Yoga (philosophy)

Yoga philosophy is one of the six major orthodox schools of Hinduism.[1][2] Ancient, medieval and most
modern literature often refers to the Yoga school of Hinduism simply as Yoga.[1][3] It is closely related to the
Samkhya school of Hinduism. The Yoga school's systematic studies to better oneself physically, mentally
and spiritually has influenced all other schools of Indian philosophy.[4][5] The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali is a
key text of the Yoga school of Hinduism.[6]

The epistemology of the Yoga school of Hinduism, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six Pramanas
as the means of gaining reliable knowledge.[7] These include Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference)
and Sabda (Āptavacana, word/testimony of reliable sources).[8][9] The metaphysics of Yoga is built on the
same dualist foundation as the Samkhya school.[6] The universe is conceptualized as composed of two
realities in the Samhkya-Yoga schools: Puruṣa (consciousness) and prakriti (matter). Jiva (a living being) is
considered as a state in which puruṣa is bonded to prakriti in some form, in various permutations and
combinations of various elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.[10] During the state of imbalance or
ignorance, one or more constituents overwhelm the others, creating a form of bondage. The end of this
bondage is called liberation, or moksha, by both the Yoga and Samkhya schools of Hinduism.[11] The ethical
theory of the Yoga school is based on Yamas and Niyama, as well as elements of the Guṇa theory of
Samkhya.[6]

The Yoga school of Hinduism differs from the closely related non-theistic/atheistic Samkhya school by
incorporating the concept of a "personal, yet essentially inactive, deity" or "personal god"
(Ishvara).[12][13][14] While the Samkhya school suggests that jnana (knowledge) is a sufficient means to
moksha, the Yoga school suggests that systematic techniques and practice, or personal experimentation,
combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge, is the path to moksha.[6] Yoga shares several central
ideas with the Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism, with the difference that Yoga philosophy is a form of
experimental mysticism, while Advaita Vedanta is a form of monistic personalism.[15][16][17] Advaita
Vedanta, and other schools of Hinduism, accept, adopt and build upon many of the teachings and techniques
of Yoga.

Contents
History
Six darsanas
Philosophy
Epistemology
Metaphysics
Axiology
Soteriology
God in Yoga school of Hinduism
Text sources
See also
References
Sources
Printed sources
Further reading
External links

History
The origins of the Yoga school of Hinduism are unclear. Some of its
earliest discussions are found in 1st millennium BCE Indian texts
such as the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the
Maitri Upanishad.[18]

The root of "Yoga" is found in hymn 5.81.1 of the Rig Veda, a

dedication to rising Sun-god in the morning (Savitri), interpreted as
"yoke" or "yogically control".[19]

यु ते मन उत यु ते िधयो िव ा िव य बृहतो िवपि तः

(…)[20]

Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [यु ते ,

yunjante] control their minds and their intelligence...
(…)[19]

— Rigveda 5.81.1
Bronze figure of a Kashmiri in
Meditation by Malvina Hoffman
The Rig Veda, however, does not describe Yoga philosophy with the
(1885-1966). The yoga posture
same meaning or context as in medieval or modern times. Early
shown is siddhasana.
references to practices that later became part of Yoga school of
Hinduism, are made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the oldest
Upanishad. Gavin Flood translates it as, "...having become calm and
concentrated, one perceives the self (atman), within oneself." The practice of pranayama (consciously
regulating breath) is mentioned in hymn 1.5.23 of Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. ~ 900 BCE), and the
practice of pratyahara (concentrating all of one's senses on self) is mentioned in hymn 8.15 of Chandogya
Upanishad (c. ~ 800-700 BCE).[21][22]

The Katha Upanishad, dated to be from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, in verses 2.6.6 through
2.6.13 recommends a path to Self-knowledge, and calls this path Yoga.[23]

यदा प चावित ठ ते ानािन मनसा सह ।

बुि न िवचे टते तामाहुः परम गितम् ॥ १० ॥
त योगिमित म य ते ि थरािमि यधारणाम् ।
अ म तदा भवित योगो िह भवा ययौ ॥ ११ ॥[24]

Only when Manas (mind) with thoughts and the five senses stand still,
and when Buddhi (intellect, power to reason) does not waver, that they call the highest path.
That is what one calls Yoga, the stillness of the senses, concentration of the mind,
It is not thoughtless heedless sluggishness, Yoga is creation and dissolution.

— Katha Upanishad, 2.6.10-11[25][26]

The Yoga school of Hinduism is mentioned in foundational texts of other orthodox schools such as the
Vaisesikha Sutras, Nyaya Sutras and Brahma Sutras, which suggests that the Yoga philosophy was in vogue
in the 1st millennium BCE.[27] It influenced and was influenced by other schools and Indian philosophies.
There are, for example, numerous parallels in the concepts in the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga and
the Abhidharma schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes
Larson.[18] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of
Hinduism, the Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" (adhyavasaya) of prakrti and purusa
(dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, as well its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable
knowledge.[18] From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi, suggests Larson, the Yoga Sutras
adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness, but unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is neither
self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist like Samkhya in believing that each individual has a self and
soul.[18] The third concept that the Yoga Sutras synthesize into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions
of isolation, meditation and introspection.[18]

The systematic collection of ideas of the Yoga school of Hinduism is found in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
After its circulation in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then
published their Bhāṣya (notes and commentary) on it, which together form a canon of texts called the
Pātañjalayogaśāstra ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali").[28][29]

Six darsanas

The Yoga school of Hinduism has been included as one of the six orthodox schools in medieval era Indian
texts.[30] The other schools are Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.[31]

Philosophy
The Yoga school of Hindu philosophy is most closely related to the Samkhya school. In both, the
foundational concepts include two realities: Purusha and Prakriti.[31] The Purusha is defined as that reality
which is pure consciousness and is devoid of thoughts or qualities. The Prakriti is the empirical,
phenomenal reality which includes matter and also mind, sensory organs and the sense of identity (self,
soul).[31] A living being is held in both schools to be the union of matter and mind. The Yoga school differs
from the Samkhya school in its views on the ontology of Purusha, on axiology and on soteriology.[32][33]

Epistemology

Yoga school, like Samkhya school, considers Pratyakṣa or Dṛṣṭam (direct sense perception), Anumāna
(inference), and Śabda or Āptavacana (verbal testimony of the sages or shāstras) to be the only valid means
of knowledge or Pramana.[8] Unlike few other schools of Hinduism such as Advaita Vedanta, Yoga did not
adopt the following three Pramanas: Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy), Arthāpatti (postulation, deriving
from circumstances) or Anupalabdi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).[9]
Pratyakṣa ( य ाय) means perception. It is of two types
in Hindu texts: external and internal. External perception is
described as that arising from the interaction of five
senses and worldly objects, while internal perception is
described by this school as that of inner sense, the
mind.[34][35] The ancient and medieval Indian texts identify
four requirements for correct perception:[36]
Indriyarthasannikarsa (direct experience by one's sensory
organ(s) with the object, whatever is being studied),
Avyapadesya (non-verbal; correct perception is not
through hearsay, according to ancient Indian scholars,
where one's sensory organ relies on accepting or rejecting
someone else's perception), Avyabhicara (does not
wander; correct perception does not change, nor is it the
result of deception because one's sensory organ or means
of observation is drifting, defective, suspect) and
Vyavasayatmaka (definite; correct perception excludes
judgments of doubt, either because of one's failure to
observe all the details, or because one is mixing inference
with observation and observing what one wants to
observe, or not observing what one does not want to The Yoga school considers
observe). [36] Some ancient scholars proposed "unusual perception, inference and reliable
perception" as pramana and called it internal perception, a testimony as three reliable means to
proposal contested by other Indian scholars. The internal knowledge.[8][9]
perception concepts included pratibha (intuition),
samanyalaksanapratyaksa (a form of induction from
perceived specifics to a universal), and jnanalaksanapratyaksa (a form of perception of prior
processes and previous states of a 'topic of study' by observing its current state).[37] Further,
some schools of Hinduism considered and refined rules of accepting uncertain knowledge
from Pratyakṣa-pranama, so as to contrast nirnaya (definite judgment, conclusion) from
anadhyavasaya (indefinite judgment).[38]
Anumāṇa (अनुमान) means inference. It is described as reaching a new conclusion and truth
from one or more observations and previous truths by applying reason.[39] Observing smoke
and inferring fire is an example of Anumana.[34] In all except one Hindu philosophies,[40] this is
a valid and useful means to knowledge. The method of inference is explained by Indian texts
as consisting of three parts: pratijna (hypothesis), hetu (a reason), and drshtanta
(examples).[41] The hypothesis must further be broken down into two parts, state the ancient
Indian scholars: sadhya (that idea which needs to proven or disproven) and paksha (the object
on which the sadhya is predicated). The inference is conditionally true if sapaksha (positive
examples as evidence) are present, and if vipaksha (negative examples as counter-evidence)
are absent. For rigor, the Indian philosophies also state further epistemic steps. For example,
they demand Vyapti – the requirement that the hetu (reason) must necessarily and separately
account for the inference in "all" cases, in both sapaksha and vipaksha.[41][42] A conditionally
proven hypothesis is called a nigamana (conclusion).[43]
Śabda (श ) means relying on word, testimony of past or present reliable experts.[44][45]
Hiriyanna explains Sabda-pramana as a concept which means reliable expert testimony. The
schools of Hinduism which consider it epistemically valid suggest that a human being needs to
know numerous facts, and with the limited time and energy available, he can learn only a
fraction of those facts and truths directly.[46] He must cooperate with others to rapidly acquire
and share knowledge and thereby enrich each other's lives. This means of gaining proper
knowledge is either spoken or written, but through Sabda (words).[46] The reliability of the
source is important, and legitimate knowledge can only come from the Sabda of reliable
 sources.[44][46] The disagreement between the schools of Hinduism has been on how to
establish reliability. Some schools, such as Carvaka, state that this is never possible, and
therefore Sabda is not a proper pramana. Other schools debate means to establish
reliability.[47]

Metaphysics

The metaphysics of Yoga school, again like Samkhya school, is a form of dualism. It considers
consciousness and matter, self/soul and body as two different realities.[48][49]

The Samkhya-Yoga system espouses dualism between consciousness and matter by postulating two
"irreducible, innate and independent realities: Purusha and Prakriti. While the Prakriti is a single entity, the
Samkhya-Yoga schools admit a plurality of the Puruṣas in this world. Unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused,
ever-active, imperceptible and eternal Prakriti is alone the final source of the world of objects. The Puruṣa
is considered as the conscious principle, a passive enjoyer (bhokta) and the Prakriti is the enjoyed (bhogya).
Samkhya-Yoga believes that the Puruṣa cannot be regarded as the source of inanimate world, because an
intelligent principle cannot transform itself into the unconscious world. This metaphysics is a pluralistic
spiritualism, a form of realism built on the foundation of dualism.[50]

Yoga school of Hinduism adopts the theory of Guṇa from Samkhya.[6] Guṇas theory states that three gunas
(innate tendency, attributes) are present in different proportions in all beings, and these three are sattva guna
(goodness, constructive, harmonious), rajas guna (passion, active, confused), and tamas guna (darkness,
destructive, chaotic).[51][52] These three are present in every being but in different proportions, and the
fundamental nature and psychological dispositions of beings is a consequence of the relative proportion of
these three gunas.[6] When sattva guna predominates an individual, the qualities of lucidity, wisdom,
constructiveness, harmonious, and peacefulness manifest themselves; when rajas is predominant,
attachment, craving, passion-driven activity and restlessness manifest; and when tamas predominates in an
individual, ignorance, delusion, destructive behavior, lethargy, and suffering manifests. The guṇas theory
underpins the philosophy of mind in Yoga school of Hinduism.[6]

The early scholars of Yoga philosophy, posit that the Puruṣa (consciousness) by its nature is sattva
(constructive), while Prakriti (matter) by its nature is tamas (chaotic).[6] They further posit that individuals
at birth have buddhi (intelligence, sattvic). As life progresses and churns this buddhi, it creates asmita or
ahamkara (ego, rajasic). When ego in turn is churned by life, manas (temper, mood, tamasic) is produced.
Together, buddhi, ahamkara and manas interact and constitute citta (mind) in Yoga school of Hinduism.[6]
Unrestrained modification of citta causes suffering. A way of life that empowers one to become ever more
aware of one's consciousness and spirituality innate in buddhi, is the path to one's highest potential and a
more serene, content, liberated life. Patanjali's Yoga sutra begins, in verse 2 of Book 1, by defining Yoga as
"restraining the Citta from Vrittis."[53]

Axiology

Axiology in the texts of Yoga school of Hindu philosophy include both a theory of values through the
observances of positive values and avoidance of negative, as well as an aesthetic theory on bliss from
intrinsic and extrinsic perspectives.[54][55] The values to be observed are called Niyamas, while those to be
avoided are referred in the Yamas in Yoga philosophy.

Over sixty different ancient and medieval era texts of Yoga philosophy discuss Yamas and Niyamas.[56][57]
The specific theory and list of values varies between the texts, however, Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Svādhyāya,
Kșhamā, and Dayā are among the predominantly discussed ethical concepts by majority of these texts.[56]
The five yamas listed by Patañjali in Yogasūtra 2.30 are:[58]

1. Ahiṃsā (अिहंसा): Nonviolence, non-harming other living beings[59]

2. Satya (स य): truthfulness, non-falsehood[59][60]
3. Asteya (अ ते य): non-stealing[59]
4. Brahmacarya ( चय): celibacy, non-cheating on one's partner[60]
5. Aparigraha (अप र हः): non-avarice,[59] non-possessiveness[60]

Patanjali, in Book 2, explains how and why each of the above self restraints help in the personal growth of
an individual. For example, in verse II.35, Patanjali states that the virtue of nonviolence and non-injury to
others (Ahimsa) leads to the abandonment of enmity, a state that leads the yogi to the perfection of inner and
outer amity with everyone, everything.[61][62] Other texts of the Yoga school of Hinduism include Kṣamā
( मा, forgiveness),[63] Dhṛti (धृित, fortitude, non-giving up in adversity), Dayā (दया, compassion),[63]
Ārjava (आजव, non-hypocrisy)[64] and Mitāhāra (िमतहार, measured diet).[65]

The Niyamas part of theory of values in the Yoga school include virtuous habits, behaviors and
observances.[66][67] The Yogasutra lists the niyamas as:[68]

1. Śauca: purity, clearness of mind, speech and body[69]

2. Santoṣa: contentment, acceptance of others, acceptance of one's circumstances as they are
in order to get past or change them, optimism for self[70]
3. Tapas: persistence, perseverance, austerity[71][72]
4. Svādhyāya: study of Vedas (see Sabda in epistemology section), study of self, self-reflection,
introspection of self's thoughts, speeches and actions[72][73]
5. Īśvarapraṇidhāna: contemplation of the Ishvara (God/Supreme Being, Brahman, True Self,
Unchanging Reality)[70][74]

As with Yamas, Patanjali explains how and why each of the above Niyamas help in the personal growth of
an individual. For example, in verse II.42, Patanjali states that the virtue of contentment and acceptance of
others as they are (Santoṣa) leads to the state where inner sources of joy matter most, and the craving for
external sources of pleasant ceases.[75] Other texts of the Yoga school expanded the list of values under
Niyamas, to include behaviors such as Āstika (आि तक, belief in personal God, faith in Self, conviction that
there is knowledge in Vedas/Upanishads), Dāna (दान , charity, sharing with others),[76] Hrī ( ी, remorse and
acceptance of one's past/mistakes/ignorance, modesty)[77] Mati (मित, think and reflect, reconcile conflicting
ideas)[78] and Vrata ( त, resolutions and vows, fast, pious observances).[79][80][81]

Soteriology

Yoga school of Hinduism holds that ignorance is the cause of suffering and saṁsāra.[6] Liberation, like
many other schools, is removal of ignorance, which is achieved through discriminative discernment,
knowledge and self-awareness. The Yoga Sūtras is Yoga school's treatise on how to accomplish this.[6]
Samādhi is the state where ecstatic awareness develops, state Yoga scholars, and this is how one starts the
process of becoming aware of Purusa and true Self. It further claims that this awareness is eternal, and once
this awareness is achieved, a person cannot ever cease being aware; this is moksha, the soteriological goal in
Hinduism.[6]

Book 3 of Patanjali's Yogasutra is dedicated to soteriological aspects of yoga philosophy. Patanjali begins by
stating that all limbs of yoga are necessary foundation to reaching the state of self-awareness, freedom and
liberation. He refers to the three last limbs of yoga as sanyama, in verses III.4 to III.5, and calls it the
technology for "discerning principle" and mastery of citta and self-
knowledge.[82][83] In verse III.12, the Yogasutras state that this
discerning principle then empowers one to perfect sant (tranquility)
and udita (reason) in one's mind and spirit, through intentness. This
leads to one's ability to discern the difference between sabda (word),
artha (meaning) and pratyaya (understanding), and this ability
empowers one to compassionately comprehend the cry/speech of all
living beings.[84][85] Once a yogi reaches this state of sanyama, it
leads to unusual powers, intuition, self-knowledge, freedoms and
kaivalya, the soteriological goal of the yogi.[84]

The benefits of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism is then summarized in

verses III.46 to III.55 of Yogasutras, stating that the first 5 limbs The fusion of Dharana, Dhyana and
leads to bodily perfections such as beauty, loveliness, strength and Samadhi is Sanyama – the path to
toughness; while the last 3 limbs through sanyama leads to mind and Moksha or Kaivalya in Yoga school.
psychological perfections of perceptiveness, one's nature, mastery
over egoism, discriminative knowledge of purity, self and
soul.[86][87] This knowledge once reached is irreversible, states Yogasutra's Book IV.

God in Yoga school of Hinduism

Yoga philosophy allows the concept of God, unlike the closely related Samkhya school of Hinduism which
is atheistic/non-theistic.[32] Hindu scholars such as the 8th century Adi Sankara, as well many modern
academic scholars describe the Yoga school as "Samkya school with God."[2][13][33]

The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali use the term Isvara in 11 verses: I.23 through I.29, II.1, II.2, II.32 and II.45.
Ever since the Sutras' release, Hindu scholars have debated and commented on who or what is Isvara. These
commentaries range from defining Isvara as a "personal god" to a "special self" to "anything that has
spiritual significance to the individual".[13][88] Whicher explains that while Patanjali's terse verses can be
interpreted both as theistic or non-theistic, Patanjali's concept of Isvara in Yoga philosophy functions as a
"transformative catalyst or guide for aiding the yogin on the path to spiritual emancipation".[89]

Patanjali defines Isvara (Sanskrit: ई र) in verse 24 of Book 1, as "a special Self (पु षिवशे ष, puruṣa-
viśeṣa)",[90]

Sanskrit: ले श कम िवपाकाशयैःपरामृ टः पु षिवशे ष ई रः ॥२४॥

– Yoga Sutras I.24

This sutra of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism adds the characteristics of Isvara as that special Self which is
unaffected (अपरामृ ट, aparamrsta) by one's obstacles/hardships ( ले श, klesha), one's circumstances
created by the past or by one's current actions (कम, karma), one's life fruits (िवपाक, vipâka), and one's
psychological dispositions or intentions (आशय, ashaya).[91][92]

Text sources
The most studied ancient and medieval era texts of the Yoga school of philosophy include those by Patanjali,
Bhaskara, Haribhadra (Jain scholar), Bhoja, and Hemachandra.[6][93]
References to the teachings of the Yoga school of Hinduism abound in ancient Indian texts of other orthodox
schools of Hinduism, for example, verse 5.2.17[94] of Vaisheshika Sutra by Kanada, belonging to the
Vaisheshika school of Hinduism and dated to be from the 1st millennium BCE,[95] states[96]

Pleasure and pain results from contact of soul, sense, mind and object. Non-origination of that
follows when the mind becomes steady in the soul. After it, there is non-existence of pain in the
embodied soul. This is that Yoga.

— Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 5.2.15-5.2.16, [96]

The Nyāya Sūtras by Akshapada variously dated to be from 4th to 2nd century BCE,[95] and belonging to
the Nyaya school of Hinduism, in chapter 4.2 discusses the importance of Yoga philosophy as follows,[27]

We are instructed to practice meditation in such places as a forest, a cave or a sand-bank. Such
possibilities [the opponent claims] may occur even in release. It is, we reply, not so, because
knowledge must spring up only in a body already in the state of formation. And there is absence
of a body in our release. For that purpose, there should be a purifying of our soul by abstinence
from evil, and observance of certain virtues, as well as by following the spiritual injunctions
gleaned from Yoga. To secure release [moksha], it is necessary to study and follow this treatise
on knowledge [Yoga], as well as to hold discussions with those learned in that treatise.

— Nyaya Sūtra 4.2.42-4.2.47, [97]

The Brahma Sutras by Badarayana dated to somewhere between the 5th century BCE[98] and the 2nd
century BCE,[95] belonging to the Vedanta school of Hinduism, in chapter 2 assumes the existence of a text
called Yoga Smriti. Scholars contest whether this text was a precursor or the same as Patanjali's Yogasutra,
but either premise is uncertain.[27] The verses of Brahma Sutras assert that dualism of the prevailing Yoga
philosophy is refuted, as the value of Yoga is as a means to realization of the Self, not in propositions about
Self that is in conflict with the Vedic texts. Radhakrishnan translates the text as follows,

If it is said that there will result the defect of not allowing room for certain Smritis, we say not
so, because there will result the defect of not allowing room for some other smritis [further
knowledge], and on account of the non-perception of others. Thereby [pradhāna theory of] the
Yoga Smriti is refuted.

— Brahma Sūtra 2.1.1-2.1.3, [99][100]

The Yoga Vasistha is a syncretic text on Yoga philosophy, variously dated to be from 6th- to 14th-century
CE.[101] It is structured as a dialogue between sage Vasistha of the Vedic era and the philosopher-king Rama
of the Hindu epic Ramayana.[102] The text synthesizes elements of Vedanta, Jainism, Yoga, Samkhya, Saiva
Siddhanta and Mahayana Buddhism.[102] Among other things, the text discusses Yoga philosophy in its
various chapters. In section 6.1, Yoga Vasistha introduces Yoga as follows,[103]

Yoga is the utter transcendence of the mind and is of two types. Self-knowledge is one type,
another is the restraint of the life-force of self limitations and psychological conditioning. Yoga
has come to mean only the latter, yet both the methods lead to the same result. To some, Self-
knowledge through inquiry is difficult, to others Yoga is difficult. But my conviction is that the
path of inquiry is easy for all, because Self-knowledge is the ever-present truth. I shall now
describe to you the method of Yoga.
 — Vasistha to Rama, Yoga Vasistha 6.1.12-13, [103]

See also
Rāja yoga
Bhakti yoga
Cittabhumi
Jnana yoga
Karma yoga
Shinshin-tōitsu-dō, Japanese yoga

References
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Google Books, PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8
3. Mike Burley (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience,
Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, pages 43-46 and Introduction chapter
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9. * Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy
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Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)
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Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805033, pages 36-47
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Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-64887-5, page 39-41
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Akhilananda, Swami; Allport, Gordon W. (1999). Hindu Psychology. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-
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Further reading
Alain Daniélou (1991), Yoga: Mastering the Secrets of Matter and the Universe, ISBN 978-0-
89281-301-8, Appendix D: Main Sanskrit Treatises on Yoga
Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers
University Press, ISBN 978-0-8135-4068-9, Chapter 5
Karl Potter (2009), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Vol. 1: Bibliography, ISBN 978-
8120803084, Bibliography on Yoga school of Hinduism, pages 1073–1093
Maehle, Gregor (2007). Ashtanga Yoga: Practice and Philosophy. New World Library.

External links
Yoga and Freedom: A Reconsideration of Patañjali's Classical Yoga (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1399829), Ian Whicher (1998), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 48, No. 2, pages 272–322
Yoga and modern philosophy (https://www.jstor.org/stable/27795868), Mircea Eliade (1963),
The Journal of General Education, Vol. 15, No. 2, pages 124–137
 Mind/Consciousness Dualism in Sā̇ṅkhya-Yoga Philosophy (https://www.jstor.org/stable/21082
56), Paul Schweizer (1993), Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol. 53, No. 4,
pages 845–859
Saṁskāras in Yoga Philosophy and Western Psychology (https://www.jstor.org/stable/139749
2), N. Mishra (1953), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 4, pages 308–316
Plato in the Light of Yoga (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1399335), Jeffrey Gold (1996),
Philosophy East and West, Vol. 46, No. 1 (Jan., 1996), pages 17–32
Yoga in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta (https://www.jstor.org/stable/41692051) T. S. Rukmani
(2006), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 87, pages 123–134
General Systems Philosophy and Sāṃkhya-Yoga: Some Remarks (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
e/1398755), M. K. Bannerjee (1982), Philosophy East and West, Vol. 32, No. 1, pages 99–104
Patanjali's Yogasutras – A Synthesis of many Yogic traditions (https://www.jstor.org/stable/416
93676) T. S. Rukmini (1981), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 62,
pages 213–218
The Yogī and the Goddess (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20106474) Nicholas F. Gier (1997),
International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 265–287

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