Safety Considerations in a Combined Cycle Plant

The development of a work culture focused on safety is one of the most important
elements to successful operation of any power plant, including combined cycle power
plant.  Without the establishment of a culture of safety, there is always the potential
for everyday accidents to turn into   fatal accidents.  Most incidents can be avoided. 
Unfortunately, often times, issues in safety are not addressed until after there has
already been an accident.

Both new power plant employees and seasoned personnel can benefit from this course
which focuses on safety hazards prevalent in a combined cycle power plant.  The
course will provide attendees with an understanding of typical hazards and how to
avoid them, as well as a more in-depth understanding of not only the importance of
simple safety procedures, like lock out/tag out, but what these terms really mean and
why they are so important.  By using actual examples, attendees will gain a better
understanding of the importance of safety in the workplace for themselves and their
co-workers.

Learning Outcomes

 Discuss the importance of a culture of safety

 Review basic combined cycle power plant equipment
 Discuss how safety processes work
 Gain exposure to safety procedures
 Discuss past industry experiences
 Review safety hazards in the combined cycle power plant, including, electrical
safety, mechanical safety, and chemical hazards
 Explain the importance of reporting and documenting

SAFETY
Engaged, effective leadership critical to well-being of plant staff, contractors

Safety has taken center stage in the electric power industry. It is now one of the top
three discussion topics at virtually all user-group meetings serving gas-turbine (GT)
owner/operators. Another way to gauge the industry’s safety consciousness is to visit
www.ccj-online.com and compare the number of safety and O&M entries in the
COMBINED CYCLE Journal’s Best Practices Awards program this year with those
from five years ago. In 2008 there were more than twice as many entries in the O&M
category than there were in safety; this year, there were one-quarter more safety
entries than O&M.

   The open discussion sessions at the annual HRSG User’s Group meeting focus
strictly on the technical aspects of heat-recovery steam generators, leaving safety off
the main program. But with upwards of half the user attendees first-timers, many of
whom are new to the industry and may not be aware of how just how seriously plant
managers view safe work practices, Chairman Bob Anderson worked a primer on the
subject into the Maintenance Workshop conducted the day before the “main event”
last February 28-29 at the Hilton Americas in Houston, Tex.

   Anderson, a principal at Florida-based Competitive Power Resources Corp and

former plant manager at Progress Energy steam and combined-cycle plants, was the
right person to handle this assignment. His goal was “awareness,” not to conduct a
safety course. He told the editors he would have been surprised if industry veterans
didn’t know almost all of the safety dos and don’ts included in his presentation,
“Identifying—and Avoiding—Combined-Cycle Hazards,” but believed his common-
sense approach to safety would be of value to the “recruits.”

Developing a safety culture

Anderson began by telling the group of about a hundred users that building and
nurturing a safety culture is a prerequisite for operating and maintaining a safe plant.
He defined “safety culture” as a constant commitment to safety that permeates the
entire organization. But while this is an essential step, he continued, it is only one of
several.

   Another essential step: Identify the real-world hazards present in the plant and
implement practical procedures to avoid them. Anderson said that based on his
experience, the specifics of these procedures are best managed at the plant level, not
by safety professionals at headquarters. This is particularly challenging at thinly
staffed combined-cycle plants, he added, where the onsite safety leader usually has
multiple responsibilities.

   Other safety challenges at combined-cycle plants may include inexperienced

personnel and a heavy reliance on contractors. Many technicians and operators come
from other industries and are generally unfamiliar with powerplant operations,
Anderson said. Plus, with the typical combined-cycle complement numbering two
dozen or fewer personnel, you don’t have the relevant expertise on staff to handle
anything much beyond routine maintenance.
   Odds are contractors will be unfamiliar with your plant and its safety best practices
and may require comprehensive indoctrination for certain assignments, as well as
continuous oversight by plant employees.

 Categories of hazards

To discuss the specific hazards found in combined-cycle plants in an organized

manner, Anderson sorted them into these five categories:

 Hazards created by “merely moving around.”

 Uncontrolled release of fluids.
 Controlled release of fluids.
 Hazards during normal plant configurations.
 Hazards during abnormal plant configurations.

   “Merely moving around” hazards include trips, falls, burns, chemical inhalation,

eye contamination, hearing damage, etc. They are the easiest hazards to avoid,
through conscientious use of hard hats, eye and ear protection, respiratory gear,
proper footwear, gloves, good housekeeping, good lighting, etc. Unfortunately,
Anderson noted, these are the hazards that also are the easiest to overlook because
you walk by them daily and become complacent about the dangers they pose.

   Because such hazards often are hard for site personnel to identify because
“everything looks normal,” plant managers may use the buddy system for auditing.
This is how it works: Plant A sends three or four of its most safety-conscious
employees to Plant B—and vice versa—to conduct an audit with a “fresh eye.”
Sharing of ideas and experiences is especially productive.

  The hazard in this first category with, perhaps, the most lethal potential is the
confined space. Moving into such areas as HRSG casings, steam drums, condenser
steam side, etc, before they are properly vetted can lead to serious injury or death. In
particular, the confined-space atmosphere must be checked to assure sufficient
oxygen to support life and the absence of poisonous/explosive gases.

   The photos distributed throughout this article illustrate ways plants are mitigating
“merely moving around” hazards. The generating plants identified received Best
Practices Awards within the last three years for sharing their ideas with the global
community of gas-turbine users. You can access many more safety best practices by
using the search function available at www.ccj-online.com.

    Uncontrolled release of fluids.  Combined-cycle plants require the movement of

large quantities of combustion air, steam, exhaust gas, fuel gas, oil, and water. Most
often, these fluids contain high levels of energy because of their mass flow rates,
pressures, and/or temperatures. Thus their uncontrolled release presents a significant
safety hazard to onsite personnel.

   Anderson said the most common source of uncontrolled fluid release is a pressure-
boundary breach caused by material failure. Typically, the fluid release is sudden,
violent, noisy, and accompanied by substantial movement of equipment and structural
components.

   Those in the immediate area of an uncontrolled release, he continued, can be injured

or killed by asphyxiation, burning, scalding, falling, or being struck by flying debris.
Injuries also have occurred while the startled worker is franticly trying to escape the
area.

   Shifting into high gear, Anderson appeared to have the group’s undivided attention.
“Although we cannot precisely predict when an uncontrolled energy release might
occur,” he said, “we can precisely predict  where.  As plant leaders we need to
identify the specific locations in our facilities that are most vulnerable and take steps
to minimize personnel risk. All employees and contractors should be made aware of
these areas so they can avoid them when possible and be mindful of a safe means of
egress whenever they need to work there.

   High-energy steam piping was one of the areas of concern mentioned by the former
plant manager. He had a special respect for joints where dissimilar metals or P91
materials are welded, noting that both the P91 material and its welding are intolerant
of any deviation from proper thermal treatment. If you see steam or condensate
escaping from a pipe’s lagging, Anderson said, “Leave the area and report your
finding to the control room immediately.” An immediate precautionary shutdown is in
order. Do not remove insulation to investigate the leak while the pipe is still
pressurized.
   The speaker mentioned several other places where uncontrolled releases of steam
might occur in quick succession. When he got to steam-drum manway gaskets, he
paused. Many plants continue to suffer gasket failures, Anderson noted, and continue
to experiment with different solutions. “But this is a serious safety problem and no
place for a trial-and-error approach. The manway door and the gasket, together,
comprise an engineered system that must be properly designed, operated, and
maintained according to the OEM’s specifications.

   Steam is not the only dangerous fluid, Anderson said, shifting gears. Uncontrolled
releases of hot gases also present serious hazards, he said. Specific locations where
vigilance is necessary include the following:

 GT exhaust duct/HRSG expansion joints, which protect against the release

of exhaust gas at temperatures up to 1200F.
 Duct penetration seals.
 Flanges, valves, fittings, and heat exchangers—especially in the fuel gas
system, where temperatures may be 350F and pressures 700 psig.
 Gas-turbine flanges, expansion joints, valves, and fittings. Example:
Compressor bleed air may reach temperatures up to about 700F.
 Exhaust stack drains, which could release flue gas at up to about 300F
during normal operation, higher temperatures during startup.    

   Don’t forget, too, the speaker went on, that uncontrolled releases of seemingly
harmless fluids like compressed air and water can cause injury. Examples: Debris sent
airborne by the sudden release of a fluid, the whipping action of an unsecured
compressed-air hose, flashing of pressurized high-temperature water when the
pressure boundary is compromised, etc.

   Controlled releases of fluids also are of concern. They may be sudden and

unanticipated, as with the lifting of safety-relief valves; or planned, as with the
opening of vents and drains. Either can pose a safety hazard because the actual point
of fluid release typically is far from the actual valve or vent.

 
   A contractor may be standing near the safety-relief discharge, unaware that a steam-
pressure excursion is about to cause an automatic lifting of that valve. Or a plant
operator manually opening vent valves may not know that a mechanic happens to be
tackling an unrelated maintenance job, right near that vent’s discharge point.

   Safety-relief valves pose yet another concern. They often are surrounded by a large
cloud of steam, hot water, and debris because of the inherent gaps in the valve upper
body, discharge nozzle, and vent/stack connection. If such a cloud envelops a nearby
walkway, a normal egress route might be blocked.

   As with an uncontrolled release of fluids discussed previously, you can reduce the
risks associated with controlled releases by identifying the specific locations in your
plant that are most vulnerable and making them well known to staff and contractor
personnel.

    Normal plant configurations. Plant systems typically are lined-up in one of a

handful of normal, well-understood configurations. This facilitates such plant
operations as GT ignition and loading, steam system warm-up and loading, plant
shutdown, and overnight layup. As the plant O&M team gains experience, it naturally
becomes competent and comfortable with the normal configurations and procedures.

   However, Anderson said, as a person with supervisory responsibilities, you must

ensure that the staff’s comfort zone does not expand into complacency because there
are many hazards associated with a normal plant configuration.

   For example, many components are energized automatically by the control system
or remotely by a control-room operator challenged by time constraints and revenue
goals. Although intentional, the sudden actuation of valves, pumps, turbine shafts, and
compressors can injure personnel near the equipment who are caught unaware.
Components may actuate unintentionally as well because of equipment malfunction or
operator error.

   Both intentional and unintentional events often produce startlingly loud noise,
which can cause permanent hearing loss to an unprotected worker or plant visitor.
Hazards attributed to equipment failure or operator error include:

 Water hammer, which can initiate pipe or structure movement, sudden

noise, flying or falling debris, release of fluids, etc.
 Gas-path explosions caused by inadequate engine purge also is
characterized by sudden noise. Other hazards include the release of
exhaust gas, distortion of ductwork and structural members, expansion-
joint and penetration-seal failures, flying debris.
 Metal-clad switchgear failure is characterized by sudden noise, arc burn,
flying molten metal, flying debris. Personnel should minimize the time
they spend near this equipment, Anderson warned, and never attempt to
close the switchgear on a load using the local controls on the front of the
breaker enclosure.

   Abnormal plant configurations.  A powerplant typically is most hazardous when

plant systems or personnel are in an abnormal configuration. During these times, the
valve and equipment line-ups are generally unfamiliar to the plant staff, and also
extremely complicated—creating conditions ripe for mishap—such as chemical
releases, environmental spills, etc.

   A hazard of abnormal plant configurations is the need to sometimes connect piping

and equipment rated for different pressures. Equipment failure or inappropriate
operation of these interconnections can quickly cause over-pressurization and
catastrophic failure of the lower-pressure system. Examples here include auxiliary
steam ties between units and ties among high-, intermediate-, and low-pressure boiler
drains.

   Anderson closed with several examples of abnormal plant configurations that have
serious safety implications, requiring careful consideration and special procedures to
prevent injury to plant and/or contractor personnel. They are:

 HRSG gas-path inspection with a nitrogen blanket on the steam side.

Rigorous confined-space (gas side) air monitoring is important because
an unknown tube leak could allow nitrogen to fill the lower gas-path
spaces.
 Unusual rigging and lifting during major outages demands that your staff
and contractor personnel take exclusion barricades seriously. Rotors have
been known to drop. Also, before you install exclusion barricades, make
sure all workers inside the barricaded area are escorted outside the
barricades. Yes, there have been instances where people have been
“barricaded in.”
 Chemical cleaning of an HRSG demands a special safety review. With so
much temporary piping, valves, heaters, and pumps, there’s a significant
risk of hot chemical leaks or spills.
 Repairing or replacing piping system components and welds opens a
Pandora’s box of safety issues, including high elevation or difficult access,
additional risk of fire, additional risk of trips and falls because of cables
and hoses for burning, welding, heat treating, etc.
 Reports of extreme weather conditions must always be taken seriously.
High winds, rain or snow, ice, and extreme temperatures greatly increase
the risks of slips and falls, risks from flying debris, risks of extreme
worker fatigue, etc.

   Leaving the podium, Anderson reminded the group that safety is a never-ending
battle fought day-in and day-out. Ultimately, he said, it is your engaged and effective
leadership that assures the well-being of all persons inside the plant fence, not
corporate programs, catchy slogans, or cute posters hanging in the break room. CCJ

 
Gas Turbine for Power Generation: Introduction
The use of gas turbines for generating electricity dates back to 1939. Today, gas
turbines are one of the most widely-used power generating technologies. Gas turbines
are a type of internal combustion (IC) engine in which burning of an air-fuel mixture
produces hot gases that spin a turbine to produce power. It is the production of hot gas
during fuel combustion, not the fuel itself that the gives gas turbines the name. Gas
turbines can utilize a variety of fuels, including natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic
fuels. Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as opposed to reciprocating IC
engines, in which combustion occurs intermittently.

How Do Gas Turbines Work?

Gas turbines are comprised of three primary sections mounted on the same shaft: the
compressor, the combustion chamber (or combustor) and the turbine. The compressor
can be either axial flow or centrifugal flow. Axial flow compressors are more
common in power generation because they have higher flow rates and efficiencies.
Axial flow compressors are comprised of multiple stages of rotating and stationary
blades (or stators) through which air is drawn in parallel to the axis of rotation and
incrementally compressed as it passes through each stage. The acceleration of the air
through the rotating blades and diffusion by the stators increases the pressure and
reduces the volume of the air. Although no heat is added, the compression of the air
also causes the temperature to increase.

The compressed air is mixed with fuel injected through nozzles. The fuel and
compressed air can be pre-mixed or the compressed air can be introduced
directly into the combustor. The fuel-air mixture ignites under constant pressure
conditions and the hot combustion products (gases) are directed through the
turbine where it expands rapidly and imparts rotation to the shaft. The turbine is
also comprised of stages, each with a row of stationary blades (or nozzles) to
direct the expanding gases followed by a row of moving blades. The rotation of
the shaft drives the compressor to draw in and compress more air to sustain
continuous combustion. The remaining shaft power is used to drive a generator
which produces electricity. Approximately 55 to 65 percent of the power
produced by the turbine is used to drive the compressor. To optimize the
transfer of kinetic energy from the combustion gases to shaft rotation, gas
turbines can have multiple compressor and turbine stages.

Alstom GT24/GT26 Gas Turbine (Image credit: Alstom)

Because the compressor must reach a certain speed before the combustion process is
continuous – or self-sustaining – initial momentum is imparted to the turbine rotor
from an external motor, static frequency converter, or the generator itself. The
compressor must be smoothly accelerated and reach firing speed before fuel can be
introduced and ignition can occur. Turbine speeds vary widely by manufacturer and
design, ranging from 2,000 revolutions per minute (rpm) to 10,000 rpm. Initial
ignition occurs from one or more spark plugs (depending on combustor design). Once
the turbine reaches self-sustaining speed – above 50% of full speed – the power
output is enough to drive the compressor, combustion is continuous, and the starter
system can be disengaged.

Gas Turbine Performance

The thermodynamic process used in gas turbines is the Brayton cycle. Two significant
performance parameters are the pressure ratio and the firing temperature. The fuel-to-
power efficiency of the engine is optimized by increasing the difference (or ratio)
between the compressor discharge pressure and inlet air pressure. This compression
ratio is dependent on the design. Gas turbines for power generation can be either
industrial (heavy frame) or aeroderivative designs. Industrial gas turbines are
designed for stationary applications and have lower pressure ratios – typically up to
18:1. Aeroderivative gas turbines are lighter weight compact engines adapted from
aircraft jet engine design which operate at higher compression ratios – up to 30:1.
They offer higher fuel efficiency and lower emissions, but are smaller and have higher
initial (capital) costs. Aeroderivative gas turbines are more sensitive to the compressor
inlet temperature.

The temperature at which the turbine operates (firing temperature) also impacts
efficiency, with higher temperatures leading to higher efficiency. However, turbine
inlet temperature is limited by the thermal conditions that can be tolerated by the
turbine blade metal alloy. Gas temperatures at the turbine inlet can be 1200ºC to
1400ºC, but some manufacturers have boosted inlet temperatures as high as
1600ºC by engineering blade coatings and cooling systems to protect metallurgical
components from thermal damage.

Because of the power required to drive the compressor, energy conversion efficiency
for a simple cycle gas turbine power plant is typically about 30 percent, with even the
most efficient designs limited to 40 percent. A large amount of heat remains in the
exhaust gas, which is around 600ºC as it leaves the turbine. By recovering that waste
heat to produce more useful work in a combined cycle configuration, gas turbine
power plant efficiency can reach 55 to 60 percent. However, there are operational
limitations associated with operating gas turbines in combined cycle mode, including
longer startup time, purge requirements to prevent fires or explosions, and ramp rate
to full load.

Combustion Engine for Power Generation: Introduction

Combustion engines are a well-known technology used in automobiles, trucks,
construction equipment, marine propulsion, and backup power applications.
Combustion engines employ the expansion of hot gases to push a piston within a
cylinder, converting the linear movement of the piston into the rotating movement of
a crankshaft to generate power. While the steam engines that powered the industrial
revolution were driven by externally-produced steam, modern combustion engines
used for electric power generation are internal combustion engines in which an air-
fuel mixture is compressed by a piston and ignited within a cylinder. Reciprocating
internal combustion (IC) engines are characterized by the type of combustion: spark-
ignited (SG) or compression-ignited, also known as diesel.

The SG engine is based on the Otto cycle, and uses a spark plug to ignite an air-fuel
mixture injected at the top of a cylinder. In the Otto cycle, the fuel mixture does not
get hot enough to burn without a spark, which differentiates it from the Diesel cycle.
In diesel engines, air is compressed until the temperature rises to the auto-ignition
temperature of the fuel. As the fuel is injected into the cylinder, it immediately
combusts with the hot compressed air and expanding combustion gases push the
piston to the bottom of the cylinder.

Engine Operation
Each movement of the piston within a cylinder is called a stroke. Reciprocating IC
engines are described by the number of strokes to complete one power cycle and the
speed of crankshaft (expressed in revolutions per minute, rpm). For electric power
generation, four-stroke engines are predominately used. During the intake stroke, the
premixed air and fuel (SG engines) or air (diesel engines) is drawn into the cylinder as
the piston moves down to “bottom dead center” position. During the compression
stroke in SG engines, the air-fuel mixture is compressed by the piston and ignited by a
spark from a plug. Auto-ignition in SG engines is prevented with proper limits on the
compression ratio.

Spark-ignited combustion engine during compression stroke

In diesel engines, the fuel is injected into the cylinder near the end of the compression
stroke when the air has been compressed enough to reach the auto-ignition
temperature. Combustion of the air-fuel mixture causes an accelerated expansion of
high pressure gases, which push the piston to the bottom of the cylinder during the
power stroke, imparting rotation to the crankshaft. Combustion occurs intermittently –
only during the power stroke – whereas in gas turbines combustion occurs
continuously. As the piston is returned to the top of the cylinder during the exhaust
stroke, the products of combustion (exhaust gases) are pushed out an exhaust valve.
Multiple cylinders are connected to the crankshaft, oriented so that while some
pistons are imparting rotation to the crankshaft during their power strokes, other
pistons are being pushed back to the top of the cylinders during their exhaust strokes.

The size and power of a combustion engine is a function of the volume of fuel and air
combusted. Thus, the size of the cylinder, the number of cylinders and the engine
speed determine the amount of power the engine generates. By boosting the engine’s
intake of air using a blower or compressor – called supercharging – the power output
of the engine can be increased. A commonly used supercharger is a turbocharger,
which uses a small turbine in the exhaust gas path to extract energy for driving a
centrifugal compressor.
Fuel Flexibility
Combustion engines can burn a variety of fuels, including natural gas, light fuel oil,
heavy fuel oil, biodiesel, biofuels, and crude oil. Diesel engines are generally more
efficient than SG engines, but also produce more nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter (PM). SO2 and PM formation is a function of
the fuel, with natural gas producing low emissions. The formation of NOx is coupled
with combustion temperature. In SG engines, premixing of air with the fuel to
produce “lean” conditions (more air than is needed for combustion) has the effect of
lowering the combustion temperature and impeding NOx formation. New engine
designs have been developed to take advantage of the diesel process while
maintaining the benefits of lean burning. Dual-fuel (DF) engines are designed with
the ability to burn both liquid and gaseous fuels. When operating in gas mode, the
gaseous fuel is premixed with air, injected just after the compression stroke and
ignited by a pilot fuel flame. In this process, the pilot fuel flame acts a “spark plug” to
ignite the lean gas-air mixture. DF engines retain the ability to use a backup liquid
fuel when gas supply is interrupted. Gas-diesel (GD) engines utilize highly
compressed gas which is injected after a liquid pilot fuel is ignited. This process
allows the use of lower quality gas.

In a power plant, many SG or diesel ICEs are grouped into blocks called generating
sets. Every engine is connected to a shaft which is connected to its electric generator.
These generating sets provide modular electric generating capacity and come in
standardized sizes, ranging from 4 to 20 MW.

Engine Hall at Goodman Energy Center in Kansas, USA

Combustion Engine vs Gas Turbine: Startup Time

Power plants that can be dispatched within minutes are important assets for balancing
electric system loads and maintaining grid reliability. The generating technology
affects the time required for a power plant to startup and reach full load. While
combined cycle gas turbines can take over 30 minutes to start, combustion engine
power plants can start and reach full load in less than 10 minutes – providing flexible,
quick-start capability.

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Wärtsilä 34SG power plant under hot start conditions: 70º cooliong water temp;
prelubrication of engine and gen bearings

Wärtsilä 50SG power plant under hot start conditions: 70º cooliong water temp;
prelubrication of engine and gen bearings

Simple cycle industrial (heavy duty) gas turbine under hot start conditions:
GE,Alstom

GE FlexEfficiency CCGT under hot start conditions: purge credit; Rapid

Response; startup within 8 hours of shutdown

Siemens F-class CCGT under hot start conditions: auxiliary steam, stack dampers
maintain HRSG temperature and preassure

Increasing penetration of renewable energy sources presents challenges for

transmission grid operators to maintain electric reliability despite the intermittency of
wind and solar power. This variability is managed with redundant generating capacity
that can quickly respond to fluctuations in demand, and has predominately been
served by coal and gas-fired units that are synchronized to the grid but operating at
part load. Flexible power generation that can be rapidly brought online reduces the
inefficiency of relying on part load operation. System operators, such as PJM,
California ISO and ERCOT define such “quick-start” or “non-spinning” reserve as
generation capacity that can be synchronized to the grid and ramped to capacity
within 10 minutes.

Where as conventional steam cycle generators (based on the Rankine cycle) can take
more than 12 hours to reach full load, internal combustion engines can be dispatched
in minutes. The two primary internal combustion engine technologies utilized for
power generation are combustion engines and gas turbines. The differences between
the two technologies affect startup time and their suitability to provide flexible power.

Startup time is a significant metric for flexibility, but comparison of different

technologies and designs is complicated by the way startup time is measured by
different manufacturers. The startup time quoted can be from push of the start
command or from ignition. In the case of gas turbines, this difference in “start”
definition can be as much as 20 minutes. Further, it is important to differentiate
between time to achieve full load versus partial load.

Gas Turbine Power Plant Startup

During startup, the gas turbine (GT) undergoes a sequence of increasing compressor
spin to reach firing speed, ignition, turbine acceleration to self-sustaining speed,
synchronization, and loading. There are numerous thermo-mechanical constraints
during startup of the GT, including limits on airflow velocity through the compressor
blades to prevent stall, vibrational limits, and combustion temperature limits to
prevent turbine blade fatigue, with the significant parameter being the turbine inlet
temperature.

In combined cycle operation, the heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) imposes
additional thermal limitations on the gas turbine power plant, as the high temperature
environment subjects HRSG components to thermal stress. The HRSG is directly
coupled to the gas turbine, so changes in turbine exhaust gases induce flow,
temperature, and pressure gradients within the HRSG. These gradients must be
carefully controlled to prevent adverse impacts such as material fatigue, creep
(damage caused by high temperatures) and corrosion. In order to avoid impacts, it
takes longer to start the HRSG from cold conditions than from hot conditions. The
definition of “hot” conditions varies by manufacturer, but is generally defined as
within eight (8) to 16 hours of HRSG shutdown. As a result, the amount of time
elapsed since last shutdown greatly influences startup time. Once-through HRSGs are
used by some manufacturers to overcome the startup thermal and pressure limitations
that exist with steam drums.

CCGTs are also subject to purge requirements to prevent auto-ignition from possible
accumulation of combustible gases in the gas turbine, HRSG and exhaust systems.
The purge is required before the unit is restarted. Purge times depend on the boiler
volume and air flow through the HRSG, and are typically set to about 15 minutes.
This purge time adds to the overall start time. In addition, the steam turbine can
restrict the GT loading rate if the steam temperature leaving the HRSG exceeds steam
turbine limits. To avoid this, temperature matching using GT holds as the load is
increased may be necessary.

In order to enable faster startup, CCGT manufacturers have attempted to decouple the
gas turbine startup from the HRSG and steam turbine warm-up. Process- and
equipment-enhanced start options have been developed that can be used under hot
start conditions. A “purge credit” allows the system purge to be completed at
shutdown, eliminating the requirement for a redundant purge at next startup. The
purge credit can only be used in some HRSGs that have no duct burners and where
the GT is fired on natural gas only. Bypass dampers can be used to restrict the exhaust
gas flow to the HRSG. However, pollution control equipment for nitrogen oxides
(NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) are typically integrated within the HRSG and
environmental regulations for these emissions may prohibit the startup of the GT
without the HRSG. Another method for decoupling the HRSG and steam turbine from
the GT exhaust gas uses spray water attemperators or air attemperators to control the
steam temperature so that gas turbine loading is not limited for temperature matching.
This enables parallel loading of the gas turbine and steam turbine.

Although hot start conditions for CCGTs vary somewhat by manufacturer,

maintaining energized electrical systems, purge credit, and steam temperature control
enable CCGT startup times of about 30 to 35 minutes from initiation of the start
sequence. This is about half the time for conventional hot start that would require
purge and gas turbine holds. In simple cycle, published start times for gas turbines are
about 10 to 15 minutes.

Combustion Engine Power Plant Startup

A combustion engine power plant can start and ramp to full load very quickly due to
rapid ignition of fuel within the cylinders and the coordinated starting of multiple
generating sets. Wärtsilä combustion engine power plants employ high efficiency
lean-burn technology that can reach full load in as little as two (2) minutes under “hot
start” conditions. To meet “hot start” conditions, cooling water is preheated and
maintained above 70ºC, engine bearings are continuously prelubricated, a jack up
pump supplies prelubrication to the generator bearings, and the engine is slow turning
(cycling). The Wärtsilä 34SG power plant requires only 30 seconds to complete
startup preparations, speed acceleration, and synchronization to the grid. Loading to
full power occurs rapidly in just 90 seconds. Startup time is not affected by the
amount of time the unit had been previously shut down. The 50SG power plant takes
seven (7) minutes to reach full load. Under cold startup conditions, the 34SG power
plant can reach full load in 10 minutes and the 50SG in 12 minutes. Combustion
engine power plants also have combined cycle advantages as sufficient steam pressure
can be generated with only a subset of the engines operating.

Rapid Startup for Flexible Power Generation

Figure 1 shows a startup time comparison of the Wärtsilä 34SG and 50SG power
plants with simple cycle and combined cycle gas turbine plants from manufacturers
GE, Alstom, and Siemens. All startup times are measured from operator initiation of
the start sequence. As can be seen from the graph, Wärtsilä power plants provide
quick start ability under 10 minutes, which meets system operator requirements.
Unlike CCGTs, hot start conditions in a Wärtsilä power plant can be maintained
regardless of how long the engines had previously been inactive.

Combustion Engine vs Gas Turbine: Advantages of Modularity

Forget the conventional wisdom that “bigger is better” – modularity in power plant
design enhances flexibility and reliability. Combustion engine power plants
comprised of multiple generating units complement renewable energy without
sacrificing efficiency. And unlike large combined cycle gas turbines, combustion
engine power plants have a wide range in load turndown making them ideally suited
to distributed energy applications.

Over the course of a century, the trend in the electric power industry had been toward
ever increasing generating unit sizes and plant capacities. Centralized power plants
were built using custom engineered technology of massive size. Conventional wisdom
was that “bigger is better” as the capital costs per unit of capacity and production
costs declined with increasing unit size, delivering economies of scale driven in part
by improved steam turbine efficiencies. Steam turbine units averaging 400 megawatts
(MW) or more capacity were common by the 1980s. The push for higher outputs and
efficiencies directly led to the development of combined cycle, necessitating larger
gas turbines with higher firing temperatures that enabled exhaust gas heat recovery to
drive a steam turbine. While in the 1950s the firing temperature of gas turbines was
around 800ºC and average turbine size was around 10 MW, by the 1990s advanced
gas turbines had firing temperatures exceeding 1300ºC and averaged over 100 MW.
However, large power plants required considerable on-site construction and assembly,
and could not easily adjust load to meet fluctuating demand. As the use of renewable
energy sources such as wind and solar increased, the need for more flexible power
that could quickly start, ramp to full load, and operate at part load became more
apparent. Smaller-scale generating units that can be operated in parallel and deployed
as needed to match the changing power requirements began to serve an important
function for the stability of electric transmission grids. Using modern manufacturing
and engineering, small electric generating units are modularized to suit current and
future needs of any power project. This shift toward “economies of numbers”
provides reliability, siting, and efficiency benefits.

What is Modularity?

Many manufacturers of power generating equipment promote the concept of

“modularity” in product portfolios and plant architecture. Modularity refers to electric
generating equipment that is prefabricated in a factory environment and packaged so
as to shorten the timeframe needed to plan, engineer and construct a power plant.
Because gas turbines were expensive relative to other technologies, the concept of
pre-packaging the gas turbine within a power plant and shortening delivery times
became essential to capture market share.

Prefabricated power generation modules are self-contained components of the system

that are designed to interface with other power plant components. Engine modules,
fuel delivery systems, emissions control equipment, heat recovery steam generator
(HRSG) modules, generators, pipe racks and other auxiliary systems are some of the
components that can be prefabricated and delivered in modules to the power plant
site. Standardizing the design of these components offers significant manufacturing
cost savings, shorter lead times for equipment delivery, and speeds on-site assembly
and commissioning of the plant. Modularity also offers simplified maintenance
features and quality benefits, as components are manufactured in a controlled
environment and factory tested.

Modular design has been deployed for a range of generating sources, from small
nuclear reactors to solar farms to gas engines. Even gas turbine power plants, which
have traditionally required significant on-site assembly, have begun to be designed in
a modular fashion to shorten construction time. Aeroderivative gas turbines in
particular, have been designed with modular architecture and range in size from about
15 to 120 MW. Because they have lower exhaust gas temperatures than industrial gas
turbines, aeroderivatives are not typically operated in combined cycle mode.
Modularity can encompass more than just design and prefabrication – it can extend to
plant sizing and the efficient use of a subset of the plant capacity to provide a range of
load response.
Plant Configuration and Operational Modularity

Interconnecting different modules offers flexibility of design to meet a variety of

project needs. Because generating units are incrementally sized, a wide range of plant
capacities and fuel options – including multi-fuel use – can be designed. The control
systems and interfaces between modules are designed to accommodate fuel selection,
expected operations and emissions permit limits. Combustion engines are ideally
suited to modular use, as sets of 4 – 30 MW engine units can provide a range of
incremental part load power without sacrificing efficiency. For example, a Wärtsilä
power plant that has 28 modular 34SG combustion engine units, each sized at
approximately 10 MW, can deliver a range of output from just a few MW to over 270
MW. By operating only a subset of the engines at full load to produce the desired
output, high efficiency is maintained. Further, because the startup time for combustion
engines is within minutes, the power plant can quickly adjust load by bringing
additional engine sets online to meet changes in electric demand.

Reciprocating Engine vs Gas Turbine Advantages of Modularity 1

Wärtsilä modular power plant comprised of multiple combustion engine generating

units provides output versatility.

Modularity in architecture provides limited operational modularity for gas turbines,

however. This is particularly true of gas turbine power plants due to the size of units,
limited number of units, and efficiency tradeoffs for simple cycle versus combined
cycle. Industrial gas turbines for power generation may be 100 – 350 MW apiece and
have limits on the lower range of output at which they can operate. This minimal load,
or “turndown” percentage, is bounded by emissions limits. When the turbine operates
at low load, the compressor airflow may not be enough to support conversion of
carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon dioxide (CO2) in the combustion chamber.
Although manufacturers offer enhanced design features such as inlet guide vane
control, gas turbines are generally constrained to a turndown of 30 to 40 percent of
full load to meet emissions regulations. A simple cycle power plant with two gas
turbines can adjust plant output down to about 15 to 20 percent of full load by
operating only one turbine.

Reciprocating Engine vs Gas Turbine Advantages of Modularity 2

Large gas turbine power plants (1x1 configuration shown) are limited in their
turndown capability.

Combined cycle operation introduces more complexity into the operating parameters
of the plant. Modular architecture for combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) power
plants consists of one to four gas turbines, HRSGs for each gas turbine, and a
common proportionally-sized steam turbine. Modularization is intended to provide
turnkey power plant solutions with reduced on-site assembly and higher part load
efficiencies because of the steam turbine output. The steam turbine accounts for about
one third of the total plant output and is inflexible capacity because of the time
required to achieve necessary steam conditions and for the steam turbine to warm up.
The lower load limit is affected by the turbine exhaust temperature, which must be
high enough to generate sufficient steam pressure in the HRSG to power the steam
turbine. The typical configuration of a 2x1 CCGT plant which has two gas
turbine/HRSG units supplying one steam turbine may have the ability to operate one
of the gas turbines independently of the other, depending on emissions criteria.
Emissions compliant turndown for CCGT plants is usually 40 to 50 percent of full
load. For example, a combined cycle power plant design based on 200 MW gas
turbines (in the typical 2x1 configuration) has a rated output of over 600 MW,
limiting turndown ability to about 300 MW.

A Flexicycle power plant based on modular combustion engine units does not have
similar restrictions on load turndown because sufficient steam pressure can be
developed by operating only 25 percent of the generating units. Modularity using
combustion engine units has other operational benefits over gas turbine power plants.
The “economies of numbers” provides combustion engine power plants built-in
redundancy in case of unit outages or maintenance without significantly affecting
overall full plant output.

Modular engine technology also allows siting to complement distributed renewable

energy sources in areas that lack transmission infrastructure to support large power
stations, providing better matching to changing grid needs. Expanding power needs in
the future can be met with the addition of more engine units and ancillary modules,
rather than the construction of a new power plant. Combustion engine technology
provides the needed versatility and flexibility of load to compensate for variable
smaller, distributed scale of renewable sources which may only be a few MW. And
importantly, using small modular combustion engines to provide flexible load allows
larger combined cycle plants to operate at full output, taking advantage of their high
efficiencies at full load and reducing electric system costs.

Combined Cycle Plant for Power Generation: Introduction

The process for converting the energy in a fuel into electric power involves the
creation of mechanical work, which is then transformed into electric power by a
generator. Depending on the fuel type and thermodynamic process, the overall
efficiency of this conversion can be as low as 30 percent. This means that two-thirds
of the latent energy of the fuel ends up wasted. For example, steam electric power
plants which utilize boilers to combust a fossil fuel average 33 percent efficiency.
Simple cycle gas turbine (GTs) plants average just under 30 percent efficiency on
natural gas, and around 25 percent on fuel oil. Much of this wasted energy ends up as
thermal energy in the hot exhaust gases from the combustion process.

To increase the overall efficiency of electric power plants, multiple processes can be
combined to recover and utilize the residual heat energy in hot exhaust gases. In
combined cycle mode, power plants can achieve electrical efficiencies up to 60
percent. The term “combined cycle” refers to the combining of multiple
thermodynamic cycles to generate power. Combined cycle operation employs a heat
recovery steam generator (HRSG) that captures heat from high temperature exhaust
gases to produce steam, which is then supplied to a steam turbine to generate
additional electric power. The process for creating steam to produce work using a
steam turbine is based on the Rankine cycle.

The most common type of combined cycle power plant utilizes gas turbines and is
called a combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) plant. Because gas turbines have low
efficiency in simple cycle operation, the output produced by the steam turbine
accounts for about half of the CCGT plant output. There are many different
configurations for CCGT power plants, but typically each GT has its own associated
HRSG, and multiple HRSGs supply steam to one or more steam turbines. For
example, at a plant in a 2x1 configuration, two GT/HRSG trains supply to one steam
turbine; likewise there can be 1x1, 3x1 or 4x1 arrangements. The steam turbine is
sized to the number and capacity of supplying GTs/HRSGs.

Combined Cycle Principles of Operation

The HRSG is basically a heat exchanger, or rather a series of heat exchangers. It is
also called a boiler, as it creates steam for the steam turbine by passing the hot
exhaust gas flow from a gas turbine or combustion engine through banks of heat
exchanger tubes. The HRSG can rely on natural circulation or utilize forced
circulation using pumps. As the hot exhaust gases flow past the heat exchanger tubes
in which hot water circulates, heat is absorbed causing the creation of steam in the
tubes. The tubes are arranged in sections, or modules, each serving a different
function in the production of dry superheated steam. These modules are referred to as
economizers, evaporators, superheaters/reheaters and preheaters.

The economizer is a heat exchanger that preheats the water to approach the saturation
temperature (boiling point), which is supplied to a thick-walled steam drum. The
drum is located adjacent to finned evaporator tubes that circulate heated water. As the
hot exhaust gases flow past the evaporator tubes, heat is absorbed causing the creation
of steam in the tubes. The steam-water mixture in the tubes enters the steam drum
where steam is separated from the hot water using moisture separators and cyclones.
The separated water is recirculated to the evaporator tubes. Steam drums also serve
storage and water treatment functions. An alternative design to steam drums is a once-
through HRSG, which replaces the steam drum with thin-walled components that are
better suited to handle changes in exhaust gas temperatures and steam pressures
during frequent starts and stops. In some designs, duct burners are used to add heat to
the exhaust gas stream and boost steam production; they can be used to produce steam
even if there is insufficient exhaust gas flow.

Saturated steam from the steam drums or once-through system is sent to the
superheater to produce dry steam which is required for the steam turbine. Preheaters
are located at the coolest end of the HRSG gas path and absorb energy to preheat heat
exchanger liquids, such as water/glycol mixtures, thus extracting the most
economically viable amount of heat from exhaust gases.

The superheated steam produced by the HRSG is supply to the steam turbine where it
expands through the turbine blades, imparting rotation to the turbine shaft. The energy
delivered to the generator drive shaft is converted into electricity. After exiting the
steam turbine, the steam is sent to a condenser which routes the condensed water back
to the HRSG.

CCGT Design Considerations

Designs and configurations for HRSGs and steam turbines depend on the exhaust gas
characteristics, steam requirements, and expected power plant operations. Because the
exhaust gases from a gas turbine can reach 600ºC, HRSGs for GTs may produce
steam at multiple pressure levels to optimize energy recovery; thus they often have
three sets of heat exchanger modules – one for high pressure (HP) steam, one for
intermediate pressure (IP) steam, and one for low pressure (LP) steam. The high
pressure steam in a large CCGT plant can reach 40 – 110 bar. With a multiple-
pressure HRSG, the steam turbine will typically have multiple steam admission
points. In a three-stage steam turbine, HP, IP and LP steam produced by the HRSG is
fed into the turbine at different points.

The HRSGs present operational constraints on the CCGT power plant. As the HRSGs
are located directly downstream of the gas turbines, changes in temperature and
pressure of the exhaust gases cause thermal and mechanical stress. When CCGT
power plants are used for load-following operation, characterized by frequent starts
and stops or operating at part-load to meet fluctuating electric demand, this cycling
can cause thermal stress and eventual damage in some components of the HRSG. The
HP steam drum and superheater headers are more prone to reduced mechanical life
because they are subjected to the highest exhaust gas temperatures. Important design
and operating considerations are the gas and steam temperatures that the module
materials can withstand; mechanical stability for turbulent exhaust flow; corrosion of
HRSG tubes; and steam pressures that may necessitate thicker-walled drums. To
control the rate of pressure and temperature increase in HRSG components, bypass
systems can be used to divert some of the GT exhaust gases from entering the HRSG
during startup.

The HRSG takes longer to warm up from cold conditions than from hot conditions.
As a result, the amount of time elapsed since last shutdown influences startup time.
When gas turbines are ramped to load quickly, the temperature and flow in the HRSG
may not yet have achieved conditions to produce steam, which causes metal
overheating since there is no cooling steam flow. In 1x1 configurations, the operation
of the steam turbine is directly coupled to the GT/HRSG operation, limiting the rate at
which the power plant can be ramped to load. Steam conditions acceptable for the
steam turbine are dictated by thermal limits of the rotor, blade, and casing design.
Control equipment for nitrogen oxides (NOx) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
are integrated into the HRSG. As these systems operate efficiently over a narrow
range of gas temperatures, they are often installed between evaporator modules.

Flexible Combined Cycle: The Flexicycle Power Plant

The Flexicycle power plant is a combined cycle power plant with unique
characteristics based on Wärtsilä gas or dual-fuel combustion engines. Because
combustion engines convert more of the fuel energy into mechanical work, they have
higher simple cycle efficiencies, averaging near 50 percent. The exhaust gases from
reciprocating internal combustion engines are around 360ºC, much lower temperature
than GT exhaust. Due to the lower exhaust gas temperatures, HRSGs designed for
combustion engine power plants are much simpler in design, creating steam at one
pressure level – approximately 15 bar. The steam turbine process adds approximately
20% to the efficiency of the Flexicycle power plant.

Flexicycle Power Plant based on combustion engines

In a Flexicycle power plant, each combustion engine generator set has an associated
HRSG. Bypass valves are used to control the admission of steam to the steam turbine
when an engine set is not operating. One engine can be used to preheat all the HRSG
exhaust gas boilers with steam to keep the HRSGs hot and enable fast starting.
Flexicycle power plants combine the advantages of high efficiency in simple cycle
and the modularity of multiple engines supplying the steam turbine. The steam turbine
can be run with only 25 percent of the engines at full load, or 50 percent of the
engines at half load. For a 12-engine power plant of around 200 megawatts (MW),
this means only three of the engines need to be operating to produce enough steam to
run the steam turbine. The result is a very efficient power plant that retains the
operational agility of a power plant based on simple-cycle engines. 

An Overview of Power Generation

Excerpt
Energy costs in the past decade have risen dramatically. With this large increase in energy costs, the
acceptability of inefficient engine systems is very limited. Turbine and diesel engine efficiencies range
from the 30% to 45% range (with some even lower), which implies that between 55% and 70% of the
energy supplied is wasted. The privatization of large central energy corporations run by large
government bureaucracies throughout the world has been a major incentive in the search for more
efficient techniques of generation of power. The United Kingdom spearheaded the privatization
schemes in the 1980s and 1990s, and other countries small and large have followed. The United States
is opening up its large power market, and by the year 2010, a very open market will be in place in the
United States.

The energy marketplace of the first quarter of the new century (2000 to 2025) will be very different
from the last quarter of the 1900s. Competition for the energy market will be very fierce and non-
traditional, with many new and efficient energy conversion systems in the marketplace. The traditional
utilities of the 20th will not exist in the 21st centuries. The traditional utilities, which were generating
power, transmitting power, and then distributing the power, will be broken up into three separate
companies in these areas. These companies will be autonomous and will have no relationship with each
other than what the marketplace will exert on them. The transmitting companies will be transmitting
power purchased by the distributing companies from various power generation companies. Power will
be a commodity, like grain, and will be traded freely allowing consumers to buy from various power
sources.

Cycles

Excerpt
The performance of the combined cycle plant is a function of the Brayton and Rankine Cycles. The
Gas Turbine operates under the Brayton Cycle, and the Steam Turbine operates under the Rankine
Cycle. The heat rejected by the Brayton Cycle in an isobaric process is the energy, which is used in the
Rankine Cycle to produce the steam. Both cycles accept and reject heat in an isobaric process.

Performance and Mechanical Equipment Standards

Excerpt
Combined cycle power plants and cogeneration plants all over the world require detailed specifications
both from a performance as well as a mechanical point of view. The first decision is what type of
combined cycle power plant should be built. Combined cycle plants are generally configured with each
gas turbine and steam turbine driving a separate electrical generator. Since the two generators are on
separate shafts, this configuration is called a multi-shaft combined cycle power plant. The term single-
shaft combined cycle power plant refers to a configuration in which the gas turbine and steam turbine
drive a single, common generator, with the various rotors connected by couplings to form a single
shaft. These types of turbines are getting very popular in large plants around the world. The single-
shaft combined cycle can be arranged in one of two ways: without a clutch or with a clutch.

The first step in designing a cogeneration or combined cycle power plant is the determination of the
customers' requirements. Table 3-1 is a typical cogeneration questionnaire, and Table 3-2 is a typical
questionnaire for the independent power industry, which should be answered so that a preliminary
analysis can be made.

 Major Variables of a Combined Cycle Power Plant

 Plant Location and Site Configuration
  Plant Type
 Plant Size and Efficiency
 Type of Fuel
 Types of HRSG
 Types of Condensers
 Enclosures
 Plant Operation Mode: Base or Peaking
 Start-up Techniques
 Performance Standards
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Overall Plant Performance
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Test Uncertainty: Instruments and
Apparatus
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbines
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Gas Turbine Heat Recovery Steam
Generators
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Steam Turbines
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Steam Condensing Apparatus
 ASME, Performance Test Code on Atmospheric Water Cooling Equipment
 ISO, Natural Gas — Calculation of Calorific Value, Density and Relative
Density
 Table of Physical Constants of Paraffin Hydrocarbons
 Mechanical Parameters

An Overview of Gas Turbines

Excerpt
The gas turbine is a power plant that produces a great amount of energy for its size and weight. The gas
turbine has found increasing service in the past 15 years in the power and petrochemical industry
throughout the world. Its compactness, low weight and multiple fuel application make it a natural
power plant in all applications, from power plants to offshore platforms. Today, there are gas turbines
which run on natural gas, diesel fuel, naphtha, methane, crude, low-Btu gases, vaporized fuel oils, and
even waste.

The last 20 years has seen a large growth in gas turbine technology. The growth is spearheaded by the
growth of materials technology, new coatings, and new cooling schemes. This, with the conjunction of
increase in compressor pressure ratio, has increased the gas turbine thermal efficiency from about 15%
to over 45%.

The advanced gas turbines are operating at very high pressure ratios and very high firing temperatures,
ensuring high performance of power and efficiency. These turbines are pushing the envelope of
technology in the areas of material science and aerodynamics to their limit. The new gas turbines are
the basis of the growth of combined cycle power plant and will be the power for most of the first half
of the new millennium. Exceeding efficiencies of over 45%, these turbines in a combined cycle mode
reach plant efficiencies of nearly 60%. Since fuel costs are nearly 75% of the life cycle cost of a plant,
these new advanced gas turbines are here to stay and will be in large demand.

 Industrial Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines

 Aircraft-Derivative Gas Turbines
 Medium-Range Gas Turbines
 Small Gas Turbines
 Major Gas Turbine Components
  Compressors
 Regenerators
 Combustors
 Combustor Design Considerations
 Typical Combustor Arrangements
 Air Pollution Problems
 Dry Low NOx Combustor
 Catalytic Combustion
 Features of Catalytic Combustion
 Catalytic Combustor Design
 Turbine Expander Section
 Radial-Inflow Turbine
 Mixed-Flow Turbine
 Axial-Flow Turbines
 Impulse Turbine
 The Reaction Turbine
 Turbine Blade Cooling Concepts
 Turbine Blade Cooling Design
 Cooled-Turbine Aerodynamics
 Instrumentation and Controls

Overview of Steam Turbines

Excerpt
A steam turbine may be defined as a form of heat engine in which the energy of the steam is
transformed into kinetic energy by means of expansion through nozzles, and the kinetic energy of the
resulting jet is in turn converted into force doing work on rings of blading mounted on a rotating part.
The basic idea of steam turbines was conceived as early as 120 BC, yet it was in 1883 that the first
practical steam turbine was developed by De Laval.

A typical steam turbine power plant is divided up into its heat sources, the boiler or steam generator
and the turbine cycle, which includes the turbine, generator, condenser pumps, and feedwater heaters.
The steam turbine operates on the Rankine Cycle. They can be further divided into a non-condensing or
condensing cycle.

 Introduction
 Non-Condensing Cycle
 Condensing Cycle
 The Rankine Cycle
 Heat Rate and Steam Rate
 Turbine Component Efficiency
 Mechanical Efficiency
 The Regenerative - Reheat Cycle
 Steam Turbine
 Classifications of Steam Turbines
 Steam Flow Directions
 Steam Passage Between Blades
 Turbine Stages in Series
 Single-Stage or Simple-Impulse Turbine
  Multistage Impulse-Type Turbine
 Velocity and Pressure Stage Combination
 Velocity-Stage, Curtis-Type Impulse Turbine
 Pressure-Stage, Rateau-Type Impulse Turbine
 Arc of Peripheral Admission to the Total Circumference
 General Flow Arrangement
 Single-Flow Single Casing Turbines
 Extraction Flow Turbine
 Compound-Flow or Tandem Compound Turbine
 Cross Compound Turbine
 Double-Flow Turbines
 Steam Turbine Characteristics
 Features and Structure of Large Steam Turbines in Combined Cycle Plant
Application
 Features and Structure of HP and IP Nozzles and Blades
 HP and IP Nozzle Diaphragms
 Blades
 Blade Attachments
 Features and Structure of LP Blades
 Gland Seal System
 Interstage Seals
 End Seals
 Required Material Characteristics
 Blade Materials
 Surface Treatments
 Steam Turbine Performance
 Change in Main Steam Temperature
 Change in Main Steam Pressure
 Change in Steam Flow
 Change in Reheat Steam Temperature
 Change in Reheat Steam Pressure
 Change in Condenser Back Pressure
 Change due to Operational Hours
 Change in Power Factor

Heat Recovery Steam Generators

Excerpt
The Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) is a critically important subsystem of a Combined Cycle
or Cogeneration Power Plant. In most of these plants the HRSG uses the exhaust gas from the gas
turbine as the energy source for the production of high pressure and temperature steam. The main
difference in these plants is that in a combined cycle power plant the steam generated in the HRSG is
used solely in the production of power while in a cogeneration plant the steam can be used for process
as well as power production. The Combined Cycle Power Plant uses the steam in a large condensing
steam turbine that produces about 40% of the power generated at design conditions, while in a
cogeneration application it is not uncommon to bleed the steam from an extraction steam turbine for
process purposes. In the cogeneration mode if a steam turbine is used these extraction type steam
turbines are usually smaller and may be of a backpressure type.
The Combined Cycle Power Plant, in most cases, consists of the combination of the Brayton, and
Rankine Cycles is one of the most efficient cycles in operation for practical power generation systems.
The Brayton Cycle is the Gas Turbine Cycle and the Rankine Cycle is the Steam Turbine Cycle. In
most combined cycle applications the Gas Turbine is the topping cycle and the Steam Turbine is the
bottoming cycle. Thermal efficiencies of the combined cycles can reach as high as 60 percent. In the
typical combination the gas turbine produces about 60% of the power and the steam turbine about 40%.
Individual unit thermal efficiencies of the gas turbine and the steam turbine are between 30%–40%.
The steam turbine utilizes the energy in the exhaust gas of the gas turbine as its input energy. The
energy transferred to the Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) by the gas turbine is usually
equivalent to about the rated output of the Gas Turbine at design conditions. At off design conditions
the Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV) are used to regulate the air so as to maintain a high temperature to the
HRSG.

 Introduction
 Design Considerations
 Multipressure Steam Generators
 Off-Design Performance
 Construction of the HRSG
 Casing of the HRSG
 Forced-Circulation System
 Back-Pressure Considerations (Gas Side)
 Finned Tubing
 Tube Materials
 HRSG Design Requirements
 Economizers
 Evaporators
 Attemperators
 Desuperheaters
 Deaerator
 Supplementary Firing of Heat Recovery Systems
 Design Features
 Once Through Steam Generators
 HRSG Operational Characteristics
 HRSG Effectiveness
 Water Chemistry
 Water Treatment Plants
 Chemical Storage and Dosing
 HRSG Chemical Cleaning
 Vibration and Noise
 Filter Housing, Duct Work, and Insulation
 Diverters, Silencers, and Burners
 HRSG Reliability and Durability