sixth and
final inquiry about a source is called internal
criticism.

The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by

which historians use primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write
history.
Herodotus of Halicarnassus (484 BC – ca.425 BC)[29] has generally been acclaimed as
the "father of history". However, his contemporary Thucydides (c. 460 BC – c. 400 BC)
is credited with having first approached history with a well-developed historical method
in his work the History of the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, unlike Herodotus,
regarded history as being the product of the choices and actions of human beings, and
looked at cause and effect, rather than as the result of divine intervention (though
Herodotus was not wholly committed to this idea himself). [29] In his historical method,
Thucydides emphasized chronology, a nominally neutral point of view, and that the
human world was the result of the actions of human beings. Greek historians also
viewed history as cyclical, with events regularly recurring.[30]
There were historical traditions and sophisticated use of historical method in ancient
and medieval China. The groundwork for professional historiography in East Asia was
established by the Han dynasty court historian known as Sima Qian (145–90 BC),
author of the Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). For the quality of his written work,
Sima Qian is posthumously known as the Father of Chinese historiography. Chinese
historians of subsequent dynastic periods in China used his Shiji as the official format
for historical texts, as well as for biographical literature. [citation needed]
Saint Augustine was influential in Christian and Western thought at the beginning of the
medieval period. Through the Medieval and Renaissance periods, history was often
studied through a sacred or religious perspective. Around 1800, German philosopher
and historian Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought philosophy and a
more secular approach in historical study.[24]
In the preface to his book, the Muqaddimah (1377), the Arab historian and early
sociologist, Ibn Khaldun, warned of seven mistakes that he thought that historians
regularly committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as strange and in need of
interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun was to claim that the cultural difference of
another age must govern the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the
principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the evaluation, and lastly,
to feel the need for experience, in addition to rational principles, in order to assess a
culture of the past. Ibn Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical
acceptance of historical data." As a result, he introduced a scientific method to the study
of history, and he often referred to it as his "new science". [31] His historical method also
laid the groundwork for the observation of the role
of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[32] and he is thus
considered to be the "father of historiography" [33][34] or the "father of the philosophy of
history".[35]
In the West, historians developed modern methods of historiography in the 17th and
18th centuries, especially in France and Germany. In 1851, Herbert
Spencer summarized these methods:
From the successive strata of our historical deposits, they [Historians] diligently gather
all the highly colored fragments, pounce upon everything that is curious and sparkling
and chuckle like children over their glittering acquisitions; meanwhile the rich veins of
wisdom that ramify amidst this worthless debris, lie utterly neglected. Cumbrous
volumes of rubbish are greedily accumulated, while those masses of rich ore, that
should have been dug out, and from which golden truths might have been smelted, are
left untaught and unsought[36]
By the "rich ore" Spencer meant scientific theory of history. Meanwhile, Henry Thomas
Buckle expressed a dream of history becoming one day science:
In regard to nature, events apparently the most irregular and capricious have been
explained and have been shown to be in accordance with certain fixed and universal
laws. This have been done because men of ability and, above all, men of patient,
untiring thought have studied events with the view of discovering their regularity, and if
human events were subject to a similar treatment, we have every right to expect similar
results[37]
Contrary to Buckle's dream, the 19th-century historian with greatest influence on
methods became Leopold von Ranke in Germany. He limited history to “what really
happened” and by this directed the field further away from science. For Ranke, historical
data should be collected carefully, examined objectively and put together with critical
rigor. But these procedures “are merely the prerequisites and preliminaries of science.
The heart of science is searching out order and regularity in the data being examined
and in formulating generalizations or laws about them.” [38]
As Historians like Ranke and many who followed him have pursued it, no, history is not
a science. Thus if Historians tell us that, given the manner in which he practices his
craft, it cannot be considered a science, we must take him at his word. If he is not doing
science, then, whatever else he is doing, he is not doing science. The traditional
Historian is thus no scientist and history, as conventionally practiced, is not a science. [39]
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less on epic nationalistic narratives,
which often tended to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective and complex
analyses of social and intellectual forces. A major trend of historical methodology in the
20th century was a tendency to treat history more as a social science rather than as
an art, which traditionally had been the case. Some of the leading advocates of history
as a social science were a diverse collection of scholars which included Fernand
Braudel, E. H. Carr, Fritz Fischer, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Hans-Ulrich
Wehler, Bruce Trigger, Marc Bloch, Karl Dietrich Bracher, Peter Gay, Robert
Fogel, Lucien Febvre and Lawrence Stone. Many of the advocates of history as a social
science were or are noted for their multi-disciplinary approach. Braudel combined
history with geography, Bracher history with political science, Fogel history with
economics, Gay history with psychology, Trigger history with archaeology while Wehler,
Bloch, Fischer, Stone, Febvre and Le Roy Ladurie have in varying and differing ways
amalgamated history with sociology, geography, anthropology, and economics.
Nevertheless, these multidisciplinary approaches failed to produce a theory of history.
So far only one theory of history came from the pen of a professional Historian.
[40]
 Whatever other theories of history we have, they were written by experts from other
fields (for example, Marxian theory of history). More recently, the field of digital
history has begun to address ways of using computer technology to pose new questions
to historical data and generate digital scholarship.
In sincere opposition to the claims of history as a social science, historians such
as Hugh Trevor-Roper, John Lukacs, Donald Creighton, Gertrude
Himmelfarb and Gerhard Ritter argued that the key to the historians' work was the
power of the imagination, and hence contended that history should be understood as an
art. French historians associated with the Annales School introduced quantitative
history, using raw data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the
establishment of cultural history (cf. histoire des mentalités). Intellectual historians such
as Herbert Butterfield, Ernst Nolte and George Mosse have argued for the significance
of ideas in history. American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on
formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups. Another genre of social
history to emerge in the post-WWII era was Alltagsgeschichte (History of Everyday
Life). Scholars such as Martin Broszat, Ian Kershaw and Detlev Peukert sought to
examine what everyday life was like for ordinary people in 20th-century Germany,
especially in the Nazi period.
Marxist historians such as Eric Hobsbawm, E. P. Thompson, Rodney Hilton, Georges
Lefebvre, Eugene Genovese, Isaac Deutscher, C. L. R. James, Timothy Mason, Herbert
Aptheker, Arno J. Mayer and Christopher Hill have sought to validate Karl Marx's
theories by analyzing history from a Marxist perspective. In response to the Marxist
interpretation of history, historians such as François Furet, Richard Pipes, J. C. D.
Clark, Roland Mousnier, Henry Ashby Turner and Robert Conquest have offered anti-
Marxist interpretations of history. Feminist historians such as Joan Wallach
Scott, Claudia Koonz, Natalie Zemon Davis, Sheila Rowbotham, Gisela Bock, Gerda
Lerner, Elizabeth Fox-Genovese, and Lynn Hunt have argued for the importance of
studying the experience of women in the past. In recent years, postmodernists have
challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is
based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his 1997 book In Defence of
History, Richard J. Evans defended the worth of history. Another defence of history from
post-modernist criticism was the Australian historian Keith Windschuttle's 1994
book, The Killing of History.
Today, most historians begin their research process in the archives, on either a physical
or digital platform. They often propose an argument and use their research to support
it. John H. Arnold proposed that history is an argument, which creates the possibility of
creating change.[5] Digital information companies, such as Google, have sparked
controversy over the role of internet censorship in information access. [41]
Marxian theory
Main article: Marx's theory of history
The Marxist theory of historical materialism theorises that society is fundamentally
determined by the material conditions at any given time – in other words, the
relationships which people have with each other in order to fulfill basic needs such as
feeding, clothing and housing themselves and their families.
[42]
 Overall, Marx and Engels claimed to have identified five successive stages of the
development of these material conditions in Western Europe.[43] Marxist
historiography was once orthodoxy in the Soviet Union, but since the collapse of
communism there in 1991, Mikhail Krom says it has been reduced to the margins of
scholarship.[44]
Potential Shortcomings in the Production of History
Many historians believe that the production of history is embedded with bias because
events and known facts in history can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Constantin
Fasolt suggested that history is linked to politics by the practice of silence itself. [45] “A
second common view of the link between history and politics rests on the elementary
observation that historians are often influenced by politics.” [45] According to Michel-Rolph
Trouillot, the historical process is rooted in the archives, therefore silences, or parts of
history that are forgotten, may be an intentional part of a narrative strategy that dictates
how areas of history are remembered.[20] Historical omissions can occur in many ways
and can have a profound effect on historical records. Information can also purposely be
excluded or left out accidentally. Historians have coined multiple terms that describe the
act of omitting historical information, including: “silencing,” [20] “selective memory,”[46] and
erasures.[47] Gerda Lerner, a twentieth century historian who focused much of her work
on historical omissions involving women and their accomplishments, explained the
negative impact that these omissions had on minority groups. [46]
Environmental historian William Cronon proposed three ways to combat bias and
ensure authentic and accurate narratives: narratives must not contradict known fact,
they must make ecological sense (specifically for environmental history), and published
work must be reviewed by scholarly community and other historians to ensure
accountability.[47]

Areas of study
Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed

are histories of other fields, such as history
of science, history of
mathematics and history of philosophy.

 Ancient history: the study from the

beginning of human history until the
Early Middle Ages.
 Atlantic history: the study of the
history of people living on or near the
Atlantic Ocean.
 Art history: the study of changes in
and social context of art.
 Comparative history: historical
analysis of social and cultural entities
not confined to national boundaries.
 Contemporary history: the study of
recent historical events.
 Counterfactual history: the study of
historical events as they might have
happened in different causal
circumstances.
 Cultural history: the study of
culture in the past.
 Digital history: the use of
computing technologies do massive
searches in published sources.
  Economic history: the use of
economic models fitted to the past.
 Intellectual history: the study of
ideas in the context of the cultures that
produced them and their development
over time.
 Maritime history: the study of
maritime transport and all the
connected subjects.
 Material history: the study of
objects and the stories they can tell.
 Modern history: the study of the
Modern Times, the era after the Middle
Ages.
 Military history: the study of
warfare and wars in history and what is
sometimes considered to be a sub-
branch of military history, Naval
history.
 Oral history: the collection and
study of historical information utilizing
spoken interviews with people who
have lived past events.
 Palaeography: study of ancient
texts.
 People's history: historical work
from the perspective of common
people.
 Political history: the study of
politics in the past.
 Psychohistory: study of the
psychological motivations of historical
events.
 Pseudohistory: study about the past
that falls outside the domain of
mainstream history (sometimes it is an
equivalent of pseudoscience).
 Social history: the study of the
process of social change throughout
history.
 Women's history: the history of
female human beings. Gender history is
related and covers the perspective of
gender.
 World history: the study of history
from a global perspective, with special
attention to non-Western societies.

Periods
Main article: Periodization
Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular
blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising
ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians. [48] The names given to
a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end
of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time
they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed
retrospectively and so reFflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods
are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and
studied.[49]
Prehistoric periodisation
The field of history generally leaves prehistory to the archaeologists, who have entirely
different sets of tools and theories. The usual method for periodisation of the
distant prehistoric past, in archaeology is to rely on changes in material culture and
technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age and their sub-divisions
also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a
series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative
chronology but also narrative chronology.[50] This narrative content could be in the form
of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodisation, however, that do not
have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology and, thus, devoid of
any specific meaning.
Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon
dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts,
these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases
neighbouring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which
may be used. Periodisation, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework with one
account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop
(combinedly) at periodisation boundaries" and that different trajectories of change are
also needed to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural
phenomena.[51]
Geographical locations
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for
example, continents, countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events took place
is important. To do this, historians often turn to geography. According to Jules
Michelet in his book Histoire de France (1833), "without geographical basis, the people,
the makers of history, seem to be walking on air." [52] Weather patterns, the water supply,
and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For
example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization,
studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the
banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich
soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant
everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped
develop the civilization. There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth
Huntington and Allen Semple, cited as a crucial influence on the course of history and
racial temperament.[53]
Regions
 History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern
human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern
present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing
nation states.
 History of the Americas is the collective history of North
and South America, including Central America and the
Caribbean.
o History of North America is the study of the past passed
down from generation to generation on the continent in
the Earth's northern and western hemisphere.
o History of Central America is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation on the
continent in the Earth's western hemisphere.
o History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest
evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been
found.
o History of South America is the study of the past
passed down from generation to generation on the
continent in the Earth's southern and western
hemisphere.
 History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories
of a vast continent, known as Terra Australis, believed to
exist in the far south of the globe.
 History of Australia starts with the documentation of the
Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's
north coast.
 History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to
when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who
developed a distinct Māori culture centred on kinship links
and land.
 History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the
islands in the Pacific Ocean.
 History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct
peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia,
East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the
interior mass of the Eurasian steppe of Central Asia and
Eastern Europe.
o History of Europe describes the passage of time from
humans inhabiting the European continent to the
present day.
o History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of
several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia,
South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior
mass of the Eurasian steppe.
  History of East Asia is the study of the past passed
down from generation to generation in East Asia.
 History of the Middle East begins with the earliest
civilizations in the region now known as the Middle
East that were established around 3000 BC, in
Mesopotamia (Iraq).
 History of India is the study of the past passed down
from generation to generation in the Sub-Himalayan
region.
 History of Southeast Asia has been characterized
as interaction between regional players and foreign
powers.
Military history
Main article: Military history
Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of
combat. The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers
more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of
warfare on society and culture.[54]
History of religion
Main article: History of religions
The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians
for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals
include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics
range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.
[55]
 This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans
have lived.[56]
Social history
Main article: Social history
Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history
of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life. [57] In its
"golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and
still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the
proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history
rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.
[58]
 In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members,
1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next
with 1425 (25%).[59] The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of
topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism,
that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was
contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English
historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political
history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political
history unintelligible."[60] While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with
the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in." [61]
Subfields
The chief subfields of social history include:

 Black history
 Demographic history
 History of education
 Ethnic history
 History of the family
 Labour history
 Rural history
 Urban history
o American urban history
 Queer history
 Women's history
Smaller specialties include:

 History of childhood
 Gender history
Cultural history
Main article: Cultural history
Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It
typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language,
popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It
examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts
of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major
topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images
and human visual production (iconography).[62]
Diplomatic history
Main article: Diplomatic history
Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding
diplomacy and the causes of wars. More recently it looks at the causes of peace and
human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term
strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type
of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or
across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the
First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of
historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated
of historical studies."[63] She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social
history to replace it.
Economic history
Main articles: Economic history and Business history
Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in
recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics
departments and away from traditional history departments. [64] Business history deals
with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government
regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of
individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history;
Business history is most often taught in business schools. [65]
Environmental history
Main article: Environmental history
Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of
the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.
[66]
 It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel
Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s.
World history
Main article: World history
See also: History of the world and Universal history
World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3000 years or so. World
history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in
the United States,[67] Japan[68] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that
students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds.
It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J.
Toynbee, among others.
The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter
since 1990.[69] The H-World discussion list[70] serves as a network of communication
among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements,
syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.
People's history
Main article: People's history
A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical
events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the
world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups
not included in the past in other type of writing about history are the primary focus,
which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and
the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist
model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in the
1960s.[71]
Intellectual history
Main articles: Intellectual history and History of ideas
Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the
focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of
ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own. [72][73]
Gender history
Main article: Gender history
Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from
the perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's
history stemmed from many non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of
women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, “Gender is a constitutive element of
social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a
primary way of signifying relations of power,”[74] meaning that gender historians study the
social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders utilize
allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field,
gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender
history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender
such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people
who identify outside of that binary.
Public history
Main article: Public history
Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some
training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized
academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic
preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related
fields. The term itself began to be used in the U.S. and Canada in the late 1970s, and
the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most
common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites,
parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.
[75]

LGBTQ+ History
Main article: LGBT history
LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality
of ancient civilizations, involves the history
of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples and cultures around the
world. A common feature of LGBTQ+ history is the focus on oral history and individual
perspectives, in addition to traditional documents within the archives.

Historians
For a more comprehensive list, see List of historians.
Benedetto Croce

Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information
about past events. They discover this information through archaeological evidence,
written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material.
In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which
they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they
specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense,
are also frequently included.

Judgement
See also: Ash heap of history
Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the
"judgement of history."[76] The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are
separate to those of legal judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the
events and be final.[77] A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that
of collective memory.

Pseudohistory
Main article: Pseudohistory
Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but
which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines
their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which
draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence,
particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often
rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching
Scholarship vs teaching
A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding
the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship
was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius Professor of history
in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford
tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defence of their system
saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators,
prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The
tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young
scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where Thomas
Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by
introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis. [78][79]
In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing
universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on
undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to
increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty.
Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to
do most of the classroom teaching.[80]
Nationalism
From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history
to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World
War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western
Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the U.S. after
1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students
to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized
economy.[81]
At the university level, historians debate the question of whether history belongs more to
social science or to the humanities. Many view the field from both perspectives.
The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as
disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other
journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de
documentation pédagogique, (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher
training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts
and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of
National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and
promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of
discovery." Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and
dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested
loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of
French patriotism and national identity. [82]
Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and
give students the official narrative about national enemies. [83]
In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are
written to put the national heritage in the most favourable light. For example, in Japan,
mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire
Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained. [84] It
was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist
historiography.[85][86]
In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content
from state to state.[87] An example of content that is represented different in different
regions of the country is the history of the Southern states, where slavery and
the American Civil War are treated as controversial topics. McGraw-Hill Education for
example, was criticised for describing Africans brought to American plantations as
"workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.[88]
Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks,
sometimes with success.[89][90]
In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is
characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately
unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations
such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights,
democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national
pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on
democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness." [91]

See also
Main articles: Outline of history and Glossary of history

 History portal

Methods

 Auxiliary sciences of history

 Archival research
 Bibliography
 Computational history
 List of history journals
 Popular history
Topics

 Historiography of Argentina
 Atlantic history
 Historiography of Canada
 Classics
o Greek historiography
 Historiography of Alexander the Great
o Roman historiography
 Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman
Empire
 Historiography of the Cold War
 Chinese historiography
 Historiography of the French Revolution
o Annales School, in France
 Historiography of Germany
o Bielefeld School, in Germany
 Historiography of early Islam
 Historiography of Japan
 Middle Ages
o Dark Ages (historiography)
o Historiography of the Crusades
 Historiography of Switzerland
  Historiography in the Soviet Union
 Historiography of the United States
o Frontier Thesis
 Historiography of the United Kingdom
o Historiography of Scotland
o Historiography of the British Empire
 World history
 Historiography of the causes of World War I
 Historiography of World War II
Other themes

 List of history awards

 History of the book
 Historiography of science
 Subaltern Studies, Regarding post-colonial India
 Whig history, History portrayed as the story of continuous
progress

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Further reading
 The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature, 3rd
ed., eds. Mary Beth Norton and Pamela Gerardi (2 vol, Oxford U.P. 1995)
2064 pages; annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English
language history books in all fields and topics
 Benjamin, Jules R. A Student's Guide to History (2009)
 Carr, E.H., with a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. What is
History? Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001, ISBN 0-333-97701-7.
 Cronon, William. "Storytelling." American Historical Review 118.1 (2013):
1–19. online, Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon
scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on
history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history
writing and teaching.
 Evans, Richard J. In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company
(2000), ISBN 0-393-31959-8.
 Furay, Conal, and Michael J. Salevouris. The Methods and Skills of
History: A Practical Guide (2010)
 Kelleher, William. Writing History: A Guide for Students (2008) excerpt and
text search
o Lingelbach, Gabriele. "The Institutionalization and Professionalization
of History in Europe and the United States." in The Oxford History of
Historical Writing: Volume 4: 1800–1945 4 (2011): 78+ online
 Presnell, Jenny L. The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research
for History Students (2006) excerpt and text search
 Tosh, John; The Pursuit of History (2006), ISBN 1-4058-2351-8.
 Woolf D.R. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (Garland Reference
Library of the Humanities) (2 vol 1998) excerpt and text search
 Williams, H.S. (1907). The Historians' History of the World. (ed., This is
Book 1 of 25 Volumes; PDF version is available)

External links
 Best history sites .net
 BBC History Site
 Internet History Sourcebooks Project See also Internet
History Sourcebooks Project. Collections of public domain
and copy-permitted historical texts for educational use
 The History Channel Online
 History Channel UK
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