Carbon nanotubes (CNTs; also known as buckytubes) are allotropes of carbon with a

cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of

up to 132,000,000:1,[1] significantly larger than any other material. These cylindrical carbon
molecules have novel properties, making them potentially useful in many applications in
nanotechnology, electronics, optics, and other fields of materials science, as well as potential
uses in architectural fields. They may also have applications in the construction of body
armor. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient
thermal conductors.

Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family, which also includes the spherical
buckyballs. The ends of a nanotube may be capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball
structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the
order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while
they can be up to 18 centimeters in length (as of 2010).[1] Nanotubes are categorized as
single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs).

Applied quantum chemistry, specifically, orbital hybridization best describes chemical

bonding in nanotubes. The chemical bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp2 bonds,
similar to those of graphite. These bonds, which are stronger than the sp3 bonds found in
diamonds, provide nanotubules with their unique strength. Moreover, nanotubes naturally
align themselves into "ropes" held together by van der Waals forces.

Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNT) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, with a tube
length that can be many millions of times longer. The structure of a SWNT can be
conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite called graphene into a
seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices
(n,m) called the chiral vector. The integers n and m denote the number of unit vectors along
two directions in the honeycomb crystal lattice of graphene. If m = 0, the nanotubes are called
"zigzag". If n = m, the nanotubes are called "armchair". Otherwise, they are called "chiral".
The diameter of a nanotube can be calculated from its (n,m) indices as follows

where a = 0.246 nm.

Single-walled nanotubes are an important variety of carbon nanotube because they exhibit
electric properties that are not shared by the multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) variants.
In particular, their band gap can vary from zero to about 2 eV and their electrical conductivity
can show metallic or semiconducting behavior, whereas MWNTs are zero-gap metals.
Single-walled nanotubes are the most likely candidate for miniaturizing electronics beyond
the micro electromechanical scale currently used in electronics. The most basic building
block of these systems is the electric wire, and SWNTs can be excellent conductors.[2][3] One
useful application of SWNTs is in the development of the first intramolecular field effect
transistors (FET).

Multi-walled
Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple rolled layers (concentric tubes) of
graphite. There are two models which can be used to describe the structures of multi-walled
nanotubes. In the Russian Doll model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders,
e.g. a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a larger (0,17) single-walled nanotube. In
the Parchment model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll
of parchment or a rolled newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is
close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite, approximately 3.4 Å.

The special place of double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNT) must be emphasized here
because their morphology and properties are similar to SWNT but their resistance to
chemicals is significantly improved

Nanotubes were observed in 1991 in the carbon soot of graphite electrodes during an arc
discharge, by using a current of 100 amps, that was intended to produce fullerenes.[47]
However the first macroscopic production of carbon nanotubes was made in 1992 by two
researchers at NEC's Fundamental Research Laboratory.[48] The method used was the same as
in 1991. During this process, the carbon contained in the negative electrode sublimates
because of the high discharge temperatures. Because nanotubes were initially discovered
using this technique, it has been the most widely-used method of nanotube synthesis.

The yield for this method is up to 30 percent by weight and it produces both single- and
multi-walled nanotubes with lengths of up to 50 micrometers with few structural defects.[18]

[edit] Laser ablation

In the laser ablation process, a pulsed laser vaporizes a graphite target in a high-temperature
reactor while an inert gas is bled into the chamber. Nanotubes develop on the cooler surfaces
of the reactor as the vaporized carbon condenses. A water-cooled surface may be included in
the system to collect the nanotubes.

This process was developed by Dr. Richard Smalley and co-workers at Rice University, who
at the time of the discovery of carbon nanotubes, were blasting metals with a laser to produce
various metal molecules. When they heard of the existence of nanotubes they replaced the
metals with graphite to create multi-walled carbon nanotubes.[49] Later that year the team used
a composite of graphite and metal catalyst particles (the best yield was from a cobalt and
nickel mixture) to synthesize single-walled carbon nanotubes.[50]

The laser ablation method yields around 70% and produces primarily single-walled carbon
nanotubes with a controllable diameter determined by the reaction temperature. However, it
is more expensive than either arc discharge or chemical vapor deposition.[18]

[edit] Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

Catalytic vapor phase deposition of carbon was first reported in 1959,[51] but it was not until
1993[52] that carbon nanotubes were formed by this process. In 2007, researchers at the
University of Cincinnati (UC) developed a process to grow aligned carbon nanotube arrays of
18 mm length on a FirstNano ET3000 carbon nanotube growth system.[53]
During CVD, a substrate is prepared with a layer of metal catalyst particles, most commonly
nickel, cobalt,[54] iron, or a combination.[55] The metal nanoparticles can also be produced by
other ways, including reduction of oxides or oxides solid solutions. The diameters of the
nanotubes that are to be grown are related to the size of the metal particles. This can be
controlled by patterned (or masked) deposition of the metal, annealing, or by plasma etching
of a metal layer. The substrate is heated to approximately 700°C. To initiate the growth of
nanotubes, two gases are bled into the reactor: a process gas (such as ammonia, nitrogen or
hydrogen) and a carbon-containing gas (such as acetylene, ethylene, ethanol or methane).
Nanotubes grow at the sites of the metal catalyst; the carbon-containing gas is broken apart at
the surface of the catalyst particle, and the carbon is transported to the edges of the particle,
where it forms the nanotubes. This mechanism is still being studied. The catalyst particles can
stay at the tips of the growing nanotube during the growth process, or remain at the nanotube
base, depending on the adhesion between the catalyst particle and the substrate. Thermal
catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbon has become an active area of research and can be a
promising route for the bulk production of CNTs. Fluidised bed reactor is the most widely
used reactor for CNT preparation. Scale-up of the reactor is the major challenge.[56] [57]

CVD is a common method for the commercial production of carbon nanotubes. For this
purpose, the metal nanoparticles are mixed with a catalyst support such as MgO or Al2O3 to
increase the surface area for higher yield of the catalytic reaction of the carbon feedstock with
the metal particles. One issue in this synthesis route is the removal of the catalyst support via
an acid treatment, which sometimes could destroy the original structure of the carbon
nanotubes. However, alternative catalyst supports that are soluble in water have proven
effective for nanotube growth.[58]

If a plasma is generated by the application of a strong electric field during the growth process
(plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition*), then the nanotube growth will follow the
direction of the electric field.[59] By adjusting the geometry of the reactor it is possible to
synthesize vertically aligned carbon nanotubes[60] (i.e., perpendicular to the substrate), a
morphology that has been of interest to researchers interested in the electron emission from
nanotubes. Without the plasma, the resulting nanotubes are often randomly oriented. Under
certain reaction conditions, even in the absence of a plasma, closely spaced nanotubes will
maintain a vertical growth direction resulting in a dense array of tubes resembling a carpet or
forest.