Understanding Linguistics with Atta Ur Rahman Jadoon

Table of Contents
Section No-1 Introduction to Language
1. What is Language? -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
o Characteristics of Language------------------------------------------------------------------------------1
2. Human Language vs. Animal Communication---------------------------------------------------------------4
3. Design Features of Language-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
4. Origin of Language------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
o Origin of Language Instinct-----------------------------------------------------------------------------10
 Belief in Divine Creation---------------------------------------------------------------------10
 Natural Evolution Hypothesis----------------------------------------------------------------10
o Birth of First Language----------------------------------------------------------------------------------10
 Imitation Hypotheses ------------------------------------------------------------------------11
 Necessity Hypotheses-------------------------------------------------------------------------12
5. Language Universal Tripods------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
o Classification of Universals-----------------------------------------------------------------------------14
o Types of Universals--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
o Common Language Universals-------------------------------------------------------------------------15
6. Functions of Language--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------17

Section No-2 Introduction to Linguistics

1. What is Linguistics?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
o Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
o Purposes of Linguistics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
o Linguistics vs. Traditional Grammar-------------------------------------------------------------------19
o Divisions of Linguistics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
o Use of Studying Linguistics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------20
o Conclusion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20
2. Linguistics as a Science-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
o Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
o Scientific Approach of Linguistics---------------------------------------------------------------------21
o Principles of Science-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
o Scientific Methodology in Linguistics-----------------------------------------------------------------21
o Scientific Method and Linguistics----------------------------------------------------------------------21
o Principles of Linguistics---------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
o Relation of linguistics to Natural and Social Science------------------------------------------------22
o Conclusion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
3. Branches of Linguistics-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
o Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
o Microlinguistics-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------23
o Macrolinguistics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
o Conclusion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------25
4. Major Concepts in Linguistics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
o Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------26
o Ferdinand de Saussure’s Contribution to Linguistics------------------------------------------------26
 Synchrony and Diachrony--------------------------------------------------------------------26
 Langue and Parole-----------------------------------------------------------------------------27
 Signified and Signifier------------------------------------------------------------------------28
 Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic --------------------------------------------------------------28
 From and Substance---------------------------------------------------------------------------29
o Chomsky's Contribution to Linguistics----------------------------------------------------------------30

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 Competence and Performance---------------------------------------------------------------30

 Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure--------------------------------------------------------31
o Descriptive and Prescriptive Linguistics--------------------------------------------------------------32
 Descriptive Linguistics------------------------------------------------------------------------33
 Prescriptive Linguistics-----------------------------------------------------------------------33
5. Levels of Linguistics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
o Sound Level----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
o Word Level------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
o Sentence Level--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
o Meaning Level--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
o Context Level ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
6. Linguistic Schools of Thought-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
o Early Grammarians --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
o Historicism ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
o Structuralism ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------36
o Generativism ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
o Functionalism --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
o Cognitive Linguistics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
7. Renowned Linguists-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------39

Section No-3 Micro Linguistics

1. Phonetics-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
o Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
o Branches of Phonetics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------43
 Articulatory Phonetics------------------------------------------------------------------------43
 Auditory Phonetics----------------------------------------------------------------------------44
 Acoustic Phonetics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------44
o Articulators------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------45
 Active Articulators-----------------------------------------------------------------------------45
 Passive Articulators----------------------------------------------------------------------------45
o Speech Production----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------47
 Process of Speaking---------------------------------------------------------------------------47
 Articulation of Consonant and Vowels-----------------------------------------------------48
 Phonological Processes of Speech Production---------------------------------------------48
o Consonant Sounds---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50
 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50
 Description of Consonant---------------------------------------------------------------------50
 Classification of Consonants-----------------------------------------------------------------52
 Manner of Articulation------------------------------------------------------------------------53
 Place of Articulation---------------------------------------------------------------------------56
o Vowel Sounds---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------60
 Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------60
 Cardinal Vowels-------------------------------------------------------------------------------60
 English RP Vowels----------------------------------------------------------------------------62
o Received Pronunciation----------------------------------------------------------------------------------66
2. Phonology------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------69
o Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------69
o Branches of phonology----------------------------------------------------------------------------------69
o Phonetics and Phonology--------------------------------------------------------------------------------69
o Basic Concepts of Phonology --------------------------------------------------------------------------69
 Phone-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------69

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 Phoneme----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
 Allophone---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
 Minimal Pairs-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
o Phonotactics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
o Co-articulation--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
 Assimilation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------70
 Elision-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------71
3. Morphology---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
o Introduction------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
o Branches of Morphology--------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
o Basic Concepts of Morphology ------------------------------------------------------------------------73
 Words and Word Structures------------------------------------------------------------------73
 Morphemes-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------73
 Morpheme and Syllable-----------------------------------------------------------------------73
 Morph-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------74
 Zero Morph-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------74
 Allomorph--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------74
o Classification of Morpheme ----------------------------------------------------------------------------74
o Understanding Morphological Structure of a Word-------------------------------------------------75
 Affixes as Bound Morphemes---------------------------------------------------------------75
 Bases as Free Morphemes--------------------------------------------------------------------75
o Common Morphological Phenomena------------------------------------------------------------------75
4. Syntax --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
o Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
 What is “Syntax”? -----------------------------------------------------------------------------79
 Syntactic Category----------------------------------------------------------------------------79
 Phrase Structure Tree--------------------------------------------------------------------------80
 Basic Phrase Structure Rules-----------------------------------------------------------------81
o Syntax (Clauses)------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
 What is “Clause”?-----------------------------------------------------------------------------83
 Kinds of Clause--------------------------------------------------------------------------------83
o Syntax (Sentences) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------86
 Definition---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------86
 Classification of Sentence--------------------------------------------------------------------86
 Grammatical Relations (Syntactic Functions) ---------------------------------------------89
 Grammatical vs. Ungrammatical Sentences------------------------------------------------92
 Grammatical & Acceptable-------------------------------------------------------------------92
 Ambiguous & Interpretable------------------------------------------------------------------92
5. Semantics -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
o Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
o Types of Meaning----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
 Conceptual or Denotative Meaning---------------------------------------------------------95
 Connotative Meaning-------------------------------------------------------------------------95
 Social Meaning---------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
 Affective or Emotive Meaning --------------------------------------------------------------96
 Reflected Meaning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------96
 Collocative Meaning--------------------------------------------------------------------------96
 Thematic Meaning-----------------------------------------------------------------------------97
o Purpose of Semantics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------97
o Sense Relations: The only Concern of Semantics----------------------------------------------------97
o Word vs. Lexeme-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
o Compositionality (Meaningfulness) -------------------------------------------------------------------98

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o Lexical Semantics vs. Phrasal Semantics-------------------------------------------------------------98

o Lexical Relations (Semantic Relations, Sense Relations)-------------------------------------------98
 Synonymy --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
 Antonymy---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
 Meronymy--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
 Hyponymy--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
 Homophony-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
 Homonym-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
 Polysemy--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
 Metonymy-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
 Collocation------------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
o Lexical Fields and Semantic Fields-------------------------------------------------------------------100
o Componential Analysis---------------------------------------------------------------------------------101
 Componential Analysis vs. Dictionary Definition---------------------------------------101
 Limitations of Componential Analysis----------------------------------------------------101
o Semantic Theories--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------103
 Referential Theory of Meaning ------------------------------------------------------------103
 Meaning as the Relationship between Words and Objects -----------------103
 Meaning as a Triangular Relationship -----------------------------------------103
 Bloomfield’s View of Meaning -------------------------------------------------104
 Non–Referential Theory of Meaning -----------------------------------------------------104
6. Pragmatics---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
o Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
o Speech act Theory---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------107
 Part of Speech Acts--------------------------------------------------------------------------107
 Locutionary acts-------------------------------------------------------------------107
 Illocutionary acts------------------------------------------------------------------107
 Perlocutionary acts----------------------------------------------------------------108
 Families of Speech Acts---------------------------------------------------------------------108
o Felicity Conditions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------108
 Preparatory Conditions----------------------------------------------------------------------108
 Conditions for Execution-------------------------------------------------------------------109
 Sincerity Conditions-------------------------------------------------------------------------109
o Conversational Implicature----------------------------------------------------------------------------110
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------110
 Conversational Maxims and the Cooperative Principle---------------------------------110
 Relevance--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------111
o Politeness Principle-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------112
 Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------112
 Leech's Maxims------------------------------------------------------------------------------112
 Face and Politeness Strategies--------------------------------------------------------------112
o Deixis-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------114
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------114
 Deictic Expressions--------------------------------------------------------------------------115
 Categories of Deictic Expressions---------------------------------------------------------115
 Personal Deixis--------------------------------------------------------------------115
 Spatial Deixis----------------------------------------------------------------------115
 Temporal Deixis-------------------------------------------------------------------116

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Section No-4 Macro Linguistics

1. Psycholinguistics--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------117
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------117
 History of Psycholinguistics ---------------------------------------------------------------117
 Primary Processes Investigated in Psycholinguistics------------------------------------117
 Language Comprehension--------------------------------------------------------117
 Language Production--------------------------------------------------------------117
 Language Acquisition-------------------------------------------------------------118
 Central Themes in Psycholinguistics------------------------------------------------------118
 Task of Psycholinguist-----------------------------------------------------------------------118
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------118
o First Language Acquisition----------------------------------------------------------------------------119
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------119
 Basic Requirements for First Language Acquisition------------------------------------119
 Role of Caretaker Speech in First Language Acquisition-------------------------------119
 Stages of First Language Acquisition-----------------------------------------------------120
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------121
o First Language Acquisition Theories-----------------------------------------------------------------122
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
 The Behaviorist School----------------------------------------------------------------------122
 The Mentalist School------------------------------------------------------------------------123
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------124
2. Sociolinguistics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
o Understanding Sociolinguistics-----------------------------------------------------------------------125
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
 Primary Fields Investigated in Sociolinguistics------------------------------------------125
 Varieties of Language-------------------------------------------------------------125
 Language in Contact--------------------------------------------------------------126
 Multilingualism--------------------------------------------------------------------126
 Language Maintenance and Shift-----------------------------------------------126
 Language Change-----------------------------------------------------------------127
 Language Planning----------------------------------------------------------------127
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127
o Bilingualism---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------128
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------128
 Types of Bilingualism-----------------------------------------------------------------------128
 Coordinate Bilingualism ---------------------------------------------------------128
 Compound Bilingualism----------------------------------------------------------128
 Ways of Becoming Bilingual---------------------------------------------------------------128
 Early Bilingualism-----------------------------------------------------------------128
 Late Bilingualism------------------------------------------------------------------128
 Passive Bilingualism--------------------------------------------------------------129
 Bilingual Behaviour--------------------------------------------------------------------------129
 Interference-------------------------------------------------------------------------129
 Code-switching--------------------------------------------------------------------129
 Advantages of Being Bilingual-------------------------------------------------------------129
 Cognitive Benefits-----------------------------------------------------------------129
 Communication Advantages-----------------------------------------------------130
 Cultural Benefits-------------------------------------------------------------------130
 Character Advantages-------------------------------------------------------------130

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 Employment Advantages---------------------------------------------------------130
 Disadvantages of Being Bilingual---------------------------------------------------------130
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------130
o Code-Switching-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
 Types of Code-switching -------------------------------------------------------------------131
 Inter-sentential Code Switching-------------------------------------------------131
 Intra-sentential Code Switching-------------------------------------------------131
 Tag Code Switching---------------------------------------------------------------131
 Reasons for Code-Switching----------------------------------------------------------------131
 Code Switching in Pakistan-----------------------------------------------------------------132
 Purpose of Code-Switching in the Classroom--------------------------------------------132
 Advantages of Code-Switching------------------------------------------------------------132
 Disadvantages of Code-Switching --------------------------------------------------------132
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------132
o Language and its Relationship with Culture---------------------------------------------------------133
 Introduction-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------133
 Relationship Between Language and Culture--------------------------------------------133
 Conclusion------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134
3. Historical Linguistics--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
o Introduction----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
o Purpose of Historical Linguistics---------------------------------------------------------------------135
o Concerns of Historical Linguistics--------------------------------------------------------------------135
o Causes of Language Change---------------------------------------------------------------------------136
o Types of Language Change----------------------------------------------------------------------------136
 Phonological Change------------------------------------------------------------------------136
 Morphological Change----------------------------------------------------------------------136
 Syntactic Change: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------136
 Semantic Change-----------------------------------------------------------------------------136
 Lexical Change-------------------------------------------------------------------------------136
o Conclusion-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------137
4. Stylistics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------139
o Understanding Style------------------------------------------------------------------------------------139
 What is Style? --------------------------------------------------------------------------------139
 Traditional Concept of Style----------------------------------------------------------------139
 Modern Concept of Style-------------------------------------------------------------------139
 Linguistic Approach to Style---------------------------------------------------------------140
o Stylistics--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------141
o Scope of Stylistics---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------141
 Literary Stylistics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------141
 General Stylistics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------141
o Stylistics and Elements of Style in Literature-------------------------------------------------------143
 Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------143
 Elements of Style in Literature-------------------------------------------------------------143
 Big-Picture Elements------------------------------------------------------------------------143
 Line-by-Line Elements----------------------------------------------------------------------143
 Why Studying Literature is Useful---------------------------------------------------------144
 Stylisticians-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------144
 Modern Understanding of Rhetoric--------------------------------------------------------144
5. Discourse Analysis------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
o What is Discourse?--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
o Differentiating Discourse and Text?------------------------------------------------------------------147

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o Discourse Analysis?------------------------------------------------------------------------------------147
o Devices for Discourse Analysis?---------------------------------------------------------------------148
 Cohesion--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------148
 Coherence-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------148
 Parallelism-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------149
 Speech Events---------------------------------------------------------------------------------149
 Background Knowledge---------------------------------------------------------------------149
 Conversational Interaction------------------------------------------------------------------149
 Co-operative Principle-----------------------------------------------------------------------149
o Why Study Discourse Analysis? ---------------------------------------------------------------------150
o Relationship between Discourse Analysis and Pragmatics----------------------------------------150
o Conclusion-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------150

Section No-5 Glossary of Linguistics

o General Features of Language-------------------------------------------------------------------------151
o Phonetics and Phonology------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
o Morphology----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------157
o Lexicology-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------158
o Syntax-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------159
o Semantics and Pragmatics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------163
o Psycholinguistics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------164
o Sociolinguistics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------165
o Applied Linguistics-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------166
o Language Change---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------167
o Language Typology-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------169

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