BRIDGES

By: Jay Bhavsar

 What is a Bridge?
• A bridge is a structure built to span a valley, road,
body of water, or other physical obstacle, for the
purpose of providing passage over the obstacle.

• Designs of bridges vary depending on the

function of the bridge and the nature of the terrain
where the bridge is constructed.
 History of Bridge Development

Natural Bridges 700 A.D. Asia

Great Stone Bridge in China

Clapper Bridge

Tree trunk
Low Bridge

Stone
Shallow Arch

Strength of
Materials

Mathematical
Theories
Roman Arch Bridge

Development of

The Arch Metal

Natural Cement

100 B.C. Romans 1300 A.D. Renaissance

 History of Bridge Development

1800 A.D. 1900 A.D. 2000 A.D.

Truss Bridges

Prestressed
First Cast-Iron Bridge
Mechanics of Concrete
Design
Coalbrookdale, England
Steel

Britannia Tubular Bridge Suspension Bridges

Wrought Iron
Use of Steel for
the suspending
cables
1850 A.D. 1920 A.D.
 Basic Concepts

Span - the distance between two bridge

supports, whether they are columns, towers
or the wall of a canyon.

Force - any action that tends to maintain or alter the position of

a structure

Compression - a force which acts to

compress or shorten the thing it is acting
on.
Tension - a force which acts to expand or
lengthen the thing it is acting on.

Compression Tension
 Basic Concepts

Beam - a rigid, usually horizontal, structural element

Beam

Pier

Pier - a vertical supporting structure, such as a pillar

Cantilever - a projecting structure supported only at one end,

like a shelf bracket or a diving board

Load - weight distribution throughout a structure

 Basic Concepts

Truss - a rigid frame composed of short, straight pieces joined

to form a series of triangles or other stable shapes

Stable - (adj.) ability to resist collapse and deformation;

stability (n.) characteristic of a structure that is able to carry a
realistic load without collapsing or deforming significantly

Deform - to change shape

 Basic Concepts

Buckling is what happens when the force of

compression overcomes an object's ability to
handle compression. A mode of failure
characterized generally by an unstable
lateral deflection due to compressive action
on the structural element involved.

Snapping is what happens when tension overcomes an

object's ability to handle tension.

To dissipate forces is to spread them out over a greater area,

so that no one spot has to bear the brunt of the concentrated
force.
To transfer forces is to move the forces from an area of
weakness to an area of strength, an area designed to handle
the forces.
 Types of Bridges

Basic Types:

•Beam/Girder Bridge
•Truss Bridge
•Arch Bridge
•Suspension Bridge
•Cable Stayed Bridge
•Cantilever Bridge
 Types of Bridges
Beam/Girder Bridge

• Beam bridges are the simplest kind of bridge today.

• Bridges consist of one horizontal beam with 2 supports
usually on either ends.
• It is frequently used in pedestrian bridges and for
highway overpasses & flyovers.
• They are constructed for short span requirements.
• The weight of the bridge and any traffic on it is directly
supported by the piers.
• The top side of the deck is under compression while the
bottom side of the deck is under tension.
• To increase the bridge’s strength designers introduce
truss to the bridge’s beam.
Components of Beam/Girder Bridge
 Types of Bridges

Beam/Girder Bridge

Forces
When something pushes down on the beam, the beam
bends. Its top edge is pushed together, and its bottom edge is
pulled apart.
 Types of Bridges

Truss Bridge

• A bridge composed of straight connected elements which may

be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in
response to dynamic loads.
• A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its efficient
use of materials.
• These are usually constructed for short to medium span range.
• In India truss bridges are generally constructed for rail traffic.
 Types of Bridges

Truss Bridge

Forces
• Vertical members are in tension, lower horizontal
members in tension, shear, and bending, outer
diagonal and top members are in compression, while
the inner diagonals are in tension.
Components of Truss Bridge
 Types of Bridges

Arch Bridges

The arch has great natural strength. Thousands of years ago,

Romans built arches out of stone. Today, most arch bridges
are made of steel or concrete, and they can span up to 800
feet.
 Types of Bridges

Arch Bridges

• Arch bridges are arch-shaped and have abutments at each end.

• An arch bridge doesn't need additional supports or cables. In fact
it’s the shape of the structure that gives it its strength.
• Arch bridges are designed to be constantly under compression.
• The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either
side.
• Usually they are made for short span range but often set end-to-
end to form a large total length.
 Types of Bridges

Arch Bridges

Forces
The arch is squeezed together, and this squeezing force is
carried outward along the curve to the supports at each end.
The supports, called abutments, push back on the arch and
prevent the ends of the arch from spreading apart.
 Types of Bridges

Suspension Bridges

This kind of bridges can span 2,000 to 7,000 feet -- way farther
than any other type of bridge! Most suspension bridges have a
truss system beneath the roadway to resist bending and
twisting.
 Types of Bridges

Suspension Bridges

• Now a days these are the pioneers in bridge technology.

• This type of bridge has cables suspended between towers &
the cables support vertical suspender cables that carry the
weight of the deck below. This arrangement allows the deck
to be level or to arc upward for additional clearance.
• The suspension cables are anchored at each end of the
bridge.
• They are ideal for covering busy waterways.
 Types of Bridges

Suspension Bridges
Forces
In all suspension bridges, the roadway hangs from massive
steel cables, which are draped over two towers and secured
into solid concrete blocks, called anchorages, on both ends of
the bridge. The cars push down on the roadway, but because
the roadway is suspended, the cables transfer the load into
compression in the two towers. The two towers support most of
the bridge's weight.
 Types of Bridges

Cable--Stayed Bridge
Cable

The cable-stayed bridge, like the suspension bridge, supports

the roadway with massive steel cables, but in a different way.
The cables run directly from the roadway up to a tower, forming
a unique "A" shape.
Cable-stayed bridges are becoming the most popular bridges
for medium-length spans (between 500 and 3,000 feet).
 Types of Bridges

Cable--Stayed Bridge
Cable

• A bridge that consists of one or more pylons with cables.

• There are two major classes of cable-stayed bridges such as a
harp design & a fan design.
• The cable-stay design is best suited for a medium span range.
• The towers form the primary load-bearing structure.
• It has greater stiffness.
• The cables act as both temporary & permanent supports to the
bridge-deck.
• The tower in a cable-stayed bridge is responsible for absorbing
and dealing with the compression forces while the cables are
under tension.
 Types of Bridges

Cantilever Bridge
• A bridge built using cantilevers, structures that project
horizontally into space, supported on only one end.
• For small foot bridges, the cantilevers may be simple beams;
however, large cantilever bridges are designed using trusses.
• These are constructed for short to medium span ranges.
• Cantilevers support loads by tension of the upper members &
compression of the lower ones.
Forces
Every bar in this cantilever bridge experiences either a pushing or
pulling force. The bars rarely bend. This is why cantilever bridges
can span farther than beam bridges
 Aesthetic requirements :

An ugly bridge, however safe, serviceable, and inexpensive,

is not a good bridge.

Long span bridge over a river can be a landmark; thus,
aesthetics should be an important factor.

Bridge should blend with the environment.

Smooth transition between members.

Avoid unnecessary decorations.

Bridge should have an appearance of adequate strength.

Determinant of bridge’s appearance (in order of importance).

Vertical and Horizontal geometry relative to surrounding
topography and other structures.

Superstructure type: arch , girder, etc…

Pier placement

Abutment placement

Superstructure shape, parapet and railing

Pier shape

Abutment shape

Color, surface texture, ornamentations

Signing, Lighting, Landscaping
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS FOR ROAD BRIDGES

The Indian road congress (IRC) has formulated standard

specifications and codes of practice for road bridges with a
view to establish a common procedure for the design and
construction of road bridges in India.
THE IRC BRIDGE CODE As available now consists of eight
sections as below
1. Section I - general features of design
2. Section II - loads and stresses
3. Section III - cement concrete (plain and reinforced)
4. Section IV - brick, stone and block masonry
5. Section V - steel road bridges
6. Section VI - composite construction
7. Section VII -foundations and substructure
8. Section VIII - bearings.
SECTION I Gives the specifications for the preliminary data
to be collected, determination of design discharge,
clearances, foundations etc.
SECTION II Specifies the loadings for which the bridges
have to be designed.
The other sections gives rules for guidance in design of the
bridge superstructure in masonry, reinforced concrete, steel
and composite construction, foundations and bearings.
General guidelines for the design of prestressed concrete
bridges are given in a separate publication.
 LOADS TO BE CONSIDERED
While designing road bridges and culverts, the following
loads, forces and stresses should be considered, where
applicable:
A. Dead load
B. Live load
C. Snow load
D. Impact or dynamic effect due to vehicles
E. Impact due to floating bodies or vessels
F. Wind load
G.Longitudinal forces caused by the tractive effort of vehicles
or by braking of vehicles
H. Longitudinal forces due to frictional resistance of expansion
bearings
I. Centrifugal forces due to curvature
J. Horizontal forces due to water currents
K. Buoyancy
L. Earth pressure, including live load surcharge
M.Temperature effects
N. Deformation effects
O.Secondary effects
P. Erection stress
Q. Forces and effects due to earth quake
R. Wave pressure

All members should be designed to sustain any
combination of the above forces that can coexist

Typical combination of loads and forces to be
considered in design and allowable increase in
permissible stresses for certain combinations are given
in the code.

Under any combinations maximum stress in steel
members should not exceed the yield strength of steel.
Carriageway
Kerb
 IRC STANDARD LIVE LOADS

Live loads are those caused by vehicles, which pass over

the bridge and are transient in nature. These loads cannot
be estimated precisely, and the designer has very little
control over them once the bridge is opened to traffic.
However hypothetical loadings, which are reasonably
realistic need to be evolved and specified to serve as
design criteria.

There are four types of standard loadings for which road
bridges are designed.
IRC CLASS AA LOADING
 Notes:-

The nose to tail spacing between two successive

vehicles shall not be less than 90 m.

For multi-lane bridges and culverts, one train of class AA,

tracked or wheeled vehicles, whichever creates severer
condition, shall be considered for every two traffic lane
width.
No other live load shall be considered on any part of the
said 3-lane width carriageway of the bridge when the
above mentioned train of vehicles is crossing the bridge.

The maximum loads for the wheeled vehicle shall be
200kN for a single axle.
400kN for a bogie of two axles spaced not more than 1.2m
centers.

The minimum clearance between the road face of the
kerb and the outer edge of the wheel of track C, shall
be as under.
IRC CLASS 70R LOADING

In recent years, there is an increasing tendency to
specify this loading in place of class AA loading. This
loading consists of a tracked vehicle of 700kN or a
wheeled vehicle of total load of 1000kN.

The tracked vehicle is similar to that of class AA

except that the contact length of the track is 4.57m,
the nose to tail length of the vehicle is 7.92m and the
specified minimum spacing between successive
vehicles is 30m.

The wheeled vehicle is 15.22m long and has seven
axles with loads totaling to 1000kN. In addition, the
effects on the bridge components due to a bogie loading
of 400kN are also to be checked.

The dimensions of the class 70R loading vehicles are

shown in fig.

The specified spacing between vehicles is measured

from the rear most point of ground contact of the leading
vehicle to the forward most point of ground contact of
the following vehicle in case of tracked vehicles; for
wheeled vehicles it is measured from the center of the
rear most wheel of the leading vehicle to the center of
the first axle of the following vehicle.
IRC CLASS A LOADING
Notes:-

The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall

not be less than 18.4 m.

No other live load shall cover any part of the

carriageway when a train of vehicles is crossing the
bridge.

The ground contact area of the wheels shall be as

under:
Axle load Ground contact Area
kN B in mm W in mm
114 250 500
68 200 300
27 150 200
 Clear carriageway width g f
5.5m to 7.5 m Uniformly increasing from 0.15
0.4 to 1.2
Above 7.5 m 1.2 m

The minimum clearance f between the outer edge of

then wheel and roadway face of the kerb, and the
minimum clearance g, between the outer edges of
passing or crossing vehicles, on multi-lane bridges shall
be as given below.

Class A loading is to be normally adopted on all roads on

which permanent bridges and culverts are constructed.
IRC CLASS B LOADING
Notes:-

The nose to tail distance between successive trains shall

not be less than 18.4 m.

No other live load shall cover any part of the

carriageway when a train of vehicles is crossing the
bridge.

The ground contact area of the wheels shall be as

under:
Axle load Ground contact Area
kN B in mm W in mm
68 200 380
42 150 300
16 125 175
 Clear carriageway width g f
5.5m to 7.5 m Uniformly increasing from 0.15
0.4 to 1.2
Above 7.5 m 1.2 m

The minimum clearance f between the outer edge of

then wheel and roadway face of the kerb, and the
minimum clearance g, between the outer edges of
passing or crossing vehicles, on multi-lane bridges shall
be as given below.

This loading is intended to be adopted for temporary

structures; timber bridges and bridges in specified areas.
 IMPACT EFFECT

Live load train produce higher stresses than those

which would be caused if the loading vehicles were
stationary.

In order to take into account the increase in stresses
due to dynamic action and still proceed with simpler
statistical analysis, an impact allowance is made.

For foot bridges, no allowance need be made for
impact.

The impact allowance is expressed as a fraction or
percentage of the applied live load, and is computed as
below :
A. For I.R.C CLASS A or B Loading
I = A/(B+L)
Where I = impact factor fraction
A = constant of value 4.5 for R.C. Bridge and 9.0 for
steel bridges
B = constant of value 6.0 for reinforced concrete bridges

L = span in meters.

For spans less than 3 meters,

Impact factor is 0.5 for R.C. Bridges and 0.545 for steel
bridges

When span exceeds 45 meters, the impact factor is
taken as 0.154 for steel bridges and 0.088 for R.C
bridges. Alternatively, the impact factor fraction may be
determined from the curves given in fig
B. For IRC CLASS AA or 70 R Loading:
A. For spans less than 9m
I. For tracked vehicle 25% for spans up to 5m
linearly reducing to 10% for spans of 9m
II. For wheeled vehicle 25%
B. For spans of 9m and more
C. For tracked vehicle - for R.C. Bridges, 10% up to
span of 40m and in accordance with fig for spans
exceeding 40m. For steel bridges, 10% for all
spans
D. For wheeled vehicle - for R.C bridges, 25% for
spans up to 12m and in accordance with fig for
spans exceeding 12m. For steel bridges, 25% for
spans up to 23m, and as in fig. For spans
exceeding 23m.

The span length to be considered in the above
computations is determined as below:
I. Simply supported, continuous or arch spans the
effective span on which the load is placed
II. Bridges having cantilever arm without suspended span
- 0.75 of effective cantilever arm for loads on the
cantilever arm and the effective span between
supports for loads on the main span.

When there is a filling of not less than 0.6m including
the road crust as in spandrel filled arches, the impact
allowance may be taken as half that computed by the
above procedure.
 Full impact allowance should be made for design of
bearings. But for computing the pressure at different
levels of the substructure, a reduced impact allowance
is made by multiplying the appropriate impact fraction by
factor as below:

I. At the bottom of bed block - 0.5

II. For top 3m of the sub-structure below the be block , 0.5
decreasing uniformly to zero
III.For portion of the substructure more than 3m below the
bed block - 0.0
 APPLICATION OF LIVE LOADS ON DECK SLABS:

Any rational method may be used for calculating the effect of

concentrated loads on deck slabs. The disposition of the
loading should be so arranged as to produce the maximum
bending moment or shear for the deck slab.

In case of deck slabs spanning in one direction or cantilever
slabs, the bending moment per unit width of slab caused by
concentrated loads can be calculated by estimating the width
of slab that may be taken as effective in resisting the bending
moment due to the concentrated loads.

For precast slabs, the actual width of each precast unit should
be taken as the width of slab. Slabs designed on this basis
need not be checked for shear.
 SLABS SUPPORTED ON TWO SIDES

The maximum bending moment caused by a wheel

load may be assumed to be resisted by an effective
width of slab-measured parallel to the supporting
edges.

The effective width of a single concentrated load is
computed from equation
be = k x (1-x/l) + bw --------(1)

Where be = the effective width of slab on which the

load acts.
L = The effective span in the case of simply supported
slabs and equal to the clear span in the case of
continuous slabs.
x = The distance of the center of gravity of the
concentrated load from the near support.
bw= the breadth of the concentration area, of the load, i.e.,
the dimension of the tyre or track contact area over the
road surface of the slab in a direction at right angles to
the span plus twice the thickness of the wearing coat or
surface finish above the structural slab.
K = a constant having values as shown in table depending
on the ratio LI/L where be is the width of the slab.

Obviously the effective width should no exceed the actual

width of the slab.

Further, when a concentrated load is close to the
unsupported edge of a slab, the effective width shall not
exceed the above value nor half the above plus the
distance of the load from the unsupported edge.

For two or more concentrated loads in a line in the direction
of the span, the bending moment per meter width of slab
shall be calculated separately for each load according to its
appropriate effective width of slab from eqn 1.

For two or more concentrated loads in a direction

perpendicular to the direction of the span, it may sometimes
happen that the computed effective widths for two adjacent
loads overlap. In such cases, the resultant effective width
will be equal to the sum of individual widths minus the
overlap.
 CANTILEVER SLAB

The effective width of dispersion measured parallel to the

supported edge, for concentrated loads on a cantilever solid
slab is to be obtained from eqn.
be = 1.2x + bw ……. --------------------
Where be = effective width
x = distance of the center of gravity of the
concentrated load from the face of the cantilever
support.
bw = the breadth of the concentration area of the load, i.e., the
dimension of the tyre or track contact area over the road
surface of the slab in a direction parallel to the
supporting edge of the cantilever plus twice the thickness
of the wearing coat over the structural slab.

The effective width should be limited to one-third the
length of the cantilever slab measured parallel to the
support.

Further, when the concentrated load is placed near one of
the two extreme ends of the length of the cantilever slab in
the direction parallel to the support, the effective width
should not exceed the above value, nor should it exceed
half the above value plus the distance of the concentrated
load from the nearer extreme end, measured in the
direction parallel to the fixed edge when two or more loads
act on the slab, and when effective width for one load
overlaps the effective width of the adjacent load, the
resultant effective width should be taken as the sum of the
respective effective widths for each load minus the width
of overlap.
DISPERSION OF LIVE LOAD THROUGH DECK SLAB

The effective length of slab on which a wheel load or track

load acts shall be taken as equal to the dimension of the
tyre contact area over the wearing surface of slab in the
direction of the span plus twice the overall thickness of the
slab inclusive of the thickness of the wearing surface.
Courbon's method :

According to Courbon's method, the reaction Ri of the

cross beam on any girder I of a typical bridge consisting of
multiple parallel beam is computed assuming a linear
variation of deflection in the transverse direction. The
deflection will be maximum on the exterior girder on the
side of the eccentric load or e.g. of loads if there is a
system of concentrated loads) and minimum of the other
exterior girder.
 Assumptions for Applicability of Courbon's method :

Simply put, this method for transverse load distribution

among the deck longitudinal is applicable mainly to beam and
slab type decks which are straight in plan (no skew and no
curve).

The longitudinal beams must be interconnection by
symmetrically spaced, rigid cross beams that are at least five
in number (one above each support, and at least three
intermediate cross beams, equally spaced),such that they are
not more than about 9 m apart. The cross beams should
preferably be cast monolithically with the longitudinal or
should be cast at least before any other gravity loads
(besides the self weight of the main beams) comes on. The
stiffness of cross girders is much greater than that of the
longitudinal girders.

The ratio of span to width is greater than 2 but less than 4
i.e. the bridge should be long.

The longitudinal effect span 2a should preferably be

simply supported, and its ratio with the effect width 2b,
equal to the product of the number of main beams and the
spacing between main beams should be between 2 and 4.

The cross girders extend to a depth of atleast 0.75 of the

depth of the longitudinal girders.This is done so as to
avoid anchoring of steel which may interfere with the main
steel.

The bridge structure may have longitudinal girders of

same or different moment of inertia and may have uniform
or non - uniform girder spacing.

Under the effect of loading, the transverse profile of the
bridge deck maintains a straight geometry.
What is a Girder Bridge?

Girder bridges are among the most common and most
basic bridges (for example, a tree spanning a creek).

Girders are heavily relied upon to provide strength and
stability to these bridges.

There are two common types of girders:
I-Beam Girders
Box Girders
I-Beam Girders

I-beam girders get their

name simply by their
design.

Consists of one vertical
plate (“the web”) and two
horizontal plates
(“flanges”).

I-beam girders are used for
typically most small
bridges without any curves
in them.
 Box Girders

Box girders are similar to I-

beam girders except for the fact
that they take on the shape of a
box.

They consist of two “webs” and
two “flanges” to make the shape
of a box.

Unlike I-beams, box girders are
used to span longer distances
and in instances where the
bridge must curve for better
stability.
 Advantages and Disadvantages

I-Beam Girders Box Girders

Simple design
Increased stability

Works well with most
Increased resistance
applications
Used for longer bridges

Easy fabrication with curves
Disadvantages

Cannot be used on
More difficult to
bridges with curves fabricate than I-beams
(subject to torque)
More costly

Cannot span long
distances
 Other types of Girder Bridges

Rolled Steel Girder Bridge: made of I-beams that are rolled into
that shape at a steel mill. These are useful for spans between
10 meters and 30 meters.

Plate Girder Bridge: Made out of flat steel sections that are
later welded or fabricated into an I-beam shape. Useful for
spans between 10 meters to over 100 meters.

Concrete Girder Bridge: Made of concrete girders in an I-beam
shape.
 Examples of Girder Bridges

To the left: The top bridge is a plate girder bridge while the
bottom is a concrete girder bridge.

To the right: A box girder bridge.