6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

History
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

History(fromGreek,historia,meaning"inquiry,knowledge
acquiredbyinvestigation")[2]isthestudyofthepastasitisdescribedin
writtendocuments.[3][4]Eventsoccurringbeforewrittenrecordare
consideredprehistory.Itisanumbrellatermthatrelatestopasteventsas
wellasthememory,discovery,collection,organization,presentation,and
interpretationofinformationabouttheseevents.Scholarswhowriteabout
historyarecalledhistorians.

Historycanalsorefertotheacademicdisciplinewhichusesanarrativeto
examineandanalyseasequenceofpastevents,andobjectivelydetermine
thepatternsofcauseandeffectthatdeterminethem.[5][6]Historians
sometimesdebatethenatureofhistoryanditsusefulnessbydiscussingthe
studyofthedisciplineasanendinitselfandasawayofproviding Historia
"perspective"ontheproblemsofthepresent.[5][7][8][9] paintingbyNikolaosGyzis(1892)

Storiescommontoaparticularculture,butnotsupportedbyexternal
sources(suchasthetalessurroundingKingArthur),areusually
Thosewhocannotrememberthepastare
classifiedasculturalheritageorlegends,becausetheydonotshowthe
condemnedtorepeatit. [1]
"disinterestedinvestigation"requiredofthedisciplineofhistory.[10][11]
Herodotus,a5thcenturyBCGreekhistorianisconsideredwithinthe GeorgeSantayana
Westerntraditiontobethe"fatherofhistory",and,alongwithhis
contemporaryThucydides,helpedformthefoundationsforthemodernstudyofhumanhistory.Theirworks
continuetobereadtoday,andthegapbetweentheculturefocusedHerodotusandthemilitaryfocusedThucydides
remainsapointofcontentionorapproachinmodernhistoricalwriting.InAsia,astatechronicle,theSpringand
AutumnAnnalswasknowntobecompiledfromasearlyas722BCalthoughonly2ndcenturyBCtextssurvived.

Ancientinfluenceshavehelpedspawnvariantinterpretationsofthenatureofhistorywhichhaveevolvedoverthe
centuriesandcontinuetochangetoday.Themodernstudyofhistoryiswideranging,andincludesthestudyof
specificregionsandthestudyofcertaintopicalorthematicalelementsofhistoricalinvestigation.Oftenhistoryis
taughtaspartofprimaryandsecondaryeducation,andtheacademicstudyofhistoryisamajordisciplinein
universitystudies.

Contents
1 Etymology
2 Description
3 Historyandprehistory
4 Historiography
5 Philosophyofhistory
6 Historicalmethods
7 Marxiantheoryofhistory
8 Areasofstudy
8.1 Periods
8.1.1 Prehistoricperiodisation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 1/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

8.2 Geographicallocations
8.2.1 Regions
8.3 Militaryhistory
8.4 Historyofreligion
8.5 Socialhistory
8.5.1 Subfields
8.6 Culturalhistory
8.7 Diplomatichistory
8.8 Economichistory
8.9 Environmentalhistory
8.10 Worldhistory
8.11 People'shistory
8.12 Intellectualhistory
8.13 Genderhistory
8.14 Publichistory
9 Historians
10 Thejudgementofhistory
11 Pseudohistory
12 Teachinghistory
12.1 Scholarshipvsteaching
12.2 Nationalism
12.3 Biasinschoolteaching
13 Seealso
13.1 Methods
13.2 Topics
13.3 Otherthemes
14 References
15 Furtherreading
16 Externallinks

Etymology
ThewordhistorycomesultimatelyfromAncientGreek[12]
(histora),meaning"inquiry","knowledgefrominquiry",or"judge".Itwas
inthatsensethatAristotleusedthewordinhis[13]
(PerTZaistorai"InquiriesaboutAnimals").Theancestorword
isattestedearlyoninHomericHymns,Heraclitus,theAthenian
ephebes'oath,andinBoioticinscriptions(inalegalsense,either"judge"or
"witness",orsimilar). HistorybyFrederickDielman(1896)

TheGreekwordwasborrowedintoClassicalLatinashistoria,meaning
'investigation,inquiry,research,account,description,writtenaccountofpastevents,writingofhistory,historical
narrative,recordedknowledgeofpastevents,story,narrative'.HistorywasborrowedfromLatin(possiblyviaOld
IrishorOldWelsh)intoOldEnglishasstr('history,narrative,story'),butthiswordfelloutofuseinthelateOld
Englishperiod.[14]

Meanwhile,asLatinbecameOldFrench(andAngloNorman),historiadevelopedintoformssuchasistorie,
estoire,andhistorie,withnewdevelopmentsinthemeaning:'accountoftheeventsofaperson'slife(beginningof
the12thcentury),chronicle,accountofeventsasrelevanttoagroupofpeopleorpeopleingeneral(1155),

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 2/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

dramaticorpictorialrepresentationofhistoricalevents(c.1240),bodyofknowledgerelativetohumanevolution,
science(c.1265),narrativeofrealorimaginaryevents,story(c.1462)'.[14]

ItwasfromAngloNormanthathistorywasborrowedintoMiddleEnglish,andthistimetheloanstuck.Itappears
inthethirteenthcenturyAncreneWisse,butseemstohavebecomeacommonwordinthelatefourteenthcentury,
withanearlyattestationappearinginJohnGower'sConfessioAmantisofthe1390s(VI.1383):'Ifindeinabok
compiled|Tothismatiereanoldhistoire,|Thewhichcomthnoutomimemoire'.InMiddleEnglish,themeaning
ofhistorywas"story"ingeneral.Therestrictiontothemeaning'thebranchofknowledgethatdealswithpast
eventstheformalrecordorstudyofpastevents,esp.humanaffairs'aroseinthemidfifteenthcentury.[14]

WiththeRenaissance,oldersensesofthewordwererevived,anditwasintheGreeksensethatFrancisBacon
usedtheterminthelatesixteenthcentury,whenhewroteabout"NaturalHistory".Forhim,historiawas"the
knowledgeofobjectsdeterminedbyspaceandtime",thatsortofknowledgeprovidedbymemory(whilescience
wasprovidedbyreason,andpoetrywasprovidedbyfantasy).[15]

Inanexpressionofthelinguisticsyntheticvs.analytic/isolatingdichotomy,EnglishlikeChinese(vs.)now
designatesseparatewordsforhumanhistoryandstorytellingingeneral.InmodernGerman,French,andmost
GermanicandRomancelanguages,whicharesolidlysyntheticandhighlyinflected,thesamewordisstillusedto
meanboth"history"and"story".

Theadjectivehistoricalisattestedfrom1661,andhistoricfrom1669.[16]

Historianinthesenseofa"researcherofhistory"isattestedfrom1531.InallEuropeanlanguages,thesubstantive
"history"isstillusedtomeanboth"whathappenedwithmen",and"thescholarlystudyofthehappened",thelatter
sensesometimesdistinguishedwithacapitalletter,"History",orthewordhistoriography.[13]

Description
Historianswriteinthecontextoftheirowntime,andwithdueregardtothe
currentdominantideasofhowtointerpretthepast,andsometimeswriteto
providelessonsfortheirownsociety.InthewordsofBenedettoCroce,
"Allhistoryiscontemporaryhistory".Historyisfacilitatedbythe
formationofa'truediscourseofpast'throughtheproductionofnarrative
andanalysisofpasteventsrelatingtothehumanrace.[17]Themodern
disciplineofhistoryisdedicatedtotheinstitutionalproductionofthis
discourse.

Alleventsthatarerememberedandpreservedinsomeauthenticform
constitutethehistoricalrecord.[18]Thetaskofhistoricaldiscourseisto
identifythesourceswhichcanmostusefullycontributetotheproductionof
accurateaccountsofpast.Therefore,theconstitutionofthehistorian's
archiveisaresultofcircumscribingamoregeneralarchivebyinvalidating
theusageofcertaintextsanddocuments(byfalsifyingtheirclaimsto
representthe'truepast').

Thestudyofhistoryhassometimesbeenclassifiedaspartofthe
ThetitlepagetoTheHistorians'
humanitiesandatothertimesaspartofthesocialsciences.[19]Itcanalso
HistoryoftheWorld
beseenasabridgebetweenthosetwobroadareas,incorporating
methodologiesfromboth.Someindividualhistoriansstronglysupportone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 3/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

ortheotherclassification.[20]Inthe20thcentury,FrenchhistorianFernandBraudelrevolutionizedthestudyof
history,byusingsuchoutsidedisciplinesaseconomics,anthropology,andgeographyinthestudyofglobal
history.

Traditionally,historianshaverecordedeventsofthepast,eitherinwritingorbypassingonanoraltradition,and
haveattemptedtoanswerhistoricalquestionsthroughthestudyofwrittendocumentsandoralaccounts.Fromthe
beginning,historianshavealsousedsuchsourcesasmonuments,inscriptions,andpictures.Ingeneral,thesources
ofhistoricalknowledgecanbeseparatedintothreecategories:whatiswritten,whatissaid,andwhatisphysically
preserved,andhistoriansoftenconsultallthree.[21]Butwritingisthemarkerthatseparateshistoryfromwhat
comesbefore.

Archaeologyisadisciplinethatisespeciallyhelpfulindealingwithburiedsitesandobjects,which,once
unearthed,contributetothestudyofhistory.Butarchaeologyrarelystandsalone.Itusesnarrativesourcesto
complementitsdiscoveries.However,archaeologyisconstitutedbyarangeofmethodologiesandapproaches
whichareindependentfromhistorythatistosay,archaeologydoesnot"fillthegaps"withintextualsources.
Indeed,"historicalarchaeology"isaspecificbranchofarchaeology,oftencontrastingitsconclusionsagainstthose
ofcontemporarytextualsources.Forexample,MarkLeone,theexcavatorandinterpreterofhistoricalAnnapolis,
Maryland,USAhassoughttounderstandthecontradictionbetweentextualdocumentsandthematerialrecord,
demonstratingthepossessionofslavesandtheinequalitiesofwealthapparentviathestudyofthetotalhistorical
environment,despitetheideologyof"liberty"inherentinwrittendocumentsatthistime.

Therearevarietiesofwaysinwhichhistorycanbeorganized,includingchronologically,culturally,territorially,
andthematically.Thesedivisionsarenotmutuallyexclusive,andsignificantoverlapsareoftenpresent,asin"The
InternationalWomen'sMovementinanAgeofTransition,18301975."Itispossibleforhistorianstoconcern
themselveswithboththeveryspecificandtheverygeneral,althoughthemoderntrendhasbeentoward
specialization.TheareacalledBigHistoryresiststhisspecialization,andsearchesforuniversalpatternsortrends.
Historyhasoftenbeenstudiedwithsomepracticalortheoreticalaim,butalsomaybestudiedoutofsimple
intellectualcuriosity.[22]

Historyandprehistory
ThehistoryoftheworldisthememoryofthepastexperienceofHomosapienssapiensaroundtheworld,asthat
experiencehasbeenpreserved,largelyinwrittenrecords.By"prehistory",historiansmeantherecoveryof
knowledgeofthepastinanareawherenowrittenrecordsexist,orwherethewritingofacultureisnotunderstood.
Bystudyingpainting,drawings,carvings,andotherartifacts,someinformationcanberecoveredeveninthe
absenceofawrittenrecord.Sincethe20thcentury,thestudyofprehistoryisconsideredessentialtoavoidhistory's
implicitexclusionofcertaincivilizations,suchasthoseofSubSaharanAfricaandpreColumbianAmerica.
HistoriansintheWesthavebeencriticizedforfocusingdisproportionatelyontheWesternworld.[23]In1961,
BritishhistorianE.H.Carrwrote:

Thelineofdemarcationbetweenprehistoricandhistoricaltimesiscrossedwhenpeopleceasetolive
onlyinthepresent,andbecomeconsciouslyinterestedbothintheirpastandintheirfuture.History
beginswiththehandingdownoftraditionandtraditionmeansthecarryingofthehabitsandlessons
ofthepastintothefuture.Recordsofthepastbegintobekeptforthebenefitoffuturegenerations.[24]

Thisdefinitionincludeswithinthescopeofhistorythestronginterestsofpeoples,suchasIndigenousAustralians
andNewZealandMoriinthepast,andtheoralrecordsmaintainedandtransmittedtosucceedinggenerations,
evenbeforetheircontactwithEuropeancivilization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 4/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

Historiography
Historiographyhasanumberofrelatedmeanings.Firstly,itcanreferto
howhistoryhasbeenproduced:thestoryofthedevelopmentof
methodologyandpractices(forexample,themovefromshortterm
biographicalnarrativetowardslongtermthematicanalysis).Secondly,it
canrefertowhathasbeenproduced:aspecificbodyofhistoricalwriting
(forexample,"medievalhistoriographyduringthe1960s"means"Worksof
medievalhistorywrittenduringthe1960s").Thirdly,itmayrefertowhy
historyisproduced:thePhilosophyofhistory.Asametalevelanalysisof
descriptionsofthepast,thisthirdconceptioncanrelatetothefirsttwoin
thattheanalysisusuallyfocusesonthenarratives,interpretations,world
view,useofevidence,ormethodofpresentationofotherhistorians.
Professionalhistoriansalsodebatethequestionofwhetherhistorycanbe
taughtasasinglecoherentnarrativeoraseriesofcompeting
narratives.[25][26]
ThetitlepagetoLaHistoriad'Italia
Philosophyofhistory
Philosophyofhistoryisabranchofphilosophyconcerningtheeventual History'sphilosophicalquestions
significance,ifany,ofhumanhistory.Furthermore,itspeculatesastoa
possibleteleologicalendtoitsdevelopmentthatis,itasksifthereisa Whatistheproperunitforthe
design,purpose,directiveprinciple,orfinalityintheprocessesofhuman studyofthehumanpastthe
history.Philosophyofhistoryshouldnotbeconfusedwith individual?Thepolis?The
historiography,whichisthestudyofhistoryasanacademicdiscipline, civilization?Theculture?Or
andthusconcernsitsmethodsandpractices,anditsdevelopmentasa thenationstate?
disciplineovertime.Norshouldphilosophyofhistorybeconfusedwith Aretherebroadpatternsand
progress?Aretherecycles?Is
thehistoryofphilosophy,whichisthestudyofthedevelopmentof
humanhistoryrandomand
philosophicalideasthroughtime.
devoidofanymeaning?

Historicalmethods
Thehistoricalmethodcomprisesthetechniquesandguidelinesbywhich
historiansuseprimarysourcesandotherevidencetoresearchandthento
writehistory.

HerodotusofHalicarnassus(484BCca.425BC)[27]hasgenerallybeen
acclaimedasthe"fatherofhistory".However,hiscontemporary
Thucydides(c.460BCca.400BC)iscreditedwithhavingfirst
approachedhistorywithawelldevelopedhistoricalmethodinhiswork
theHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar.Thucydides,unlikeHerodotus,
regardedhistoryasbeingtheproductofthechoicesandactionsofhuman
beings,andlookedatcauseandeffect,ratherthanastheresultofdivine
intervention.[27]Inhishistoricalmethod,Thucydidesemphasized
chronology,aneutralpointofview,andthatthehumanworldwasthe AdepictionoftheancientLibraryof
Alexandria
resultoftheactionsofhumanbeings.Greekhistoriansalsoviewed
Historicalmethodbasics
historyascyclical,witheventsregularlyrecurring.[28]
Thefollowingquestionsareusedby
historiansinmodernwork.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 5/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

Therewerehistoricaltraditionsandsophisticateduseofhistorical 1.Whenwasthesource,written
methodinancientandmedievalChina.Thegroundworkforprofessional orunwritten,produced(date)?
historiographyinEastAsiawasestablishedbytheHandynastycourt 2.Wherewasitproduced
historianknownasSimaQian(14590BC),authoroftheRecordsofthe (localization)?
GrandHistorian(Shiji).Forthequalityofhiswrittenwork,SimaQianis 3.Bywhomwasitproduced
posthumouslyknownastheFatherofChinesehistoriography.Chinese (authorship)?
historiansofsubsequentdynasticperiodsinChinausedhisShijiasthe 4.Fromwhatpreexisting
officialformatforhistoricaltexts,aswellasforbiographicalliterature. materialwasitproduced
(analysis)?
SaintAugustinewasinfluentialinChristianandWesternthoughtatthe 5.Inwhatoriginalformwasit
beginningofthemedievalperiod.ThroughtheMedievaland produced(integrity)?
Renaissanceperiods,historywasoftenstudiedthroughasacredor 6.Whatistheevidentialvalueof
itscontents(credibility)?
religiousperspective.Around1800,Germanphilosopherandhistorian
GeorgWilhelmFriedrichHegelbroughtphilosophyandamoresecular
Thefirstfourareknownashistorical
approachinhistoricalstudy.[22] criticismthefifth,textualcriticism
and,together,externalcriticism.The
Intheprefacetohisbook,theMuqaddimah(1377),theArabhistorian sixthandfinalinquiryaboutasource
andearlysociologist,IbnKhaldun,warnedofsevenmistakesthathe iscalledinternalcriticism.
thoughtthathistoriansregularlycommitted.Inthiscriticism,he
approachedthepastasstrangeandinneedofinterpretation.The
originalityofIbnKhaldunwastoclaimthattheculturaldifferenceof
anotheragemustgoverntheevaluationofrelevanthistoricalmaterial,todistinguishtheprinciplesaccordingto
whichitmightbepossibletoattempttheevaluation,andlastly,tofeeltheneedforexperience,inadditionto
rationalprinciples,inordertoassessacultureofthepast.IbnKhaldunoftencriticized"idlesuperstitionand
uncriticalacceptanceofhistoricaldata."Asaresult,heintroducedascientificmethodtothestudyofhistory,and
heoftenreferredtoitashis"newscience".[29]Hishistoricalmethodalsolaidthegroundworkfortheobservation
oftheroleofstate,communication,propagandaandsystematicbiasinhistory,[30]andheisthusconsideredtobe
the"fatherofhistoriography"[31][32]orthe"fatherofthephilosophyofhistory".[33]

IntheWest,historiansdevelopedmodernmethodsofhistoriographyinthe17thand18thcenturies,especiallyin
FranceandGermany.The19thcenturyhistorianwithgreatestinfluenceonmethodswasLeopoldvonRankein
Germany.

Inthe20thcentury,academichistoriansfocusedlessonepicnationalisticnarratives,whichoftentendedtoglorify
thenationorgreatmen,tomoreobjectiveandcomplexanalysesofsocialandintellectualforces.Amajortrendof
historicalmethodologyinthe20thcenturywasatendencytotreathistorymoreasasocialscienceratherthanasan
art,whichtraditionallyhadbeenthecase.Someoftheleadingadvocatesofhistoryasasocialsciencewerea
diversecollectionofscholarswhichincludedFernandBraudel,E.H.Carr,FritzFischer,EmmanuelLeRoy
Ladurie,HansUlrichWehler,BruceTrigger,MarcBloch,KarlDietrichBracher,PeterGay,RobertFogel,Lucien
FebvreandLawrenceStone.Manyoftheadvocatesofhistoryasasocialsciencewereorarenotedfortheirmulti
disciplinaryapproach.Braudelcombinedhistorywithgeography,Bracherhistorywithpoliticalscience,Fogel
historywitheconomics,Gayhistorywithpsychology,TriggerhistorywitharchaeologywhileWehler,Bloch,
Fischer,Stone,FebvreandLeRoyLaduriehaveinvaryinganddifferingwaysamalgamatedhistorywith
sociology,geography,anthropology,andeconomics.Morerecently,thefieldofdigitalhistoryhasbeguntoaddress
waysofusingcomputertechnologytoposenewquestionstohistoricaldataandgeneratedigitalscholarship.

Inoppositiontotheclaimsofhistoryasasocialscience,historianssuchasHughTrevorRoper,JohnLukacs,
DonaldCreighton,GertrudeHimmelfarbandGerhardRitterarguedthatthekeytothehistorians'workwasthe
poweroftheimagination,andhencecontendedthathistoryshouldbeunderstoodasanart.Frenchhistorians
associatedwiththeAnnalesSchoolintroducedquantitativehistory,usingrawdatatotrackthelivesoftypical
individuals,andwereprominentintheestablishmentofculturalhistory(cf.histoiredesmentalits).Intellectual
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 6/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

historianssuchasHerbertButterfield,ErnstNolteandGeorgeMossehavearguedforthesignificanceofideasin
history.Americanhistorians,motivatedbythecivilrightsera,focusedonformerlyoverlookedethnic,racial,and
socioeconomicgroups.AnothergenreofsocialhistorytoemergeinthepostWWIIerawasAlltagsgeschichte
(HistoryofEverydayLife).ScholarssuchasMartinBroszat,IanKershawandDetlevPeukertsoughttoexamine
whateverydaylifewaslikeforordinarypeoplein20thcenturyGermany,especiallyintheNaziperiod.

MarxisthistorianssuchasEricHobsbawm,E.P.Thompson,RodneyHilton,GeorgesLefebvre,EugeneGenovese,
IsaacDeutscher,C.L.R.James,TimothyMason,HerbertAptheker,ArnoJ.MayerandChristopherHillhave
soughttovalidateKarlMarx'stheoriesbyanalyzinghistoryfromaMarxistperspective.InresponsetotheMarxist
interpretationofhistory,historianssuchasFranoisFuret,RichardPipes,J.C.D.Clark,RolandMousnier,Henry
AshbyTurnerandRobertConquesthaveofferedantiMarxistinterpretationsofhistory.Feministhistorianssuchas
JoanWallachScott,ClaudiaKoonz,NatalieZemonDavis,SheilaRowbotham,GiselaBock,GerdaLerner,
ElizabethFoxGenovese,andLynnHunthavearguedfortheimportanceofstudyingtheexperienceofwomenin
thepast.Inrecentyears,postmodernistshavechallengedthevalidityandneedforthestudyofhistoryonthebasis
thatallhistoryisbasedonthepersonalinterpretationofsources.Inhis1997bookInDefenceofHistory,Richard
J.Evans,aprofessorofmodernhistoryatCambridgeUniversity,defendedtheworthofhistory.Anotherdefence
ofhistoryfrompostmodernistcriticismwastheAustralianhistorianKeithWindschuttle's1994book,TheKilling
ofHistory.

Marxiantheoryofhistory
TheMarxisttheoryofhistoricalmaterialismtheorisesthatsocietyisfundamentallydeterminedbythematerial
conditionsatanygiventimeinotherwords,therelationshipswhichpeoplehavewitheachotherinorderto
fulfillbasicneedssuchasfeeding,clothingandhousingthemselvesandtheirfamilies.[34]Overall,Marxand
EngelsclaimedtohaveidentifiedfivesuccessivestagesofthedevelopmentofthesematerialconditionsinWestern
Europe.[35]MarxisthistoriographywasonceorthodoxyintheSovietUnion,butsincethecollapseofcommunism
therein1991,MikhailKromsaysithasbeenreducedtothemarginsofscholarship.[36]

Areasofstudy
Periods
Particularstudiesandfields
Historicalstudyoftenfocusesoneventsanddevelopmentsthatoccurin
particularblocksoftime.Historiansgivetheseperiodsoftimenamesin
ordertoallow"organisingideasandclassificatorygeneralisations"tobe Theseareapproachestohistorynot
listedarehistoriesofotherfields,
usedbyhistorians.[37]Thenamesgiventoaperiodcanvarywith
suchashistoryofscience,historyof
geographicallocation,ascanthedatesofthebeginningandendofa
mathematicsandhistoryof
particularperiod.Centuriesanddecadesarecommonlyusedperiodsand
philosophy.
thetimetheyrepresentdependsonthedatingsystemused.Mostperiods
areconstructedretrospectivelyandsoreflectvaluejudgmentsmade Ancienthistory:thestudyfrom
aboutthepast.Thewayperiodsareconstructedandthenamesgivento thebeginningofhumanhistory
themcanaffectthewaytheyareviewedandstudied.[38] untiltheEarlyMiddleAges.
Atlantichistory:thestudyof
Prehistoricperiodisation thehistoryofpeoplelivingon
orneartheAtlanticOcean.
Arthistory:thestudyof
Thefieldofhistorygenerallyleavesprehistorytothearchaeologists,who
changesinandsocialcontext
haveentirelydifferentsetsoftoolsandtheories.Theusualmethodfor
ofart.
periodisationofthedistantprehistoricpast,inarchaeologyistorelyon
changesinmaterialcultureandtechnology,suchastheStoneAge,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 7/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

BronzeAgeandIronAgeandtheirsubdivisionsalsobasedondifferent Comparativehistory:historical
stylesofmaterialremains.Despitethedevelopmentoverrecentdecades analysisofsocialandcultural
oftheabilitythroughradiocarbondatingandotherscientificmethodsto entitiesnotconfinedtonational
giveactualdatesformanysitesorartefacts,theselongestablished boundaries.
schemesseemlikelytoremaininuse.Inmanycasesneighbouring Contemporaryhistory:the
cultureswithwritinghaveleftsomehistoryofcultureswithoutit,which studyofrecenthistorical
maybeused. events.
Counterfactualhistory:the
studyofhistoricaleventsas
Geographicallocations theymighthavehappenedin
differentcausalcircumstances.
Particulargeographicallocationscanformthebasisofhistoricalstudy, Culturalhistory:thestudyof
forexample,continents,countriesandcities.Understandingwhyhistoric cultureinthepast.
eventstookplaceisimportant.Todothis,historiansoftenturnto Digitalhistory:theuseof
geography.Weatherpatterns,thewatersupply,andthelandscapeofa computingtechnologiesdo
placeallaffectthelivesofthepeoplewholivethere.Forexample,to massivesearchesinpublished
explainwhytheancientEgyptiansdevelopedasuccessfulcivilization, sources.
studyingthegeographyofEgyptisessential.Egyptiancivilizationwas Economichistory:theuseof
builtonthebanksoftheNileRiver,whichfloodedeachyear,depositing economicmodelsfittedtothe
soilonitsbanks.Therichsoilcouldhelpfarmersgrowenoughcropsto past.
feedthepeopleinthecities.Thatmeanteveryonedidnothavetofarm, Intellectualhistory:thestudy
sosomepeoplecouldperformotherjobsthathelpeddevelopthe ofideasinthecontextofthe
civilization. culturesthatproducedthem
andtheirdevelopmentover
Regions time.
Maritimehistory:thestudyof
maritimetransportandallthe
HistoryofAfricabeginswiththefirstemergenceofmodernhuman connectedsubjects.
beingsonthecontinent,continuingintoitsmodernpresentasa Modernhistory:thestudyof
patchworkofdiverseandpoliticallydevelopingnationstates. theModernTimes,theeraafter
HistoryoftheAmericasisthecollectivehistoryofNorthand theMiddleAges.
SouthAmerica,includingCentralAmericaandtheCaribbean. Militaryhistory:thestudyof
HistoryofNorthAmericaisthestudyofthepastpassed warfareandwarsinhistoryand
downfromgenerationtogenerationonthecontinentinthe whatissometimesconsidered
Earth'snorthernandwesternhemisphere. tobeasubbranchofmilitary
HistoryofCentralAmericaisthestudyofthepastpassed history,Navalhistory.
downfromgenerationtogenerationonthecontinentinthe Palaeography:studyofancient
Earth'swesternhemisphere. texts.
HistoryoftheCaribbeanbeginswiththeoldestevidence People'shistory:historical
where7,000yearoldremainshavebeenfound. workfromtheperspectiveof
HistoryofSouthAmericaisthestudyofthepastpassed commonpeople.
downfromgenerationtogenerationonthecontinentinthe Politicalhistory:thestudyof
Earth'ssouthernandwesternhemisphere. politicsinthepast.
HistoryofAntarcticaemergesfromearlyWesterntheoriesofavast Psychohistory:studyofthe
continent,knownasTerraAustralis,believedtoexistinthefar psychologicalmotivationsof
southoftheglobe. historicalevents.
HistoryofAustraliastartswiththedocumentationoftheMakassar Pseudohistory:studyaboutthe
tradingwithIndigenousAustraliansonAustralia'snorthcoast. pastthatfallsoutsidethe
HistoryofNewZealanddatesbackatleast700yearstowhenit domainofmainstreamhistory
wasdiscoveredandsettledbyPolynesians,whodevelopeda (sometimesitisanequivalent
distinctMoriculturecentredonkinshiplinksandland. ofpseudoscience).
HistoryofthePacificIslandscoversthehistoryoftheislandsin Socialhistory:thestudyofthe
thePacificOcean. processofsocialchange
throughouthistory.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 8/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

HistoryofEurasiaisthecollectivehistoryofseveraldistinct Women'shistory:thehistoryof
peripheralcoastalregions:theMiddleEast,SouthAsia,EastAsia, femalehumanbeings.Gender
SoutheastAsia,andEurope,linkedbytheinteriormassofthe historyisrelatedandcoversthe
EurasiansteppeofCentralAsiaandEasternEurope. perspectiveofgender.
HistoryofEuropedescribesthepassageoftimefrom Worldhistory:thestudyof
humansinhabitingtheEuropeancontinenttothepresentday. historyfromaglobal
HistoryofAsiacanbeseenasthecollectivehistoryof perspective,withspecial
severaldistinctperipheralcoastalregions,EastAsia,South attentiontononWestern
Asia,andtheMiddleEastlinkedbytheinteriormassofthe societies.
Eurasiansteppe.
HistoryofEastAsiaisthestudyofthepastpassed
downfromgenerationtogenerationinEastAsia.
HistoryoftheMiddleEastbeginswiththeearliestcivilizationsintheregionnowknownasthe
MiddleEastthatwereestablishedaround3000BC,inMesopotamia(Iraq).
HistoryofIndiaisthestudyofthepastpasseddownfromgenerationtogenerationintheSub
Himalayanregion.
HistoryofSoutheastAsiahasbeencharacterizedasinteractionbetweenregionalplayersand
foreignpowers.

Militaryhistory

Militaryhistoryconcernswarfare,strategies,battles,weapons,andthepsychologyofcombat.The"newmilitary
history"sincethe1970shasbeenconcernedwithsoldiersmorethangenerals,withpsychologymorethantactics,
andwiththebroaderimpactofwarfareonsocietyandculture.[39]

Historyofreligion

Thehistoryofreligionhasbeenamainthemeforbothsecularandreligioushistoriansforcenturies,andcontinues
tobetaughtinseminariesandacademe.LeadingjournalsincludeChurchHistory,TheCatholicHistoricalReview,
andHistoryofReligions.Topicsrangewidelyfrompoliticalandculturalandartisticdimensions,totheologyand
liturgy.[40]Thissubjectstudiesreligionsfromallregionsandareasoftheworldwherehumanshavelived.[41]

Socialhistory

Socialhistory,sometimescalledthenewsocialhistory,isthefieldthatincludeshistoryofordinarypeopleand
theirstrategiesandinstitutionsforcopingwithlife.[42]Inits"goldenage"itwasamajorgrowthfieldinthe1960s
and1970samongscholars,andstilliswellrepresentedinhistorydepartments.Intwodecadesfrom1975to1995,
theproportionofprofessorsofhistoryinAmericanuniversitiesidentifyingwithsocialhistoryrosefrom31%to
41%,whiletheproportionofpoliticalhistoriansfellfrom40%to30%.[43]InthehistorydepartmentsofBritish
universitiesin2007,ofthe5723facultymembers,1644(29%)identifiedthemselveswithsocialhistorywhile
politicalhistorycamenextwith1425(25%).[44]The"old"socialhistorybeforethe1960swasahodgepodgeof
topicswithoutacentraltheme,anditoftenincludedpoliticalmovements,likePopulism,thatwere"social"inthe
senseofbeingoutsidetheelitesystem.Socialhistorywascontrastedwithpoliticalhistory,intellectualhistoryand
thehistoryofgreatmen.EnglishhistorianG.M.Trevelyansawitasthebridgingpointbetweeneconomicand
politicalhistory,reflectingthat,"Withoutsocialhistory,economichistoryisbarrenandpoliticalhistory
unintelligible."[45]Whilethefieldhasoftenbeenviewednegativelyashistorywiththepoliticsleftout,ithasalso
beendefendedas"historywiththepeopleputbackin."[46]

Subfields

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 9/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

Thechiefsubfieldsofsocialhistoryinclude:

Demographichistory
Historyofeducation
Ethnichistory
Historyofthefamily
Labourhistory
Ruralhistory
Urbanhistory
Americanurbanhistory
Women'shistory

Smallerspecialtiesinclude:

Historyofchildhood
Genderhistory

Culturalhistory

Culturalhistoryreplacedsocialhistoryasthedominantforminthe1980sand1990s.Ittypicallycombinesthe
approachesofanthropologyandhistorytolookatlanguage,popularculturaltraditionsandculturalinterpretations
ofhistoricalexperience.Itexaminestherecordsandnarrativedescriptionsofpastknowledge,customs,andartsof
agroupofpeople.Howpeoplesconstructedtheirmemoryofthepastisamajortopic.Culturalhistoryincludesthe
studyofartinsocietyaswellisthestudyofimagesandhumanvisualproduction(iconography).[47]

Diplomatichistory

Diplomatichistoryfocusesontherelationshipsbetweennations,primarilyregardingdiplomacyandthecausesof
wars.Morerecentlyitlooksatthecausesofpeaceandhumanrights.Ittypicallypresentstheviewpointsofthe
foreignoffice,andlongtermstrategicvalues,asthedrivingforceofcontinuityandchangeinhistory.Thistypeof
politicalhistoryisthestudyoftheconductofinternationalrelationsbetweenstatesoracrossstateboundariesover
time.HistorianMurielChamberlainnotesthataftertheFirstWorldWar,"diplomatichistoryreplaced
constitutionalhistoryastheflagshipofhistoricalinvestigation,atoncethemostimportant,mostexactandmost
sophisticatedofhistoricalstudies."[48]Sheaddsthatafter1945,thetrendreversed,allowingsocialhistoryto
replaceit.

Economichistory

Althougheconomichistoryhasbeenwellestablishedsincethelate19thcentury,inrecentyearsacademicstudies
haveshiftedmoreandmoretowardeconomicsdepartmentsandawayfromtraditionalhistorydepartments.[49]
Businesshistorydealswiththehistoryofindividualbusinessorganizations,businessmethods,government
regulation,labourrelations,andimpactonsociety.Italsoincludesbiographiesofindividualcompanies,
executives,andentrepreneurs.ItisrelatedtoeconomichistoryBusinesshistoryismostoftentaughtinbusiness
schools.[50]

Environmentalhistory

Environmentalhistoryisanewfieldthatemergedinthe1980stolookatthehistoryoftheenvironment,especially
inthelongrun,andtheimpactofhumanactivitiesuponit.[51]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 10/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

Worldhistory

Worldhistoryisthestudyofmajorcivilizationsoverthelast3000yearsorso.Worldhistoryisprimarilya
teachingfield,ratherthanaresearchfield.ItgainedpopularityintheUnitedStates,[52]Japan[53]andother
countriesafterthe1980swiththerealizationthatstudentsneedabroaderexposuretotheworldasglobalization
proceeds.

IthasledtohighlycontroversialinterpretationsbyOswaldSpenglerandArnoldJ.Toynbee,amongothers.

TheWorldHistoryAssociationpublishestheJournalofWorldHistoryeveryquartersince1990.[54]TheHWorld
discussionlist[55]servesasanetworkofcommunicationamongpractitionersofworldhistory,withdiscussions
amongscholars,announcements,syllabi,bibliographiesandbookreviews.

People'shistory

Apeople'shistoryisatypeofhistoricalworkwhichattemptstoaccountforhistoricaleventsfromtheperspective
ofcommonpeople.Apeople'shistoryisthehistoryoftheworldthatisthestoryofmassmovementsandofthe
outsiders.Individualsorgroupsnotincludedinthepastinothertypeofwritingabouthistoryaretheprimary
focus,whichincludesthedisenfranchised,theoppressed,thepoor,thenonconformists,andtheotherwiseforgotten
people.Theauthorsaretypicallyontheleftandhaveasocialistmodelinmind,asintheapproachoftheHistory
WorkshopmovementinBritaininthe1960s.[56]

Intellectualhistory

Intellectualhistoryandthehistoryofideasemergedinthemid20thcentury,withthefocusontheintellectualsand
theirbooksontheonehand,andontheotherthestudyofideasasdisembodiedobjectswithacareeroftheir
own.[57][58]

Genderhistory

GenderhistoryisasubfieldofHistoryandGenderstudies,whichlooksatthepastfromtheperspectiveofgender.
Itisinmanyways,anoutgrowthofwomen'shistory.Despiteitsrelativelyshortlife,GenderHistory(andits
forerunnerWomen'sHistory)hashadarathersignificanteffectonthegeneralstudyofhistory.Sincethe1960s,
whentheinitiallysmallfieldfirstachievedameasureofacceptance,ithasgonethroughanumberofdifferent
phases,eachwithitsownchallengesandoutcomes.Althoughsomeofthechangestothestudyofhistoryhave
beenquiteobvious,suchasincreasednumbersofbooksonfamouswomenorsimplytheadmissionofgreater
numbersofwomenintothehistoricalprofession,otherinfluencesaremoresubtle.

Publichistory

Publichistorydescribesthebroadrangeofactivitiesundertakenbypeoplewithsometraininginthedisciplineof
historywhoaregenerallyworkingoutsideofspecializedacademicsettings.Publichistorypracticehasquitedeep
rootsintheareasofhistoricpreservation,archivalscience,oralhistory,museumcuratorship,andotherrelated
fields.ThetermitselfbegantobeusedintheU.S.andCanadainthelate1970s,andthefieldhasbecome
increasinglyprofessionalizedsincethattime.Someofthemostcommonsettingsforpublichistoryaremuseums,
historichomesandhistoricsites,parks,battlefields,archives,filmandtelevisioncompanies,andalllevelsof
government.[59]

Historians
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 11/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

Professionalandamateurhistoriansdiscover,collect,organize,andpresent
informationaboutpastevents.Inlistsofhistorians,historianscanbe
groupedbyorderofthehistoricalperiodinwhichtheywerewriting,which
isnotnecessarilythesameastheperiodinwhichtheyspecialized.
Chroniclersandannalists,thoughtheyarenothistoriansinthetruesense,
arealsofrequentlyincluded.

Thejudgementofhistory
Sincethe20thcentury,Westernhistorianshavedisavowedtheaspirationto
providethe"judgementofhistory."[60]Thegoalsofhistoricaljudgements
orinterpretationsareseparatetothoseoflegaljudgements,thatneedtobe
formulatedquicklyaftertheeventsandbefinal.[61]Arelatedissuetothat
ofthejudgementofhistoryisthatofcollectivememory.

Pseudohistory
Pseudohistoryisatermappliedtotextswhichpurporttobehistoricalin BenedettoCroce
naturebutwhichdepartfromstandardhistoriographicalconventionsina
waywhichunderminestheirconclusions.Closelyrelatedtodeceptivehistoricalrevisionism,workswhichdraw
controversialconclusionsfromnew,speculative,ordisputedhistoricalevidence,particularlyinthefieldsof
national,political,military,andreligiousaffairs,areoftenrejectedaspseudohistory.

Teachinghistory
Scholarshipvsteaching

AmajorintellectualbattletookplaceinBritainintheearlytwentiethcenturyregardingtheplaceofhistory
teachingintheuniversities.AtOxfordandCambridge,scholarshipwasdownplayed.ProfessorCharlesHarding
Firth,Oxford'sRegiusProfessorofhistoryin1904ridiculedthesystemasbestsuitedtoproducesuperficial
journalists.TheOxfordtutors,whohadmorevotesthantheprofessors,foughtbackindefenceoftheirsystem
sayingthatitsuccessfullyproducedBritain'soutstandingstatesmen,administrators,prelates,anddiplomats,and
thatmissionwasasvaluableastrainingscholars.ThetutorsdominatedthedebateuntilaftertheSecondWorld
War.Itforcedaspiringyoungscholarstoteachatoutlyingschools,suchasManchesterUniversity,whereThomas
FrederickToutwasprofessionalizingtheHistoryundergraduateprogrammeatbyintroducingthestudyoforiginal
sourcesandrequiringthewritingofathesis.[62][63]

IntheUnitedStates,scholarshipwasconcentratedatthemajorPhDproducinguniversities,whilethelargenumber
ofothercollegesanduniversitiesfocusedonundergraduateteaching.Atendencyinthe21stcenturywasforthe
latterschoolstoincreasinglydemandscholarlyproductivityoftheiryoungertenuretrackfaculty.Furthermore,
universitieshaveincreasinglyreliedoninexpensiveparttimeadjunctstodomostoftheclassroomteaching.[64]

Nationalism

Fromtheoriginsofnationalschoolsystemsinthe19thcentury,theteachingofhistorytopromotenational
sentimenthasbeenahighpriority.IntheUnitedStatesafterWorldWarI,astrongmovementemergedatthe
universityleveltoteachcoursesinWesternCivilization,soastogivestudentsacommonheritagewithEurope.In

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 12/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

theU.S.after1980attentionincreasinglymovedtowardteachingworldhistoryorrequiringstudentstotake
coursesinnonwesterncultures,topreparestudentsforlifeinaglobalizedeconomy.[65]

Attheuniversitylevel,historiansdebatethequestionofwhetherhistorybelongsmoretosocialscienceortothe
humanities.Manyviewthefieldfrombothperspectives.

TheteachingofhistoryinFrenchschoolswasinfluencedbytheNouvellehistoireasdisseminatedafterthe1960s
byCahierspdagogiquesandEnseignementandotherjournalsforteachers.AlsoinfluentialwastheInstitut
nationalderechercheetdedocumentationpdagogique,(INRDP).JosephLeif,theInspectorgeneralofteacher
training,saidpupilschildrenshouldlearnabouthistorians'approachesaswellasfactsanddates.LouisFranois,
DeanoftheHistory/GeographygroupintheInspectorateofNationalEducationadvisedthatteachersshould
providehistoricdocumentsandpromote"activemethods"whichwouldgivepupils"theimmensehappinessof
discovery."Proponentssaiditwasareactionagainstthememorizationofnamesanddatesthatcharacterized
teachingandleftthestudentsbored.Traditionalistsprotestedloudlyitwasapostmoderninnovationthatthreatened
toleavetheyouthignorantofFrenchpatriotismandnationalidentity.[66]

Biasinschoolteaching

Inmostcountrieshistorytextbookaretoolstofosternationalismand
patriotism,andgivestudentstheofficiallineaboutnationalenemies.[67]

Inmanycountrieshistorytextbooksaresponsoredbythenational
governmentandarewrittentoputthenationalheritageinthemost
favourablelight.Forexample,inJapan,mentionoftheNankingMassacre
hasbeenremovedfromtextbooksandtheentireSecondWorldWaris
givencursorytreatment.Othercountrieshavecomplained.[68]Itwas
standardpolicyincommunistcountriestopresentonlyarigidMarxist Historybooksinabookstore
historiography.[69][70]

Academichistorianshaveoftenfoughtagainstthepoliticizationofthetextbooks,sometimeswithsuccess.[71][72]

In21stcenturyGermany,thehistorycurriculumiscontrolledbythe16states,andischaracterizednotby
superpatriotismbutratherbyan"almostpacifisticanddeliberatelyunpatrioticundertone"andreflects"principles
formulatedbyinternationalorganizationssuchasUNESCOortheCouncilofEurope,thusorientedtowards
humanrights,democracyandpeace."Theresultisthat"Germantextbooksusuallydownplaynationalprideand
ambitionsandaimtodevelopanunderstandingofcitizenshipcentredondemocracy,progress,humanrights,
peace,toleranceandEuropeanness."[73]

Seealso
Methods

Auxiliarysciencesofhistory
Archivalresearch
Bibliography
Computationalhistory
Listofhistoryjournals
Popularhistory

Topics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 13/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

HistoriographyofArgentina
Atlantichistory
HistoriographyofCanada
Classics
Greekhistoriography
HistoriographyofAlexandertheGreat
Romanhistoriography
HistoriographyofthefalloftheWesternRomanEmpire
HistoriographyoftheColdWar
Chinesehistoriography
HistoriographyoftheFrenchRevolution
AnnalesSchool,inFrance
HistoriographyofGermany
BielefeldSchool,inGermany
HistoriographyofearlyIslam
HistoriographyofJapan
MiddleAges
DarkAges(historiography)
HistoriographyoftheCrusades
HistoriographyofSwitzerland
HistoriographyintheSovietUnion
HistoriographyoftheUnitedStates
FrontierThesis
HistoriographyoftheUnitedKingdom
HistoriographyofScotland
HistoriographyoftheBritishEmpire
Worldhistory
HistoriographyofthecausesofWorldWarI
HistoriographyofWorldWarII

Otherthemes
Historyofthebook
Historiographyofscience
SubalternStudies,RegardingpostcolonialIndia
Whighistory,Historyportrayedasthestoryofcontinuousprogress

References
1.GeorgeSantayana,"TheLifeofReason",VolumeOne,p.82,BiblioLife,ISBN9780559478062
2.Joseph,Brian(Ed.)Janda,Richard(Ed.)(2008).TheHandbookofHistoricalLinguistics.BlackwellPublishing
(published30December2004).p.163.ISBN9781405127479.
3."HistoryDefinition"(http://archaeology.about.com/od/hterms/qt/history_definition.htm).Retrieved21January2014.
4."WhatisHistory&WhyStudyIt?"(http://www.siena.edu/pages/3289.asp).Retrieved21January2014.
5.ProfessorRichardJ.Evans(2001)."TheTwoFacesofE.H.Carr"(http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/eva
ns10.html).HistoryinFocus,Issue2:WhatisHistory?.UniversityofLondon.Retrieved10November2008.
6.ProfessorAlunMunslow(2001)."WhatHistoryIs"(http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Focus/Whatishistory/munslow6.html).
HistoryinFocus,Issue2:WhatisHistory?.UniversityofLondon.Retrieved10November2008.
7.Tosh,John(2006).ThePursuitofHistory(4thed.).PearsonEducationLimited.ISBN1405823518.p52
8.PeterN.StearnsPetersSeixasSamWineburg,eds.(2000)."Introduction".KnowingTeachingandLearningHistory,
NationalandInternationalPerspectives.NewYork&London:NewYorkUniversityPress.p.6.ISBN0814781411.
9.Nashl,GaryB.(2000)."The"Convergence"ParadigminStudyingEarlyAmericanHistoryinSchools".InPeterN.
StearnsPetersSeixasSamWineburg(eds.).KnowingTeachingandLearningHistory,NationalandInternational
Perspectives.NewYork&London:NewYorkUniversityPress.pp.102115.ISBN0814781411.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 14/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

10.Seixas,Peter(2000)."Schweigen!dieKinder!".InPeterN.StearnsPetersSeixasSamWineburg(eds.).Knowing
TeachingandLearningHistory,NationalandInternationalPerspectives.NewYork&London:NewYorkUniversity
Press.p.24.ISBN0814781411.
11.Lowenthal,David(2000)."DilemmasandDelightsofLearningHistory".InPeterN.StearnsPetersSeixasSam
Wineburg(eds.).KnowingTeachingandLearningHistory,NationalandInternationalPerspectives.NewYork&
London:NewYorkUniversityPress.p.63.ISBN0814781411.
12.(http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=i(stori/a)
13.FerraterMora,Jos.DiccionariodeFilosofia.Barcelona:EditorialAriel,1994.
14."history,n."OEDOnline.OxfordUniversityPress,December2014.Web.9March2015.
15.Cf."history,n."OEDOnline.OxfordUniversityPress,December2014.Web.9March2015.
16.Whitney,W.D.TheCenturydictionaryanencyclopediclexiconoftheEnglishlanguage(https://books.google.com/book
s?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ).NewYork:TheCenturyCo,1889.
17.W.D.Whitney,(1889).TheCenturydictionaryanencyclopediclexiconoftheEnglishlanguage(https://books.google.co
m/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ).Page2842(https://books.google.com/books?id=wrACAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover
#PPA2842,M1).
18.WordNetSearch3.0(http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn)Archived(https://web.archive.org/web/2005091706553
2/http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn)17September2005attheWaybackMachine.,"History".
19.ScottGordonandJamesGordonIrving,TheHistoryandPhilosophyofSocialScience.Routledge1991.Page1.ISBN0
415056829
20.Ritter,H.(1986).Dictionaryofconceptsinhistory.Referencesourcesforthesocialsciencesandhumanities,no.3.
Westport,Conn:GreenwoodPress.Page416.
21.MichaelC.Lemon(1995).TheDisciplineofHistoryandtheHistoryofThought.Routledge.Page201.ISBN0415
123461
22.Graham,Gordon(1997)."Chapter1".TheShapeofthePast.UniversityofOxford.
23.JackGoody(2007)TheTheftofHistory(https://books.google.com/books?id=jo1UVi48KywC&pg=RA2PA1930&dq=Ja
ck+Goody+2007&sig=g0N7ZF9nz_Uy8nrQTiGdsc0N3sI#PPA12,M1)(fromGoogleBooks)
24.Carr,EdwardH.(1961).WhatisHistory?,p.108,ISBN0140206523
25.ErnstBreisach,Historiography:Ancient,medieval,andmodern(UniversityofChicagoPress,2007).
26.GeorgG.Iggers,Historiographyinthetwentiethcentury:Fromscientificobjectivitytothepostmodernchallenge(2005).
27.LambergKarlovsky,C.C.JeremyA.Sabloff(1979).AncientCivilizations:TheNearEastandMesoamerica.
BenjaminCummingsPublishing.p.5.ISBN0881338346.
28.LambergKarlovsky,C.C.JeremyA.Sabloff(1979).AncientCivilizations:TheNearEastandMesoamerica.
BenjaminCummingsPublishing.p.6.ISBN0881338346.
29.IbnKhaldun,FranzRosenthal,N.J.Dawood(1967),TheMuqaddimah:AnIntroductiontoHistory,p.x,Princeton
UniversityPress,ISBN0691017549.
30.H.Mowlana(2001)."InformationintheArabWorld",CooperationSouthJournal1.
31.SalahuddinAhmed(1999).ADictionaryofMuslimNames.C.Hurst&Co.Publishers.ISBN1850653569.
32.Enan,MuhammedAbdullah(2007).IbnKhaldun:HisLifeandWorks.TheOtherPress.p.v.ISBN9839541536.
33.Dr.S.W.Akhtar(1997)."TheIslamicConceptofKnowledge",AlTawhid:AQuarterlyJournalofIslamicThought&
Culture12(3).
34.See,inparticular,MarxandEngels,TheGermanIdeology(http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/germanid
eology/)
35.Marxmakesnoclaimtohaveproducedamasterkeytohistory.Historicalmaterialismisnot"anhistoricophilosophic
theoryofthemarchegeneraleimposedbyfateuponeverypeople,whateverthehistoriccircumstancesinwhichitfinds
itself"(Marx,Karl:LettertoeditoroftheRussianpaperOtetchestvennyeZapiskym,1877).Hisideas,heexplains,are
basedonaconcretestudyoftheactualconditionsthatpertainedinEurope.
36.MikhailM.Krom,"FromtheCentertotheMargin:theFateofMarxisminContemporaryRussianHistoriography,"
StoriadellaStoriografia(2012)Issue62,pp121130
37.Marwick,Arthur(1970).TheNatureofHistory.TheMacmillanPressLTD.p.169.
38.Tosh,John(2006).ThePursuitofHistory.PearsonEducationLimited.pp.168169.
39.Pavkovic,MichaelMorillo,Stephen(2006).WhatisMilitaryHistory?.Oxford:PolityPress(published31July2006).
pp.34.ISBN9780745633909.
40.Cochrane,Eric(1975)."WhatIsCatholicHistoriography?".CatholicHistoricalReview.61(2):169190.
JSTOR25019673(https://www.jstor.org/stable/25019673).
41.ForexampleseeGajano,SofiaBoeschCali,Tommaso(1998)."ItalianReligiousHistoriographyinthe1990s".Journal
ofModernItalianStudies.3(3):293306.
42.PeterStearns,ed.EncyclopediaofSocialHistory(1994)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 15/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

43.Diplomaticdroppedfrom5%to3%,economichistoryfrom7%to5%,andculturalhistorygrewfrom14%to16%.
BasedonfulltimeprofessorsinU.S.historydepartments.StephenH.Haber,DavidM.Kennedy,andStephenD.
Krasner,"BrothersundertheSkin:DiplomaticHistoryandInternationalRelations,"InternationalSecurity,Vol.22,No.
1(Summer,1997),pp.3443atp.42onlineatJSTOR(http://www.jstor.org/stable/2539326)
44.TeachersofHistoryintheUniversitiesoftheUK2007listedbyresearchinterest(http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resourc
es/Teachers/a27.html)
45.G.M.Trevelyan(1973)."Introduction".EnglishSocialHistory:ASurveyofSixCenturiesfromChaucertoQueen
Victoria.BookClubAssociates.p.i.ISBN058248488X.
46.MaryFulbrook(2005)."Introduction:Thepeople'sparadox".ThePeople'sState:EastGermanSocietyfromHitlerto
Honecker.London:YaleUniversityPress.p.17.ISBN9780300144246.
47.ThefirstWorldDictionaryofImages:LaurentGervereau(ed.),"Dictionnairemondialdesimages",Paris,Nouveau
monde,2006,1120p,ISBN9782847361858.(with275specialistsfromallcontinents,allspecialities,allperiods
fromPrehistorytonowadays)LaurentGervereau,"Images,unehistoiremondiale",Paris,Nouveaumonde,2008,272p.,
ISBN9782847363623
48.MurielEChamberlain,PaxBritannica'?BritishForeignPolicy17891914(1988)p1
49.RobertWhaples,"IsEconomicHistoryaNeglectedFieldofStudy?,"HistoricallySpeaking(April2010)v.11#2pp17
20,withresponsespp2027
50.FrancoAmatori,andGeoffreyJones,eds.BusinessHistoryAroundtheWorld(2003)onlineedition(http://www.questia.c
om/read/114846992)
51.J.D.Hughes,WhatisEnvironmentalHistory(2006)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/WhatEnvironment
alHistory/dp/0745631886/)
52.AinslieEmbreeandCarolGluck,eds.,AsiainWesternandWorldHistory:AGuideforTeaching(M.E.Sharpe,1997)
53.ShigeruAkita,"WorldHistoryandtheEmergenceofGlobalHistoryinJapan,"ChineseStudiesinHistory,Spring2010,
Vol.43Issue3,pp8496
54.http://www.historycooperative.org/jwhindex.html
55.http://www.hnet.org/~world/
56.WadeMatthews(2013).TheNewLeft,NationalIdentity,andtheBreakupofBritain(https://books.google.com/books?id
=lfmZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA20).BRILL.pp.2021.
57.Grafton,Anthony(2006)."TheHistoryofIdeas:PreceptandPractice,19502000andbeyond"(http://sydney.edu.au/intel
lectualhistory/documents/graftonhistoryideas.pdf)(PDF).JournaloftheHistoryofIdeas.67(1):132.
58.Horowitz,MaryanneCline,ed.(2004).NewDictionaryoftheHistoryofIdeas.6.
59.DavidGlassberg,"Publichistoryandthestudyofmemory."ThePublicHistorian(1996):723.inJSTOR(http://www.js
tor.org/stable/3377910)
60.Curran,VivianGrosswald(2000)HerderandtheHolocaust:ADebateAboutDifferenceandDeterminismintheContext
ofComparativeLawinF.C.DeCoste,BernardSchwartz(eds.)Holocaust'sGhost:WritingsonArt,Politics,Lawand
Educationpp.4135(https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA413&lpg=PA413)
61.Curran,VivianGrosswald(2000)HerderandtheHolocaust:ADebateAboutDifferenceandDeterminismintheContext
ofComparativeLawinF.C.DeCoste,BernardSchwartz(eds.)Holocaust'sGhost:WritingsonArt,Politics,Lawand
Educationp.415(https://books.google.com/books?id=lLnBSq7YP0gC&pg=PA415&lpg=PA415)
62.IvanRoots,"Firth,SirCharlesHarding(18571936)",OxfordDictionaryofNationalBiography(OxfordUniversity
Press,2004)Onlineaccessed10Nov2014(http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/33137,)
63.RebaSoffer,"Nation,duty,characterandconfidence:historyatOxford,18501914."HistoricalJournal(1987)30#01
pp:77104.
64.FrankDonoghue,TheLastProfessors:TheCorporateUniversityandtheFateoftheHumanities(2008)
65.JacquelineSwansinger,"PreparingStudentTeachersforaWorldHistoryCurriculuminNewYork,"HistoryTeacher,
(November2009),43#1pp8796
66.AbbyWaldman,"ThePoliticsofHistoryTeachinginEnglandandFranceduringthe1980s,"HistoryWorkshopJournal
Issue68,Autumn2009pp.199221online(http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/v068/68.waldman.ht
ml)
67.JasonNicholls,ed.SchoolHistoryTextbooksacrossCultures:InternationalDebatesandPerspectives(2006)
68.ClaudiaSchneider,"TheJapaneseHistoryTextbookControversyinEastAsianPerspective,"AnnalsoftheAmerican
AcademyofPoliticalandSocialScience,May2008,Vol.617,pp107122
69."ProblemsofTeachingContemporaryRussianHistory,"RussianStudiesinHistory,Winter2004,Vol.43Issue3,pp61
62
70."BlackwellSynergy.com"(http://www.blackwellsynergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.14682346.2008.00708.x?cookieSet=1).
BlackwellSynergy.com.Retrieved20100516.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 16/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

71."TeachingHistoryinSchools:thePoliticsofTextbooksinIndia,"HistoryWorkshopJournal,April2009,Issue67,pp
99110
72.TatyanaVolodina,"TeachingHistoryinRussiaAftertheCollapseoftheUSSR,"HistoryTeacher,February2005,Vol.
38Issue2,pp179188
73.SimoneLssigandKarlHeinrichPohl,"HistoryTextbooksandHistoricalScholarshipinGermany,"HistoryWorkshop
JournalIssue67,Spring2009pp1289onlineatprojectMUSE(http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/history_workshop_journal/
v067/67.lassig.html)

Furtherreading
TheAmericanHistoricalAssociation'sGuidetoHistoricalLiterature,3rded.,eds.MaryBethNortonand
PamelaGerardi(2vol,OxfordU.P.1995)2064pagesannotatedguideto27,000ofthemostimportant
Englishlanguagehistorybooksinallfieldsandtopics
Benjamin,JulesR.AStudent'sGuidetoHistory(2009)
Carr,E.H.,withanewintroductionbyRichardJ.Evans.WhatisHistory?Basingstoke:PalgraveMacmillan,
2001,ISBN0333977017.
Cronon,William."Storytelling."AmericanHistoricalReview118.1(2013):119.online(http://www.willia
mcronon.net/ahawritings.htm),DiscussionoftheimpactoftheendoftheColdWaruponscholarlyresearch
funding,theimpactoftheInternetandWikipediaonhistorystudyandteaching,andtheimportanceof
storytellinginhistorywritingandteaching.
Evans,RichardJ.InDefenceofHistory.W.W.Norton&Company(2000),ISBN0393319598.
Furay,Conal,andMichaelJ.Salevouris.TheMethodsandSkillsofHistory:APracticalGuide(2010)
Kelleher,William.WritingHistory:AGuideforStudents(2008)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazo
n.com/dp/0195337557/)
*Lingelbach,Gabriele."TheInstitutionalizationandProfessionalizationofHistoryinEuropeandthe
UnitedStates."inTheOxfordHistoryofHistoricalWriting:Volume4:180019454(2011):78+online(http
s://books.google.com/books?id=xVrwFT6zAFoC&pg=PA78)
Presnell,JennyL.TheInformationLiterateHistorian:AGuidetoResearchforHistoryStudents(2006)
excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195176510/)
Tosh,JohnThePursuitofHistory(2006),ISBN1405823518.
WoolfD.R.AGlobalEncyclopediaofHistoricalWriting(GarlandReferenceLibraryoftheHumanities)(2
vol1998)excerptandtextsearch(http://www.amazon.com/EncyclopediaHistoricalWritingReferenceHu
manities/dp/0815315147/)
Williams,H.S.(1907).Thehistorians'historyoftheworld(https://books.google.com/books?id=g5sFAAAA
IAAJ).(ed.,ThisisBook1of25VolumesPDFversionisavailable(https://books.google.com/books/pdf/Th
e_Historians__History_of_the_World.pdf?id=g5sFAAAAIAAJ&output=pdf&sig=fg_jzCIwiXQiuqVE7Q_ci
y4ulok))

Externallinks
Besthistorysites.net(http://www.besthistorysites.net/)
BBCHistorySite(http://www.bbc.co.uk/history)
InternetHistorySourcebooksProject(http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/)SeealsoInternetHistory
SourcebooksProject.Collectionsofpublicdomainandcopypermittedhistoricaltextsforeducationaluse
TheHistoryChannelOnline(http://www.history.com)
HistoryChannelUK(http://www.history.co.uk)

Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History&oldid=785615253"

Categories: History Humanities

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 17/18
6/19/2017 HistoryWikipedia

Thispagewaslasteditedon14June2017,at14:01.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionaltermsmayapply.
Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisaregisteredtrademark
oftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History 18/18