Bridges: Types, Span and Loads | Civil

Engineering
In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Introduction to Bridges 2. Types of Steel Bridges 3.
Truss Components 4. Economic Span 5. Loads.

Introduction to Bridges:
Bridges are structures meant to support rail road traffic, highway traffic or pedestrian loads
across openings or crossings or another set or rail or highway traffic or across any natural
or artificial obstacles. Based on the type of traffic for which they are provided, bridges may
be classified into- (i) Highway bridges (ii) Railway bridges (iii) Foot bridges for pedestrian
traffic. We also at times come across combined Highway and Railway bridges.
Bridges may be made of timber, masonry, reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and
steel. Timber bridges are generally provided for small spans and sometimes as a temporary
bridge. For permanent bridges or small spans not exceeding 12 m, masonry bridges may be
provided. For greater spans, the dead load of masonry becomes large and hence masonry
bridges work out to be uneconomical.
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Reinforced concrete bridges are found to be economical for spans exceeding 12 m.

Prestressed concrete bridges have been constructed for spans up to 60 m. Arched concrete
bridges have been built for still greater spans. Since steel possesses a high working stress
compared to other materials, steel bridges work out to be economical for large spans.
Steel bridges are very common for small as well as long spans in railways. Fabricated
components of a steel bridge can be easily transported to the site and assembled, thus
considerably reducing the construction time.
A bridge forms mainly the super structure spanning the required length and it comprises of
the floor system, the trusses or girders system, support arrangement and lateral bracing
system.
The floor system provides a satisfactory surface to afford easy movement of traffic over it.
The floor system transmits its weight and loads due to vehicular traffic to the supporting
trusses or girders. The trusses and girders in turn transmit all loads received by them to the
abutments or supporting piers.
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Trusses and girders are provided with end shoe device to safely transmit the reactions to
the supporting abutments. Such an arrangement also makes provision for slight longitudinal
movements due to temperature changes.
A lateral bracing system is provided to the bridge, which not only provides adequate
stiffness but also minimizes vibrations. Such bracing system also resists lateral forces
transmitted by wind action on the structure as well as the moving vehicles.
Steel bridges may be of the following types:
Rolled steel beam bridges – for spans up to 10 m
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Plate girder bridges – for spans from 10 m to 40 m

Trussed bridges – for spans greater than 40 m
Bridges may be classified into Deck Types Bridge and through type bridges, according to
the manner of transference of live load to the bridge. In the case of Deck type truss bridges,
the floor of the bridge is supported at the top chord joints of the truss. In a Deck type plate
girder bridge, the floor is supported on the top flange. In through type truss bridges, the floor
is supported at the lower chord joints of the truss and the top chord is provided with lateral
bracing.
In a through type plate girder bridge, the floor is supported at the level of the lower flange
and the top flanges are braced laterally. Sometimes the floor is supported on the bottom
chord or near the bottom chord and the top chords are not braced. Such bridges are called
half through or semi-through bridges.
Types of Steel Bridges:
ADVERTISEMENTS:

A brief description of some types of steel bridges is given below:

(i) Beam and Slab Bridge:
These are convenient where the span of the beam exceeds 5 in. For small spans I-section
beams may be used. For spans more than 8 m, built-up I-sections or plate girders are used.
By providing a combination of main plate girders and cross beams, the bridges can be
made for spans up to 20 m.
For very large spans deck and through plate girder bridges may be used. Generally railway
deck plate girder bridges are designed to carry one track. Two single-track bridges are
made side by side resting on piers and abutments forming a double track bridge. In
situations when the clearance below the structure is small it is necessary to provide a
through girder bridge.
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(ii) Box-Girder Bridges:

These bridges are found convenient for spans up to 50 m. The box girder consists of steel
plates fabricated to box shape and strengthened by angles and channels.  
(iii) Trussed Bridges or Open Web Girder Bridges:
These are the most commonly used bridges and are found satisfactory for spans 10 m to as
large as 300 m. Bridges of spans 50 m to 60 m are most common. Cross beams are
connected to trusses either at the level of the top chord or at the level of the bottom chord.
Accordingly the bridges are deck bridges or through bridges.   
The trusses with parallel chords can be modified to make curved chord trusses. If trusses
whose depths vary throughout the length from both ends the forces in the chord members
are more or less equalized. Web members of curved chord trusses are likely to be
subjected to lesser forces than in the case of parallel chord trusses.
The angle between inclined and vertical members may be 45° to 60°. In order to reduce the
lengths of the loaded chords (bottom chords of through trusses and top chords of deck
trusses) it is convenient to make subdivided loaded chords.
Truss Components of a Bridge:
The various components of a truss bridge are the following:
1. Chord Members:
These are top and bottom members which act like the flanges of a beam. They resist
compressive and tensile forces. The chord members are parallel in a truss of uniform depth.
Their profile may however range from uniform depth to variable depth as for example in a
bowstring truss. Variable depth profile offers economy.
2. Web Members:
These consist of vertical and diagonal members. In parallel chord trusses, the diagonals
offer the required shear resistance. Verticals also carry shear besides providing additional
panel points for introduction of loads. Verticals subjected to compression are called posts
and those subjected to tension are called hangers.
3. Counters or Counter Bracers:
Counters or counter bracers are a pair of intersecting diagonals in a panel where a single
diagonal would be subjected to stress reversal. These are provided in lattice trusses, sway
frames and portals.
4. End Posts:
These are compression members provided at supports of single span trusses.
5. The Deck:
This is the structural unit which provides the direct support for vehicular loads.
6. Floor Beams:
These are beams set normal to the direction of traffic. These beams transmit the deck loads
to the trusses.
7. Lateral Bracing:
These are members connecting the top chords of two trusses and bottom chords of two
trusses. The bracing system forms trusses in the plane of the top chord and in the plane of
the bottom chord. These provide stability and offer lateral resistance to wind action.
8. Long Span Bridges:
In the case of a long span bridge truss the members of the truss are likely to be subjected to
large forces. In such cases, cantilever bridges, continuous bridges, suspension bridges and
arched bridges are found suitable. A cantilever bridge consists of two cantilever trusses
supporting between their ends a central simple span truss.
Continuous trusses have more than two supports and are statically indeterminate. In an
arch carrying a loading, besides vertical reactions these will also be horizontal thrusts at the
supports, which reduce the bending moments. Arches may be three hinged, two hinged or
fixed arches.
Economic Span of a Bridge:
The span of a bridge may be so determined that the total cost of the bridge is a minimum.
The span to satisfy this condition is called the economic span. The total cost of the bridge
consists of the cost of the substructure and that of the superstructure. Very often it is seen
that the cost of the substructure forms nearly 50 per cent of the total cost of the bridge.
The cost of pier will not change appreciably for small change in span. Even the cost of the
floor-way is not affected much for small variation in span. But it is seen that the cost of the
trusses and bracings is directly proportional to the span of the bridge.
But lCt = cost of the trusses and bracings corresponding to one span
Hence, the cost of the whole bridge is a minimum when the cost of one pier and the cost of
trusses and bracings corresponding to one span are equal.
Loads on Bridges:
The various loads, forces and stresses to be considered for the design of bridges are
the following:
(i) Dead Load:
Dead load is the weight of the floor slab, track stringers, ballast, guard rails, bracing system,
rails sleepers etc.
The dead load of the various components may be taken at the following values:
For a single track,
Weight of rails, guide rails and fastening – 3000 N/m
Weight of concrete – 25000 N/m3
Weight of ballast – 1000 N/m3
Wooden tier – 8000 N/m3
The dead load of a bridge depends on various factors like depth of girder or truss, span,
number of panels, width of bridge etc.
The dead load of trusses may be estimated by the following methods:
(a) Hudson Formula:
Weight per metre of trusses and bracings = 0.785 A Newton/metre.
Where, A = Maximum net area of the tension chord
(b) Fuller’s Formula:
Weight per metre of truss bridges = (150 L + 5500) Newton/metre
(spans 30 m to 90 m)
Weight per metre of plate girders = (200 L + 1000) Newton/metre
(spans 10 m to 30 m)
where L = span of the bridge in metres
(c) For a Single Track Railway:
Weight of both the girders including bracings system, per metre = (52 to 53) L √w N/w
where, L = span in metres,
w = Heaviest axle load of the engine in kN
(ii) Live Load:
Live Load on Highway Bridges:
Live Loud on Footways (Foot Bridges):
The live load on foot bridges shall be taken as follows:
For all parts of bridge floors accessible to pedestrians and animals and for all foot ways, the
loading shall be 4000 N/m1. Where crowd loads are likely to occur, such as a foot bridge
located near towns which are either centres of pilgrimage or where congregational fairs are
held seasonally, the intensity of the footway loading shall be increased from 4000 N/m 2 to
5000 N/m2.
Kerbs 0.6 m or more in width shall be designed for the above loads. If the kerb width is less
than 0.6 m no live load shall be considered.
The main girder, trusses, arches or other members supporting the footways shall be
designed for the following live loads per square metre of the footway area, the loaded length
of the footway taken in each case being such as to produce the worst effects on the
member under consideration.
(a) For effective spans of 7.5 m or less – 4000 N/m 2, but for crowded locations – 5000 N/m”
(b) For effective spans of over 7.5 m but not exceeding 30 m – The intensity of the load be
determined according to the equation.

(c) For effective spans of over 30 m, the intensity of the load shall be determined according
to the equation-

Each part of the footway shall be capable of carrying a wheel load of 40 kN which shall be
deemed to include impact, distributed over a contact area 300 mm in diameter. The working
stresses shall be increased by 25 per cent to meet this provision. This provision need not be
made where vehicles cannot mount the footway as in the case of a footway separated from
the roadway by means of an insurmountable obstacle, such as truss on a main girder.
Railings, Parapets or Guide Posts:
(1) High Level Bridges:
(a) Substantial railings or parapets along each side of the bridge shall be provided for the
protection of traffic. Consideration shall be given to the architectural features of the railing or
parapet to obtain proper proportioning of its various members and its harmony with the
structure as a whole. Consideration shall be given also to avoiding, as far as is consistent
with safety and appearance, obstruction of the view from passing motor cars.
(b) Railings or parapets shall have a minimum height above the adjacent roadway or
footway surface, of one metre less one-half the horizontal width of top rail or top of the
parapet. They shall be designed to resist a lateral horizontal force and a vertical force each
of 1500 N per metre run applied simultaneously at the top of the railing or parapet.
These forces shall also be considered in the design of the main structural members if the
bridge is provided with footpaths. Where, however, footpath are not provided, these forces
need not be considered in the design of main structural members.
(c) The clear distance from the lower rail to the top of the kerb shall not exceed 150 mm
unless that space is filled by vertical or inclined members, the clear distance between which
is not more than 150 mm. The strength of the lower rail shall be at least as great as that of
the top rail.
The space between the lower rail and the top rail shall be filled by means of vertical,
horizontal or inclined members, the clear distance between, which shall be fixed, with due
regard to the safety of persons and animals using the structure.
(2) Submersible Bridges:
Railing shall be either collapsible or removable:
(a) Collapsible railings shall be used where it is necessary to put up the railings immediately
the bridge is open to traffic after a submerging flood. Care shall be taken in the structural
design of these railings to ensure that they sit well in their grooves and are not liable to be
dislodged by floods.
(b) Removable railings may be adopted when there is no danger to the traffic using the
bridges for short periods without railing. Care shall be taken in the structural design of these
railings to ensure that the various members are interchangeable and can be easily removed
and refitted.
(c) Collapsible or removable railings shall be designed to resist as far as possible the same
forces as specified in (1) b for railings or parapet on high level bridges.
(iii) Wind Load:
All structures shall be designed for the following lateral wind forces. These forces shall be
considered to act horizontally and in such a direction that the resultant stresses in the
member under consideration are the maximum.
The wind force on a structure shall be assumed as a horizontal force of the intensity
specified below and acting on an area calculated as follows:
(a) For Deck Structures:
The area of the structure as seen in elevation including the floor system and railing, less
area of perforations in the hand railing or parapet wall (while calculating the wind pressure
on live load, or clear distance between the trailers of a train of vehicles shall not be omitted).
(b) For a through or Half through Structure:
The area of the elevation of the windward truss as specified in- (a) above, plus half the area
of the elevation above the deck level of all other trusses or girders.
The following table gives the wind pressure intensities corresponding to various velocities of
wind. The pressure given in this table shall however be doubled for bridges situated in the
areas such as the Kathiawar Peninsula, and the Bengal and Orissa coasts.
In the above table-
H = The average height in metres of the exposed surface above the mean retarding surface
(ground or bed level or water level).
V = Horizontal velocity of wind in Kilometres per hour at height H.
P = Horizontal wind pressure in N/metre 2 at height H.
The lateral wind force against any exposed moving live load shall be considered as
acting at 1.5 metre above the roadway and shall be assumed to have the following
values:
(a) Highway bridges, ordinary = 3000 N/m run
(b) Highway bridges, carrying tramway = 4500 N/m run
while calculating the wind pressure of live load, the clear distance between the trailers of a
train of vehicles shall not be omitted.
The bridges shall not be considered to be carrying any live load when the wind velocity at
deck level exceeds 130 kilometres per hour.
The total assumed wind force as calculated according to the above paragraphs shall
however not be less than 4500 N per metre run in the plane of the loaded chord and 2250 N
per metre run in the plane of the unloaded chord on through or semi-through truss, latticed
or similar span and not less than 4500 N per metre run on deck spans.
A wind pressure of 2400 N per metre2 on the unloaded structure applied as specified in the
above paragraphs shall be used if it produces greater stresses than those produced by the
combined wind forces mentioned above.
(iv) Longitudinal Forces:
In all road bridges, provision shall be made for longitudinal forces arising from any
one or more of the following causes:
(a) Tractive efforts caused through acceleration of the driving wheels
(b) Braking effect resulting from the application of brakes to braked wheels, and
(c) Frictional resistance offered to the movement or free bearings due to change of
temperature or any other cause.
Note:
Braking effect is invariably greater than the tractive effort.
The braking effect on a simply supported span of a continuous unit of spans or any
other type of bridge unit shall be assumed to have the following value:
(a) In the case of a single lane or a two lane bridge. 20 percent of the first train load plus 10
percent of loads of the succeeding trains or part thereof, the train loads in one lane only
being considered for the purposes of this clause. Where the entire first train is not on the full
span, the braking force shall be taken as equal to 20 percent of the loads actually on the
span.
(b) In the case of bridges having more than two lanes. As in (a) above for the first two lanes
plus 5 percent of the loads on the lanes in excess of two.
Note:
The loads in this clause shall not be increased on account of impact.
The force due to braking effect shall be assumed to act along a line parallel to the roadway
and 1.2 metres above it. While transferring the force to the bearings, the change in the
vertical reaction at the bearings should be taken into account.
The longitudinal force at any free bearing shall be limited to the sum of dead and live load
reactions at the bearing multiplied by the appropriate coefficient of friction.
The coefficient of friction at the bearing shall be assumed to have the following
values:

For simply supported reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete superstructure, the
span upto which plate bearing can be used shall be limited to 15 metres.
The longitudinal force at the fixed bearings shall be taken as the algebraic sum of the
longitudinal forces at the free bearings in the bridge unit under consideration and the force
due to the braking effect on the wheels, mentioned in (a) and (b) above.
The effect of braking force on bridge structures without bearings such as arches, rigid
frames etc., shall be calculated in accordance with approved methods of analysis of
indeterminate structures.
The effects of braking force on bridge structures without bearings such as arches, rigid
frames etc., where the resultant passive earth resistance of the soil below the deepest
scour level (floor level in case of a bridge having pucca floor) balances these forces.
Centrifugal Forces:
In case a road bridge is situated on a curve, all portions of the structure affected by the
centrifugal action of moving vehicles are to be proportioned to carry safely the stress
induced by this action in addition to all other stresses to which they may be subjected.
The centrifugal forces shall be determined from the following equations:

C= Centrifugal forces acting normally to the traffic (1) at the point of action of the wheel
loads or (2) uniformly distributed over every metre length on which a uniformly distributed
load acts.
W = Live load (1) in TV in case of wheel loads, each wheel load being considered as acting
over the respective ground contact length and (2) in N/m per metre in case of a uniformly
distributed live load.
V = The design speed of vehicles using the bridge in kilometres per hour and
R = The radius of curvature in metres
The centrifugal force shall be considered to act at a height of 1.2 m above the level of the
carriageway.
No increase for impact effect shall be made on the stresses due to centrifugal action.
The overturning effect of the centrifugal force on the structure as a whole shall also be duly
considered.
Temperature Effect:
Provision shall be made for stresses and moments from variations in temperature.
The rise and fall in temperature shall be fixed for the locality in which the structure is to be
constructed and shall be figured from an assumed temperature at the time of erection.
Due consideration shall be given to the lag between air temperature and the interior
temperature of massive concrete members or structures.
Except where stated otherwise, the following range of temperature shall generally be
assumed in the design:
(a) Metal Structures:
Moderate climate: from – 18°C to + 50°C
Extreme climate: from – 35°C to + 50°C
(b) Concrete Structures:

But, in both cases (a) and (b) above, intermediate values can be allowed at the discretion of
the Engineer responsible for the design.
The coefficient of expansion per degree centigrade shall be taken as 0.0000117 for steel
and reinforced concrete structures and 0.0000108 for plain concrete structures.
Secondary Stresses:
These are the additional stresses brought into play due either to the movement of supports
or to the deformations in the geometrical shape of the structure or its members resulting
from causes such as rigidity of end connection or loads applied at intermediate points of
trusses or restrictive shrinkage of concrete floor beams.
All bridges shall be designed and constructed in a manner such that the secondary stresses
are reduced to a minimum; and they shall be allowed for in the design.
For reinforced concrete members the shrinkage coefficient for purposes of design may be
taken as 2 × 10-4.
Erection Stress:
Allowance shall be made in the design for stresses set up in any member during erection;
such stresses may be different from those which the member will be subjected to during
actual working.
Seismic Force:
If a bridge is situated in a region subject to earthquake, allowance shall be made in the
design for the seismic force and earthquake-resistance features shall be embodied in the
structural details of the design.
The seismic force shall be taken as a horizontal force equal to the approximate fraction
(specified below) of the weight of dead and live leads acting above the section under
consideration (parts of the structure embedded in soil shall not be considered to produce
any horizontal force).
Regions liable to minor damage: 1/20 of Gravity
Regions liable to severe damage: 1/10 of Gravity
For bridges situated in epicentral tracts where large devastations have occurred in the past
due to earthquakes, the percentages shall be fixed by the engineer responsible for the
design, with due regard to the local conditions regarding the intensity of earthquakes
generally experienced in these regions.
The horizontal forces due to seismic force shall be taken to act through the centre of gravity
of all the loads under consideration. The direction of this force should be such that the
resultant stresses in the member under consideration are maximum.
Seismic and wind forces shall not be considered to act simulaneously. The magnitude of the
seismic force shall not be reduced on account of reduction in weight due to buoyancy
obtained in a submerged mass.
Railway Bridges:
Loading on Footways:
For foot bridges meant for pedestrians and animals the loading shall be 490 kg/metre 2. In
the case of a footpath on a road-rail bridge, the live load including impact may be taken as
415 kg/metre1, (but where crowd loading is likely this may be increased to 490 kg/metre 2).
Kerbs 0.6 m or more in width, shall be designed for the above loads. If the Kerb width is
less than 0.6 m no live load shall be applied.
For purposes of design of main girders the live loads on the footpaths shall be taken
as follows:
 
In the case of footpaths provided as a combined road-rail bridge the loading on the
footpaths for purposes of designing the main girders shall be taken as 195 kg/metre 2.
Railway bridges are designed for the following standard loadings.
Loading for Broad gauge 1676 mm
(i) Standard Main Line:
Fig. 13.24 shows the standard loading for main line.
The following table shows the equivalent uniformly distributed load on one track for
computing the maximum bending moments and shear forces.
For metre gauge 1000 mm.
Fig. 13.24 shows the loadings for standard main line, standard branch line and standard C.
The equivalent uniformly distributed loads for each track for purpose of determining bending
moments and shear forces are given in Table 13.4.
For narrow gauge 762 mm
The following three loading used:
(i) H class loading (Heavy class loading)
(ii) A class loading
(iii) B class loading.
Equivalent uniformly distributed load in tonnes on each track and impact factors for
the 762 mm. gauge are shown in the following table:

 
 

 
Impact Foot Bridges:
No impact allowance need be made for foot bridges. Road bridges. Provision for impact or
dynamic action shall be made by an increment of the live load by an impact allowance
expressed as a fraction or a percentage of the applied live load. The impact fraction shall be
determined from the following equations which are applicable for spans between 3 metres
and 45 metres.
For Class AA Loading:
The impact percentage shall be taken as follows:
(a) For spans less than 9 metres
(i) For tracked vehicles – 25 percent for spans upto 5 metres, linearly reducing to 10 percent
for spans of 9 metres.
(ii) For wheeled vehicles – 25 percent.
(b) For spans of 9 metres or more
For steel bridges-
(i) Tracked vehicle: 10 percent for all spans.
(ii) Wheeled vehicles: 25 percent for spans up to 23 metres and in accordance with the
curve indicated in Fig. 13.28 for spans in excess of 23 metres.
Class A or class B loading:
In the members of any bridge designed either for class A or class B loading the impact
percentage shall be determined from the following equation which is applicable for spans
between 3 metres and 45 metres.

Where. L is the span is metres. For spans 3 metres and less the impact factor will be 0.545
or 54.5 percent.
In any bridge structure where there is filling of not less than 0.6 metre including the road
crust the impact percentage to be allowed in the design shall be assumed to be one-half of
what is stipulated above.
For calculating the pressure on bearings and on the top surface of the bed blocks,
full value of the appropriate impact percentage shall be allowed, but, for the design of
piers, abutments and structures, generally below the top of the bed block, the
appropriate impact percentage shall be multiplied by the factor given below:
(a) For calculating the pressure at the bottom surface of the bed block
……………………………………. 0.5
(b) For calculating the pressure on the top 3 metres of the structure below the bed block
decreasing uniformly to zero. … 0.5
(c) For calculating the pressure on the portion of the structure more than 3 metres below the
bed block ….. Zero

Railway Bridges:
For Broad and Metre Gauge Railway, the impact effect shall be taken as equal to the
live load giving the maximum stress in the member under consideration multiplied by
an impact factor i obtained as follows:
(v) Centrifugal Force:
Road bridges:
Where a road bridge is situated on a curve, all portions of the structure affected by the
centrifugal action of moving vehicles are to be proportioned to carry safely the stress
induced by this action in addition to all other stresses to which they may be subjected.
The centrifugal force shall be determined from the following equation:

where, C = Centrifugal force in tonnes acting normally to the traffic (1) at the point of action
of the wheel loads or (2) uniformly distributed over every metre length on which a uniformly
distributed load acts.
W = Live load (1) in tonnes in case of wheel loads, each wheel load being considered as
acting over the ground contact length and (2) in tonnes per linear metre in case of a
uniformly distributed live load.
V = The design speed of the vehicles using the bridges in km per hour, and
R = The radius of curvature in metres.
The centrifugal force shall be considered to act at a height of 1.2 metres above the level of
the carriageway.
No increase for impact effect shall be made on the stresses due to centrifugal action.
The overturning effect of the centrifugal force on the structure as a whole shall also be duly
considered.
Railway Bridges:
For Railway bridges the horizontal load and load due to centrifugal force which may be
assumed to act at a height of 1830 mm above the rail level, is-

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