Isl 101

ISL 101 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
TO ISLAM
ISL101 GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO ISLAM
Course Code ISL101
Course Title General Introduction to Islam
Course Developer Mr. T.M. Salisu

Dept. of Religions,
Lagos State University,
Ojo, Lagos.
Course Editor Dr. Asif Ahmad

School of Arts and Social Science,
National Open University of Nigeria,
Victoria Island, Lagos.
Programme Leader Dr. O. A. Adewale

Course Coordinator Dr. Asif Ahmad

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos
Abuja Office
No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria
e-mail: centralinfo@nou.edu.ng
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by:
National Open University of Nigeria 2008
First Printed 2008
ISBN: 978-058-197-9
All Rights Reserved
iii
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1 The Basic Principles Of Islam………… 1
Unit 1 Definition and Meaning of Islam………… 1-11

Unit 2 The principles of Islam (Qawacidu’l-
Islam)……………………………………. 12-19
Unit 3 Principles of Islam (Qawacidu’l-Islam)
(Contd.)………………………………….. 20-25
Unit 4 The Articles of faith in Islam
(Qawacidu’l Iman)……………………… 26-35
Unit 5 Articles of faith in Islam (Qawacidu’l
Iman) (Contd.)…………………………… 36-43
Unit 6 The significance, implication and
importance of the words of testimony
(kalimatu’sh-Shahadah)…………………. 44-52
Module 2 The Primary and Secondary Sources of Islam 53
Unit 1 The Qur’an……………………………… 53-59

Unit 2 Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad………... 60-65
Unit 3 Ijmac (Concensus) & Qiyas (Analogy)….. 66-74
Unit 4 Ijtihad…………………………………… 75-80
Module 3 Islam, Civilization and Science………... 81
Unit 1 Islam and Western Civilization………….. 81-90

Unit 2 Contributions of Islam to Science……….. 91-97
Unit 3 Various Sciences Associated to Islam…… 98-105
iv
MODULE 1 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ISLAM
Unit 1 Definition and Meaning of Islam

Unit 2 The Principles of Islam (Qawacidu’l- Islam)
Unit 3 Principles of Islam (Qawacidu’l-Islam) (Contd.)
Unit 4 The Articles of faith in Islam (Qawacidu’l Iman)
Unit 5 Articles of faith in Islam (Qawacidu’l Iman) (Contd.)
Unit 6 The Significance, implication and importance of the words
of testimony (kalimatu’sh-Shahadah)
UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF ISLAM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Derivative /Technical meaning of Islam
3.2 Peaceful Teachings of Islam in Practice
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/ Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit exposes you to the meaning of the word” Islam” through its
derivative analysis as well as technical connotation. This meaning will
be best appreciated when its teachings and lessons are applied to
adherents, non-adherents and other living creatures of Allah. Therefore,
the essence of the unit aside providing a concise meaning of the word “
al-Islam” is to consider the extent of the peaceful nature of Islam
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• trace the origin of the word Islam

• define the word Islam
• identify the difference between Islam and other religions
• explain the peaceful nature of Islam
• apply the peaceful nature of Islam to adherents, non-adherents
and other living creatures of Allah
1
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Derivative/Technical Meaning of Islam
Literally, Islam is an Arabic word derived from three syllables: s-l-m

and when the vowel Fatihah is applied to these syllables, it then become
sa-la-ma. The word (Islam) could also be traced to the verb Aslama
which means “to submit”, “to obey”, “to surrender”. It therefore means
to submit or surrender oneself to the will of Allah or better still, absolute
submission and obedient to Allah’s will. When a warrior lays down his
arms and surrenders, the Arab says of him Aslama which means he
submits.
Apparently, the word Islam connotes the idea of submission which in

the actual fact is not in relation to war but rather its opposite. The Holy
Qur’an Chapter 2 verse 112 explains: “Whoever submits himself
entirely to God and he is doer of good is a Muslim…” What could be
deduced from this Qur’anic verse is that the submission, which Islam
conveys, is a peaceful submission of man to Allah (the Creator) as well
as to all other creatures including the animals.
Technically, therefore, Islam means a religion of peace, for it was

established and laid on a perfect peace. All true and sincere believers
must love peace, preach peace advocate for peace and duty-bound to
live peacefully within themselves and adherents of other faith.
Apparently, he who threads the path of peace, enjoins peace, behaves
peacefully and interacts peacefully is regarded as Muslim.
It should be noted that the two words “Islam” and “Muslim” are both
named by Allah (SWT) which presupposes that the religion and the
believers have their basis in the Qur’an. Qur’anic verses that allude to
this includes:
Surely, the true religion with Allah is Islam…

(Q3:18) “Today I have perfected for you your
religion and I have completed my favour upon
you and chosen for you Islam as
religion” (Q5:3) “And strive in the cause of
Allah as it behoves you to strive for it. He
(Allah) has chosen you and has laid no
hardship upon you in religion; so follow the
faith of your father Abraham; He named you
Muslims both before and in this
Book…” (Q22:78) “Whoever submits himself
entirely to God and he is the doer of good to
others is a Muslim… (Q2:112)
2
The above-cited Qur’anic verses amongst numerous others corroborate

the fact that the religion (al-Islam) is not only a justified Cause but also
truly a divine System. This is in contrast to all other world religions that
linked their origin to person, tribe, and events. For instance, Christianity
is the religion claimed to have been founded by Jesus Christ. Hence, the
adherents of the religion are called Christians. Of course, the name is
derived from the name of the acclaimed founder and Leader.
Judaism, the religion of the Jews was coined out from the name of the
tribe called Judah in the country called Judea. Budhism, a religion in
Asia tapped its name from Gantama Budha, the founder’s name.
Hinduism was named after Hindu who was instrumental to its
establishment in India.
The religion (al-Islam), however, is not Mohammadanism as portrayed

by the Western writers (Mustashriqin) as well as some non-Muslims. It
is only revealed through him and also confirmed it as the religion of the
Prophets before him from Adam to cIsa (P.B.U.H). This, simply, does
not only allude to the fact that all these Prophets and their people were
said to be Muslims but also attest to the universality of the religion.
Qur’an 2:132-133 corroborates thus:
The same did Abraham enjoin upon his sons-

and so did Jacob- saying: O my sons, truly
Allah has chosen this religion for you; so let
not death overtake you except when you are
in the state of submission.
Were you present when death came to Jacob,

when he said to his sons, what would you
worship after me? They answered; we will
worship thy God, the God of thy fathers-
Abraham, Ismacil and Is-haq, the one God; and
to Him we submit ourselves
By and large, this explains why one of the teachings of the religion
requires its adherents to believe that Allah revealed all the world
religions that preceded Islam while Muslims are not expected to
discriminate against any of the Prophets and their messages, for they are
all his Messengers. Prophet Muhammad (saw) is only favoured to be the
last and seal of all the Prophets. The following Qur’anic verses are
instructive:
And who believe in that which has been

revealed to thee, and that which was revealed
3
before thee, and they have firm faith in what is

yet to come (Qur’an 2 : 4)
Say ye: We believe in Allah and what has been

revealed to us, and what was revealed to
Ibrahim and Ismacil, and Is-haq and Yacqub,
and his children, and what was given to Musa,
c
Isa, and what was given to all other prophets
from their Lord. We make no difference
between any of them; and to Him we submit
ourselves
This Messenger of Ours believes in that which

has been revealed to him from his Lord, and
so do the believers all of them believe in Allah,
and His angels, and His Books and His
Messengers, saying, ‘We make no distinction
between any of His Messengers;.... (Qur’an
2:285)
3.2 Peaceful teachings of Islam in Practice
As earlier established, Islam connotes peace in all ramifications, for one

of Allah’s names (Asma’) and attributes (Sifat) is As-Salam i.e. peace.
Aside, every devotee terminates the canonical prayer (As-Salat) with
peace.This utterance should not be a lip service but rather a sincere and
inward expression. Hence, it should be peace between man and his
Creator-Allah enjoins harmonious co-existence between him and other
creatures, be it human beings, animals, or even plants.
To make peace with Allah, one has to submit whole-heartedly to His

wills, recognize His oneness, obey His commands and worship Him as
He deserves to be worshipped.
As per peaceful, harmonious co-existence between man and his fellow

human beings, his mind and tongue must tally in wishing themselves
peace. Thus, Muslims greet themselves by saying: “As-Salam
c
Alaykum” meaning “May the peace of Allah be with you”. The Muslim
being greeted responds thus: “Wa cAlaykumu’s-Salam” meaning “And
unto you is Allah’s peace as well” At times, ‘Wa rahmatu’l-Lahi
wabarakatuhu’ i.e “and the blessing and Benediction of Allah” is added
to both the initial and response greetings. This formulae of greeting is
contained in Qur’an 4:86 thus:
4
When a (courteous) greeting is offered you,

meet it with a greeting still more courteous, or
(at least) of equal courtesy. God takes careful
account of all things
From the above, it would be observed that the Islamic mode of greeting
is so important that it becomes a sin on anyone greeted who refuses to
respond or reciprocate the greeting. Indeed, according to the Prophet
(SAW), it is Sunnah to greet a fellow Muslim while it is mandatory
(Wajib) to respond.
The Prophet (SAW), therefore, is reported to have said that the best
greeting is ‘As-Salam cAlaykum’ while the Holy Qur’an requires that a
Muslim gives a better response to their greetings: Allah (SWT) reiterates
further that this mode of greeting shall also be the formulae in the
Hereafter amongst the inmates of Paradise (Al-Jannah). Qur’an says:
“Their salutation on the Day they meet Him (Allah) will be “peace” ;
and He has prepared for them a generous Reward” (Qur’an 33:44)
It should also be said that the greeting among other things in Islam is an
exhibition of Islamic brotherhood, extension of tranquility, joy, solace
and happiness within the Islamic Ummah. Aside, it also shows that
Islam is a religion that clamours for equality and unity among the
brethrens world over. In other words, there is no room for difference of
colour, race, ethnic, e.t.c. The Prophet remarked: ‘La farqun bayna
’abyad wal-’Aswad’ meaning: “There is no difference between an Arab
and non-Arab except with faith in Allah”
Another reflection of the peaceful nature of Islam is its attitude towards

the non-Muslims. It should be said here that Islam preaches tolerance so
far that there is no aggression from the other side. It is very erroneous
for anyone to say that at any point in time, Islam ever compelled people
to embrace it. On the contrary, the emphasis in the Qur’an has always
been on religious tolerance. Chapter 10 verses 99-100 aptly declares:
If it has been Allah’s will they would have believed, all who are on
earth, will you compel mankind against their will to believe. No soul can
believe except by the will of Allah
In another Qur’anic verse, Allah (SWT) further declares as follows.
There is no compulsion in religion, the right is

indeed clearly distinct from error. So, he who
rejects the devil and believes in God has indeed
grasped the firmest handle which shall never
break. And God is Hearing, Knowing. (Qur’an
2 verse 256)
5
Sayyid Qutb (1967:425) in his Tafsir work, Fi Zilalu’l-Qur’an therefore

comments on the above verses that a religion whose teachings appeal to
reason and intellect does not need to apply forceful means for
conversion.
However, rather than compelling anyone to accept it, the

recommendation of the Qur’an is that people should be invited in a
good, Godly and becoming manner. Consequently, Qur’an 16:125
directs:
Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and

goodly exhortation, and argue with them in the
best manner. Your Lord knows best the one
who has strayed from His path, and He knows
best those who are on the right path.
As already mentioned above, the basic principle taught by Islam with

regard to the relationship between the Muslims on the one hand and
other human beings on the other, is tolerance. This is why the Qur’an
6:109 says:
Do not abuse those whom they call upon

besides Allah, in case they exceed the limit and
abuse God through ignorance …
This was the injunction given to the Muslims to contain themselves even
at a time when they were being molested and persecuted by the pagans
of Mecca.
One might say that this injunction was the only possible one at the early
period of Islam because the Muslims were a powerless minority group
in Mecca at that time. But this idea will be shelved if we consider what
treatment was later given to these same idolaters when the Muslims had
become strong and powerful. The Qur’an 9:6 directs as follows:
Should anyone of the idolaters seek your

protection, protect him till he hears the word of
God, then convey him to his place of safety. This
is because they are an ignorant people.
It should be noted that during the early days of Islam, the

Christian/Muslim relationship was that of harmonious co-existence. The
Prophet’s directive at the point of severe persecutions in Makkah that
some of his disciples should migrate to the Christian territory of Aksun
(Abyssinia) now Ethiopia under the King Negus of Habasha registers in
our mind.
6
In this connection, an incident in the life of the Prophet Muhammad

(S.A.W.) may be related. It is reported that on one occasion, certain
Christian came to the Prophet and when their time of religious worship
was due they know not what to do as there were no churches around.
The Prophet allowed them to carry out their worship in his mosque.
Justice Yoonus Abdullah reminds us of the meeting between the Muslim
liberators and the Christian rulers of Egypt, Syria, Nubia etc. He
succinctly writes:
So the Islamic State which was established by

Muhammad (P.B.U.H.) and later by the
Orthodox Caliphs-AbuBakr, ‘Umar, ‘Uthman
and ‘Ali- granted religious freedom to, and
protection of lives and property of Jew and
Christian. The Islamic State also protected
Churches, Cathedrals, Temples,Synagogues and
other worshipping places of the non-Muslims.
So under Pan Islamica, co-operation and
understanding existed between Muslims and ther
religious groups like Jews nand Christians.
(Abdullah: 1999:52)
In the event of an unavoidable war, the Qur’an lays down such a code of
conduct which aims at achieving the earliest possible peace. Qur’an
2:190-193 instructs:
Fight in the way of God against those who fight

against you but do not be aggressive. Allah does
not love the aggressors. And kill them whenever
you ding them, and drive them out from where
they drove you out, and persecution is worse
than slaughter. Do not fight them at the Sacred
Mosque until they fight you in it; if they do, then
fight them. Such is the recompense for the
disbelievers. But if they desist, then God is
Forgiving, Merciful. Fight them until there is no
persecution, and religion is for God alone. But
if they desist, then there should be no hostility
except against the oppressor.
From this Qur’anic verse, it becomes evident that Muslims are enjoined
to fight only when they are attacked, when they suffer religious
persecution and that even when they are at war they must not go beyond
the bounds. Once the aggressors stopped their aggression, Muslims are
also duty bound to call a stop to the wars. Hence the Qur’an 8:61 says:
7
And if they incline to peace, you should also

incline to it, and trust in God. He is the Best
Hearer and the Best Knower.
Perhaps at this stage we may consider briefly how the Prophet and his
followers put these injunctions into practice. It is a face of history that
for the first thirteen years of the Prophet’s mission in Mecca, he was
molested and his followers were persecuted and tortured. They were
eventually forced to leave their properties and relations in Mecca and
migrate to Medina where they eventually gained support and power.
Even though many Muslims had migrated from Mecca, those who
remained behind were not spared by the Meccans, the persecutions
continued. Such a situation eventually led to a series of battles between
the Muslims and the Meccans.
These battles ended with the Conquest of Mecca, and the Prophet
became victorious over his enemies. The Meccan enemies feared for
their lives in case the Prophet (S.A.W.) should avenge all the atrocities
they had committed against the Muslims. But instead of taking to
revenge, the Prophet set the Meccans free. This singular act of his has
been acclaimed by historians as the greatest magnanimity ever shown by
a human being. It also demonstrated, in practical terms, the tolerance so
ably taught by Islam.
In Medina, there were Jewish settlements. Even though the Jews were
opposed to the Prophet right from his emigration to Medina, the Prophet
at first stretched to them the right hand of fellowship and invited them
that they should find a common cause on which to work and live happily
together. This invitation is expressed in the Qur’an 3:63 when it says:
Say: ‘People of the Book, come to an

equitable proposition between us and you
that we shall not serve any but God and that
we shall not associate anything with Him,
and that some of us shall not take others for
lords besides God. But if they turn away,
then bear witness that we are Muslims’ (i.e.
those who submit to God).
The purpose of this invitation, it should be noted, was to find a common

group among the monotheistic religions over which to work together for
the benefit of humanity and the glory of God. But the Jews of Medina
rejected this invitation and went further to support the Makkans against
the Muslims in Medina. This eventually led to their banishment from
Medina. It should be noted here that had the people of the Book heeded
this humane call of the Prophet, much of the cold relationships, wars and
8
their attendant sufferings that later developed between the Muslims and
the non-Muslims could have been averted while lasting peace could
have prevailed.
The pact signed by Caliph ‘Umar (R.A.) with the people of Jerusalem
was another expose on the Islamic understanding of tolerance towards
people of the other faith. At-Tabari in his book History of Nations and
Kings quoted by Afif Tabbarah (1988:426):
That Caliph ‘Umar granted them (People of

Jerusalem) security for their lives, property,
churches, crosses, as well as the sick and the
innocent and all the rest of the Jerusalemites.
His instructions were clear hat their churches
be not used as places of residence or destroyed,
nor should any degradation or profanation be
practiced against those churches or their
precincts, crosses and property. No harm was
to be inflicted upon them.
Moreover it was in order to bring about peace and friendly relations

among men that Islam has recognized all the Prophets of God that had
preceded Muhammad (S.A.W.) as well as all the Scriptures before the
Qur’an. If the followers of those Prophets and the adherents of those
Scriptures had responded favourably towards Islam, man’s history could
have taken a more peaceful form. There might not have been the
strained relationships which eventually resulted in the Crusades and
their aftermath.
4.0 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, it becomes clear from the fore-going that in its

nomenclature as well as its teachings, coupled with the practice
demonstrated by the Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.), Islam has not only
catered for peace among its adherents, it has also laid down laudable
principles for the achievement of peace, security and tranquility among
the whole of humanity. Apparently, Muslims, based on the above, know
fully well that they should not hate or ill-treat those who disagree with
them in faith, for the believe in God is not a monopoly of any
individuals or even group. If your Lord had so willed, He could have
made mankind one people, but they will not cease to dispute the position
of Allah in the Glorious Qur’an.
9
5.0 SUMMARY
We have been able to etymologically trace the origin of the word Islam
and also elucidated on what it stands for in theory and practice. Indeed,
it behoves its adherents to really combine the two before they could
qualify to be true believers (Muslims/Mu’min)
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. Define the word Islam

ii. Explain the peaceful nature of Islam in practical term
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS

1. How can your understanding of Islam enhance harmonious co-
existence and interactions amongst people of different faith in
Nigeria?
2. Cultism activities in the Nigerian higher institutions of learning
are anathema to the peaceful advocacy in Islam. Expatiate.
7.0 REFERENCES/ FURTHER READINGS
Abdul, M.O.A. (1980). The Historical Origin of Islam, Lagos: Islamic

Publications Bureau,
Abdul Muqtar, Khawja (trans) (1991). Teachings of Islam,India: Al-

Dar-us-Salafiah,
Abdul-Wahhab, Muhammad Bn. (1996). Kitab At-Tauhid, Riyad-Saudi

Arabia: Dar-us-Salam Publications,
Abubakre, R.D.; Yahya, M.T.; Opeloye, M.O.; Akanmidu, R.A.;

Odumuyiwa, E.A., Dopamu, P.A. & Dime, C.A. (eds) (1993) :
Studies in Religious Understanding in Nigeria, Ilorin: Nigerian
Association For The Study Of Religion,
Ali, M.M.: The Religion of Islam: A Comprehensive Discussion of The

Sources, Principles and Practices of Islam, U.A.R: National
Publication & Printing House, nd
Doi, A. R. I. (2000). The Cardinal Principle of Islam, Lagos: Islamic

Publications Bureau, 1981
Nayeemuddin, Mohamed (trans.) The Essence of Islamic Faith, South

Africa: Sunni Ulama Council (Cape),
10
Opeloye, M.O. (2001). Building Bridges of Understanding Between

Islam and Christianity in Nigeria, Lagos State University
Inaugural Lecture Series.
Qutb, Sayyid (1967). Fi Zilal al-Qur’an, Vol.1, Beirut: Dar Ihya’ at-
Turath
Tabbarah, A.A (1978). The Spirit of Islam: Doctrine & Teachings, np
Yusuf Ali, A (1948). The Holy Qur’an: Translation and Commentary,

South Africa, Islamic Propagation Centre Inter
11
UNIT 2 IMAN; SALAT & ZAKAT
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic Principles of Islam
3.2 Faith (Iman)
3.3 Prayer (Salat)
3.4 Alms giving (Zakat)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 References / Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Islam as a religion is a complete way of life and it is not devoid of

tenets, guidance, rules and regulations. These rules and regulations are
the pivot on which the religion rest upon. Hence, adherence to the
guidance yields salvation and prosperity in both here and hereafter while
the non-compliance leads to eternal regret. The tenets otherwise called
principles of Islam is what we intend to study in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• State the principles of Islam

• Differentiate between faith and action
• Explain each of the principles
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Basic Principles of Islam
Islam could be viewed from two perspectives, namely, theoretical and

practical perspectives. While the former is called ’Usul which means
“root” or caqa’id i.e. “belief”, the latter is called furuc i.e. “branch” or
ahkam i.e. “regulations” or “rules” or “principles”. (J.M. Cowan).
In other words, Islam is a religion of faith (Iman) and actions (al-Acmal).

It is the combination of the two that guarantees an eternal salvation for a
Muslim while the two (faith and action) are technically in Islamic
12
terminology known as Qawacidu ’I-Islam or Arkanu ’I-Islam i.e.

principles or pillars of Islam. These pillars/principles are five. Abdur
Rahman Sumar, the author of Ad-Durusi ’l –Awwaliyyah aptly
describes it thus:
The pillars of Islam are five: Testifying that

there is only one God and that Muhammad is
His Apostle; saying the prayers, giving legal
alms, fasting during Ramadan and pilgrimage to
the House (Makkah).
The above description completely agrees with the description given in

Hadith three of An-Nawawi. Thus, it implies that the pillars/principles
are interwoven and dependent upon each other. In other words, the
performance of one leads to the other while leaving anyone unpracticed
might make one’s Islam incomplete.
These principles are designed by Allah in such a way that Muslims

cannot afford to live without them at any point in time, for some of them
are daily, some weekly, some annual while some are required once in a
lifetime. These structures, according to survey of Islamic doctrine are
classified into three categories, namely; bodily actions; financial
obligations and combination of bodily actions and financial obligations.
While the first category (bodily actions) entails declaration of faith
(Ash-Shahadah), prayer (as-Salat) and fasting (As-Sawn), the last two
categories entail alms giving (az- Zakat) and visit to the holy lands (al-
Hajj). Having carefully described the five principles of Islam, let us
now discuss them one after the other.
3.2 Faith (Iman) in Islam
The first pillar of Islam, as earlier said, is to have an unshakable faith in

Allah through the words of testimony. It is rendered in Arabic thus:
“Ashhadu an la ilaha illa Allah, Wa ashhadu anna Muhammdan
c
Abduhu wa Rasuluhu” meaning “I bear testimony that there is no deity
except Allah and testify that Muhammad (SAW) is His servant and
Apostle”. These two expressions constitute the “Formula of purity” and
a person becomes a Muslim when he recites this formula after its
comprehension and affirming it in his heart (at-Tasdiq).
It should also be clear to you that this “formula of purity” is the bedrock
for all other actions (’Acmal) in Islam. In fact, all Islamic concepts,
attitudes, ethical values, guidelines for human behaviours and
relationships stem from this expression of belief in oneness and
uniqueness of Allah as well as the messengership of Muhammad (SAW).
Therefore, to have faith in Him connotes upholding His Oneness and
13
Uniqueness. It means that one should believe that the Being of Allah is
the Truth. His existence is the Truth; and to believe in His attributes and
beautiful Names as belonging specifically to Him. The other part of the
expression (i.e. Muhammad Rasululahi) conveys that Muslims see
Muhammad b. ‘Abdullah as a human being (Bashar) like all other
mortals, with only an exception, i.e. he received revelation (Wahy) from
Allah which contains answers to problems of life as well as guidelines
for the humanity.
It is important to note also that Muhammad is the last of all the prophets
of Allah (Khatam a-Nabiyyin) as evidenced in Qur’an 21 verse 40 and
that he was sent to the entire mankind and universe (Q.34:28, 21:107).
Indeed, the message of the unity of Allah as a creator came to the world
through him. This is attested to in Qur’an 18 verse 110.
“Say, cI am only a man like yourselves; but I

have received the revelation that your God is
only one God. So let him who hopes to meet
his Lord do good deeds, and let him join no one
in the worship of his Lord.”
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISES
i. Mention five (5) principles of Islam learnt in this section.

ii. Explain the importance of “Formula of purity” to a Muslim
iii. What distinguishes Prophet Muhammad (SAW) from all other
prophets of Allah?
3.3 As-Salat – Canonical Prayer
Canonical prayer (AS-Salat) is the second pillar of Islam that is accorded

prominence in both the Qur’an and Sunnah. For instance, the Glorious
Qur’an says of as-Salat: “O ye who believe! Seek help with patience
and prayer; surely, Allah is with the steadfast” (Q2:153).
According to the Muslim jurists (Fuqaha’), Salat is described as works

and deeds beginning with Takbir and ending with Taslim. Similarly,
Abdur-Rahman Doi (1981) quoting al-Hariri sees it as “certain religious
service in which are rukuc (or lowering of the head so that the palms of
the hands reach the knees) and Sujud (or prostration of oneself in a
particular manner). Al-Muqadimatu’l-’Izziyyah defines Salat as “the
prescribed daily prayer which consists in repeating and refreshing five
times a day”.
It should be noted that Salat is synonymous to cIbadah, for the Arabic

word is derived from the root cabada which means ‘to serve’, ‘to
14
worship’, ‘to adore’, ‘to venerate’. Therefore, Ibadah which connotes

‘serving’, ‘worshipping’, ‘adoring’, ‘obeying God with humility or
submissiveness would mean an act of adoration, service or homage paid
to Supreme Being. In fact, it is in Islam the very essence and rationale
behind man’s creation. The Qur’an says: “I have not created the Jinn
and the men except that they worship Me” (Qur’an 51 : 56)
However, let us all note that the former (Salat) is narrow while the latter
is wider in meaning. In other words, while Salat only forms parts of
worship, Ibadah covers the entire activities of a Muslim ranging from
spiritual to mundane.
H.A.R. Gibb et al (1981) says of Ibadah in Islam as ordinance on

worship which comprises the first part of the work of law in Islam.
(Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam).
Technically, Salat or cIbadah is the expression of religious

consciousness in which a Muslim puts himself into relation with God in
the simplest and most direct way. Kamil Avdich (1979) describes it as
the intercommunication between man and his Creator without any
intermediary.
Linguistically, Tabbarah (1978) sees it as an appeal to gain God’s

favour, entreat forgiveness for the misdeeds committed, express
gratitude for Allah’s grace, ward off a possible calamity and perform a
religious duty.
In sum, Salat consists of recitations from the glorious Book and

glorification of Allah accompanied by various bodily postures. It is
categorized into three kinds, namely; obligatory (Fara’id),
supererogatory (Nawafil) and special (Khass)prayers.
Suzanne Haneef (1986) in his book What every one should know about
Islam and Muslims rationalizes the Fara’idu ’I-Salat thus:
The five times of worship (Subh, Zuhr, cAsr

Maghib and Isha’) correspond to the five
periods of the day, daybreak, noon, afternoon,
the close of day and night, corresponding to the
organization of man’s time around various
activities.
Before our exit to the next pillar, let us briefly distinguish between Salat
and Duca’ with a view to removing the general misconception about the
two terms.
15
We may not define Salat here again for the avoidance of repetition but
that of Duca.
Duca (Pl. Adciyyah) which literally connotes amongst others “call”,

‘invocation’ of God’, ‘supplication’, ‘request’, ‘prayer’, ‘plea’, ‘good
wish’ etc. (Cowan, 1974) may be defined as a petition by a human being
to another, or for a thing. Strictly speaking, to a Muslim, Duca is a
petition to Allah (SWT) for a general or specific purpose. It is as
important as the five daily prayers in the life of a Muslim, for Allah is
the only self sufficient that all creatures turn to for assistance and
guidance. The Holy Qur’an says in this direction:
And When My Servants ask thee about Me,

Say; I am near. I answer the prayer of every
supplicant when he prays to Me … (Q2:186).
Although, Allah (SWT) is said not to be happy when his servants refuse
to call on Him, for He charges him/her to supplicate to Him on the
completion of his prayers (Q94:7-8). The two (Salat and Duca),
however, do not have the same status before Allah. While Salat is
obligatory (Fard) and has fixed or stipulated time, (awqatus-Salat) Duca
is less obligatory and timeless. So also, Salat has rules (Ahkam)
governing its observance, Duca is allowed to be said as it is convenient
to the supplication. Let us also note that the line in between the two
terms is so tiny, for supplication (Duca’) are also said in prayers (Salat).
For instance, so many recitations (Qira’at) on prayers convey
supplication in nature and essence. Suratu’l-Fatihah (chapter 1), the
Rabbanas in the Glorious Qur’an are good points of reference.
i. State some definitions of Salat studied in this lesson.

ii. Mention other types of prayers not mentioned in this section and
cite three (3) examples of each of them
iii. Distinguish between Salat and Duca’.
3.4 Zakat – Alms Giving
Next to Salat (canonical prayer) in Islamic faith is Zakat. Literally, it

derives from Zakawah which means ‘purity’, ‘justness’, ‘integrity’,
‘honesty’, ‘justification’, ‘vindication’, ‘alms-giving’, ‘alms’, ‘charity’,
‘alms tax’. (Cowan; 1981). Other literal meaning according to some
sources include: ‘blessing’, ‘increasing’, ‘poor-due’, ‘growth’, ‘divine
tax’, ‘abundance’.
16
Technically, it is the Muslims worship of God by means of his wealth

through an obligatory form of giving to those in need. Avdich (1979)
defines it as efforts towards setting aside a part of one’s belonging and
giving this to any poor Muslims. The legal meaning according to Iysa
Ade Bello (2002) is “an obligatory due levied on certain kinds of
property when it reaches a specified minimum quantity (Nisab)and
distributed to eight categories of persons and purposes in the Muslim
Community”. Better expressed, it is a fixed rate in proportion to the
worth of property collected from the well-to-do Muslims and distributed
among the poor Muslims (Doi; 1981).
From the above, it could be inferred that the rationale behind its
institution is to ensure that wealth does not concentrate in the hands of
the few but rather circulates round the entire Ummah. In other words,
Islam tends to avoid class-struggle and to establish good relations
among the members of the society (Q51:19). Though, there was every
trace of its institution in the early days of Islam, for there are references
to it in the early Makkan Suwar (Q.51:19; 70:24-25). Yet, it was
officially instituted on Muslims in the second Hijrah in Madina.
As earlier said, Islam places high premium on Zakat just like the Salat,
especially on the matured Muslims who have fulfilled its conditions. In
fact, Qur’an mentions it along aside with Salat, especially on the
matured Muslims who have fulfilled its conditions. Indeed, Qur’an
mentions it along side with Salat in Eighty-two times. (Mucjamu’l –
Fihris Lil-’alfazu ’l-Qur’an ’l-Karim). For instance, Allah says:
And observe prayer and pay the Zakat and bow

down with those who bow (Q2:43).
Similarly, in an hadith Ibn cAbbas reported that the Prophet (SAW) on

sending Mu’adh b. Jabal to Yemen said
You are going to a people who are people of

Scripture. Invite them to bear witness that there
is no other God but Allah and I am His
Messenger, if they accept this, tell them that
Allah has made obligatory on them five prayers
in every day and night; if they accept this, tell
them that Allah has made obligatory in their
wealth a charity which is taken from the
wealthy among them and given to the poor.
(Bukhari ch. 24 Hadith 1).
It should be pointed out to you that the above amongst several other
Qur’anic and Ahadith references form the basis of Zakat in Islam. Zakat
17
is not paid on property which is for personal use e.g. clothing, and
household furniture; residential house, car in use, crops planted for
domestic consumption etc. but on properties that are of commercial
value. However, the property becomes liable to Zakat only when its
amount and/or value reach a minimum state called NISAB. Nisab,
therefore, is the minimum on which Zakat is paid. It is specifically 21/2
percent per year on cash or capital which is beyond one’s immediate
needs e.g. cash in savings, investments, inventory of a business, cattles,
lands and crops which are a source of profit.
We should also bear in mind that Zakat is to be paid once in a year and
the property must have been in one’s possession for a whole year.
Let us also note that Zakat is paid from the residue after one might have
met or satisfied the basic needs of the whole year. Thus, it is a levy on
the surplus of wealth.
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
i. What is Zakat?
ii. What are the Qur’anic and Ahadith bases for Zakat?
iii. What is Nisab and when is Zakat payable?
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is abundantly clear from the above discussions that one cannot be a

complete and functional Muslim until he is able to combine both the
theoretical and practical demands of Islam. In other words, expressing
the words of testimony (Kalmatu’sl-Shahadah) without necessarily
following it up with other practical aspects (Salat, Zakat ) makes a
Muslim’s identity questionable. It is also made clear that Muslims have
to believe in the Cardinal principles the exact way they are
hierarchically arranged viz a viz: Iman (faith), Salat (canonical prayer),
Zakat (Poor due). Indeed, Iman is the bedrock or pivot on which all
other tenets rest. Hence, its implication is simply that without faith, no
Islam.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with three of the cardinal principles of Islam,
and laid emphases on the Qur’anic and Ahadith bases of the principles.
We are not only able to state the essence of each of the principles but
also established the fact that faith in one principle leads and qualifies
one to practice the other.
18
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Discuss the process through which a convinced non-Muslim can

embrace Islam.
2. Of what significance is Iman to a Muslim?
3. The difference between Muslims and non-Muslims is As-Salat.
Elucidate
4. What is the socio-economic implication of Az-Zakat in Islam?
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Avdich, K.Y. (1979). Survey of Islamic Doctrine, Cedar Rapids in Unit

Publishing Co.
El – Geyoushi, M.I. (1985). Teachings of Islam, England: The Islamic

Cultural Centre
Nadvi, M.A. (1991) Teachings of Islam, India, Darussala Fiah
Tabbarah, A.A. (1978) The Spirit of Islam: Doctrine and Teachings,

N.P:
Iysa Ade Bello (2002). Bukhari ch. 24 Hadith 1.
Mucjamu’l – Fihris Lil-’alfazu ’l-Qur’an ’l-Karim
Suzanne Haneef (1986); What every one should know about Islam and
Muslims
H.A.R. Gibb et al (1981). Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam.

South Africa: Islamic Propagation Centre International
19
UNIT 3 SAWM AND H AJJ
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Fasting (Ramadan)
3.2 Pilgrimage (Hajj)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fasting (Sawm) and pilgrimage (Hajj) form the last two actions
expected of a devout Muslim in Islam to practice without any
compromise. The prerequisite to these practices, however, is solid and
unpolluted faith (Iman). Thus, its absence in one’s life might not
guarantee his/ her salvation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Copiously define the terms Sawm and Hajj

• Expatiate on the rationale behind the institution of fasting in
Islam
• Explain the rites of Hajj with its conditions
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 As-Sawm – Fasting in Islam
Fasting means abstinence from doing something. It is indeed an

abstinence from food, drinking, smoking, lust as well as sexual
intercourse from dawn to sunset for the purpose of attaining closeness to
God (Qurbah). It is one of the cardinal pillars of Islam as it is related in
Hadith three of An-Nawawi. It comes up in the month of Ramadan i.e.
ninth month of the Islamic year while it was instituted in the second year
of Hijrah.
It should be known to you that its basis lies in the prescriptions and
description given in the Qur’an thus:
20
O ye who believe! Fasting is prescribed for

you, as it is prescribed for those before you, so
that you may become proves and righteous.
It becomes very clear from the above Qur’anic verse that the institution
of fasting had been in vogue prior to the advent of Islam. In fact, it is a
universal institution, for nearly all the world religions have laid down
this ordinance in one form or the other just as the Romans, Babylonians,
and Assyrians earlier on practiced it. Similarly, the Jews and the
Christians (the people of the Book – Ahl-al-Kitab) were said to have
practiced it. Thus, Islam cannot be an exception, although, in a different
form. In other words, Islam has only come to reinvigorate the
institution.
In fact, almost all the revealed Books of Allah were sent for the
guidance of mankind in the blessed month, e.g. Sahaif (treatises) of
Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham), Zabur (Psalms) of Prophet Da’ud (David),
Tawrat (Pentateuch) of Prophet Musa (Moses), Injil (Gospel) of Prophet
c
Isa (Jesus) and Qur’an (Glorious Book) was revealed in the month. The
latter is confirmed in the Qur’an thus:
The month of Ramadan is that in which the

Qur’an was sent down as a guidance for
mankind with clear proofs of guidance and
discrimination … (Q2:186).
The Glorious month (Ramadan) is further strengthened by the Prophet

(SAW) when he remarked:
Allah commands that every act of man is for his good, except fasting,
because fasting is for My Sake and I, Myself shall give the reward for it.
(Musnad Ahmad, Muslim).
The days of fasting are usually twenty-nine or thirty days. However, if

one for a convincing and genuine reasons (women during their monthly
course; woman whose childbirth blood has not stopped, pregnancy
woman; traveller, insane person) can not fast in this prescribed period,
he/she is exempted but should make up for the missing days when the
flow has disappeared. This is subscribed to in the Qur’an thus:
The prescribed fasting is for a fixed number of

days, but whose among you is sick or is on a
journey shall fast the same number of other
days… Qur’an 2:185.
21
It is worthy of note that the rationale behind the institution include:

(i) To strengthens the will-power which is essential to individual and
society.
(ii) To instill in the Muslims the self-discipline and scrupulous
obedience to God’s command.
(iii) It serves as a reminder that we have greater and nobler tasks to
accomplish in this life, than eating and drinking.
(iv) It does not aim at suffering and deprivation but an attempt to rule
the physical side of the human being and to keep a balance
between body and soul for the sake of the two.
(v) It brings the person fasting nearer to God, for it is due to His love
and fear that one fasts.
(vi) It puts Muslims faith in Allah to test because there is no police to
monitor one.
(vii) It removes social status amongst the adherents of Islam, for the
institution involves the rich and poor, the haves and have-not.
i. Define the term Sawm and when was it instituted in Islam?

ii. Why do the Muslims fast?
3.2 Hajj - Pilgrimage
Hajj, in Islam, means visiting the Sacred Mosque in Makkah during

certain dates in the Lunar year, which are called “the months of Hajj”.
These months are Shawwal, Dhu’l-Qa’dah and Dhu’l–Hijjah (10th, 11th
and 12th month of Islamic year). Pilgrimage to the holy land is only
acceptable at these times while conditions (Shurut) of performing it
cannot be accepted before these months, for the Glorious Qur’an
reiterates: “The months of the Hajj are well known …” (Q2:198).
Therefore, the rite constitutes the last cardinal pillar of Islam and on no
account should it come before the other pillars. It is a solemn religious
duty which is incumbent upon every Muslim. Although, with a clause
that only those who can afford to undertake the journey should embark
on it. Glorious Qur’an says in this regard: “… And pilgrimage to the
House is incumbent upon men for the sake of Allah, upon everyone who
is able to undertake the journey to it” (Q3:96).
The import of the above Qur’anic verse is that Hajj is incumbent upon
every adult Muslim, be it male or female provided he/she is mentally
sound, physically fit and financially capable to afford the religious trip.
22
The Prophet (SAW) in ascertaining that the incumbency of Hajj is once

in one’s lifetime replied a question posed to him by a Companion
(Sahabi). The question goes thus:
O Messenger of Allah! Is the pilgrimage (Hajj)
to be performed every year or once? He
(Rasulu Lahi) said: Only once; and whoever
does it more than once, It is supererogatory
(Abu Da’ud Chapter 11, Hadith 1).
It should be known to you that the acts or rites or duties of Hajj are
generally ten.
(i) The wearing of seamless garments (Ibram) at the Miqat.

(ii) Circumambulating the Kacbah known as Tawaf..
(iii) The running between the two hills of Safa and Marwah otherwise
known as Sacy.
(iv) The stay at cArafat (Wuquf al-cArafah) on the 9th day
(v) The stay of Muzdalifah
(vi) The stay at Mina on the 8th day
(vii) The stoning of the devil (Ramy al-Jimar )
(viii) The sacrifice in Mina on the 10th day (Yawm al-Hashr)
(ix) The shaving and Hair clipping
(x) The final Tawaf (Tawaf al-Ifadah).
It should be noted as well that only four of the above highlighted rites
are basic and compulsory. These are (etc. Ihram, Sacy; Wuquf al-
c
Arafah and an-Nahr), others are Sunnah acts or rites.
Worthy of mention also is the difference between Hajj and cUmrah.

While the former is performed once in a year and at a specific months of
the lunar year, the latter can be performed as many times as one can
afford and it is timeless.
Staying at the Mount cArafat (Wuquf al-Arafat) is a major/compulsory

rite in Hajj while it is not necessary for cUmrah.
Sacrifice (al-Nahr) on the 10th day of Dhul-Hijjah at Mina is a cardinal

rite of Hajj but not necessary for cUmrah.
However Hajj and cUmrah may be combined together during Hajj, as

this is mentioned in the Qur’an. “And complete the Hajj and the
c
Umrah for the sake of Allah …” (Q2:196).
23
i. What are the months of Hajj?

ii. List the rites of Hajj and identify the obligatory ones
iii. Is there any difference between Hajj and ‘Umrah?
4.0 CONCLUSION
It is crystal clear from the above discussions that one cannot be a

complete and functional Muslim until one is able to combine both the
theoretical and practical demands of Islam. In other words, expressing
the words of testimony (Kalmatu’sl-Shahadah) without necessarily
following it up with other four tenets makes a Muslim’s identity
questionable. It is also made clear that Muslims have to believe in the
Cardinal principles the exact way they are hierarchically arranged i.e.
Iman (faith), Salat (canonical prayer), Zakat (Poor due), Sawm (fasting)
and Hajj (pilgrimage). Thus, it is not acceptable in Islam that one places
Hajj, for instance, in the place of faith or fasting. Indeed, Iman is the
bedrock or pivot on which all other tenets rest. Hence, its implication is
simply that without faith, no Islam.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have dealt with the five cardinal principles of Islam, and
laid emphases on the Qur’anic and Ahadith bases of the principles.
We are not only able to state the essence of each of the principles but
also establish the fact that believe in one principle leads and qualifies
one to practise the other.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. State three (3) other Qur’anic and Ahadith basis for Sawm and
Hajj
2. .State five (5) significance of fasting to Muslims.
3. Explain the cardinal rites of Hajj.
4. Mention five (5) other activities expected of a pilgrim which are
not discussed in this section.
5. Differentiate between Hajj and cUmrah
24
7.0 REFERENCES / FURTHER READINGS
Avdich, K.Y. (1979). Survey of Islamic Doctrine. Cedar Rapids in Unit

Publishing Co.El – Geyoushi, M.I. (1985). Teachings of Islam.
England; The Islamic Cultural Centre
Nadvi, M.A. (1991). Teachings of Islam, India: Darussala Fiah
Tabbarah, A.A. (1978). The Spirit of Islam: Doctrine and Teachings,

N.P.
Iysa Ade Bello (2002).

Bukhari ch. 24 Hadith 1)
Mucjamu’l – Fihris Lil-’alfazu ’l-Qur’an ’l-Karim
Suzanne Haneef (1986). What every one should know about Islam and
Muslims
H.A.R. Gibb et al (1981). Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam.
Yusuf Ali, A (1948). The Holy Qur’an: Translation and Commentary.

25
UNIT 4 THE ARTICLES OF FAITH IN ISLAM (IMAN BI

’L-LAHI, IMAN BI ’L- MALA’IKAH, IMAN BI
’L-KUTUB )
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Articles of faith in Islam (Qawacidu’l-Iman)
3.2 Belief in Allah (Iman bi ’l-Lahi)
3.3 Belief in Angels (Iman bi ’l-Mala’ikah)
3.4 Belief in Books (Iman bi ’l-Kutub)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Having discussed the principles of Islam, it is appropriate to shed more

light on the first principle (Iman) being the bedrock of all dealings in
Islam. Therefore, it cannot be an over statement that one’s faith in
anything determines his involvement and pursuit in the thing, be it
religious or mundane.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• List the articles of faith in Islam.

• Enunciate the relationship between belief in Allah and other
articles of faith in Islam.
• Mention some of the angels of Allah and their divine functions.
• State and explain the values and essence of the divine Scriptures
in Islam.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Articles of Faith in Islam (Qawacidu ’l – Iman)
Iman is the base on which the whole structure of the divine religion
stands and once we do not revitalize it, we cannot erect the whole
structure. Therefore, if a Muslim is provided with an opportunity to
26
strengthen his Iman, the tree of Islam will start blossoming very rapidly
and without much exertion (Oladimeji; 1999).
Owing to the above, the articles of iman in Islam became known during
a question and answer session between the Messenger of Allah,
Muhammad (SAW) and the Arch. Angel Jubril (ASW) related in An-
Nawawi. The session goes inter alia:
… ‘Tell me about faith’. Muhammad

answered: ‘It is that you should believe in God
and His angels and His books and His
Messengers and in the Last Day, and that you
should believe in the decreeing of both good
and evil’ … (Abdul, 1982).
Thus, the articles of faith are six, namely; beliefs in Allah, Angels,
Books, Messengers, life after death and predestination of good and bad.
Perhaps, the holy Prophet responded to the Jibril’s question based on the
Qur’anic revelation that had highlighted the articles, albeit, five were
mentioned in this Qur’anic passage:
“O ye who believe, I believe in Allah and his

Messenger, and in the Book which He has
revealed to His Messenger, and the Book which
He revealed before if. And who so disbelieves
in Allah and His angels, and His Books, and His
Messengers, and the Last Day, has surely
strayed far away (Q4:136).
Essentially, therefore, having faith in these articles, as it is contained in

both the hadith and Qur’an is a prerequisite to making one a faithful
(Mu’min) and disbelief in any of them makes one a disbelieve (Kafir).
3.2 Belief in Allah (al-Iman bi ’l-Lahi)
The principal belief in Islam is the first article, al-Iman bi ’l-lahi. A

Muslim is required to believe in His existence, oneness, as well as
attributes. He should see Him as one and only one Who has no partner
and assistant. The expressions of testimony (Kalimatu ’sh-Shahadah i.e.
La ilaha illa Allah, Muhammad Rusulu’l ’Lahi) unveils the idea that
Allah does not only exist but that He is alone. Thus, in existence of God
and His Oneness are two fundamental aspects of the concept of God as
presented by Islam.
Allah (SWT) exists from eternal and that accounts for why He is able to
create the Universe and all what contained therein, nurtures it and
27
administers its affairs. This unique nature and attributes of Allah is well
spelt out in several Qur’anic passages amongst which says:
There is no god but Allah, He is Self-Sustainer,

the Eternal. Neither sleep nor slumber can
overpower Him. All that is in the Heaven and
earth belong to Him. None can intercede before
Him except with His permission. He knows the
past and the future. None can compass His
knowledge. His throne extends over the
Heavens and the Earth, whose care and
preservation cause no fatigue to Him. He is the
most Exalted and most Glorious. He creates
things and brings them to perfection. He makes
things according to His measure and shows
them the ways whereby they may attain to
perfection. He is the Nourisher of all Creatures.
(Qur’an 2:255).
Similarly, in another Qur’anic passage, the nature of Allah is further

articulated:
Whatever is in the heavens and on earth

glorifies God, for He is the Mighty, the Wise.
To Him belongs the dominion of the heavens
and earth. It is He Who gives life and death and
He has power over all things. He is the first and
the last, the Evident and the Immanent, and He
has full knowledge of all things. It is He Who
created the heavens and the earth in six days
and is moreover firmly established on the
throne. He knows what enters into the earth
and what comes forth from it, and what
descends from the heavens and what mounts up
to it; and He is with you wherever you may be.
And God sees all what you do. To Him belongs
the dominion of the heaven and the earth, and
all affairs are referred back to God. He merges
night into day and He merges day into night.
And he has full knowledge of what is in the
breasts (of men) (Qur’an 57:1-6). (See also
Qur’an 59:22-24).
From the above, it would be clear to you that even though, Allah is
invisible, yet evidences abound that He is the Master – Engineer that
works and directs the affairs of the universe from behind.
28
Hypothetically, if an intelligent man observes the fast phenomenon of

nature, the superb mechanism that is ceaselessly and timelessly
workable, the grand design that manifests in every nook and crannies of
the creation, he will doubtlessly agree that this cannot be but the work of
a Unique Being.
A Poet says: “In everything lie the signs that indicate Him to be one”
Thus, the Superb Creator, the Grand Designer is the Supreme Being. In
fact, if he were to be more than one, there would have been chaos and
disorder in the management of the heavens and earth.
Qur’an 21 verse 22 and 17 verses 41 respectively attest to this assertion.
If there had been in them (the heavens and the

earth) other gods besides Allah, then surely,
both would have gone to ruin. Glorified then be
Allah, the Lord of the Throne, above what they
attribute. Say, had there been other gods with
Him, as they say, then they (idolators) would
have surely sought out a way to the Owner of
the throne.
Therefore, the fact that Allah cannot be seen or perceived with the naked
eyes cannot negate the proof of His existence. For the beautiful creation
of the universe, the orderliness in the cosmos are among the evidences
of His eternal existence while His unique and marvelous works are
amongst the proves of His being one. This concept of the unity of Allah
is captured in the Qur’anic passage thus: “Say He (Allah) is one, Allah
is He on whom all depend. He begets not or is He begotten and there is
none like Him.” (Qur’an 112:1-4).
i. Critically assess the place of belief in Allah (al-Iman bi’l-Lahi) in

Islam.
ii. Belief in Allah (al-Iman bi’l-Lahi) is the bedrock for all other
actions in Islam. Discuss
3.3 Belief in Angels (al-Iman bi’l-Mala’ikah)
This is the second belief in the articles of faith in Islam. Indeed, it is

another belief in the unseen just like the first article previously. The
first creatures were said to be the Angels. However another opinion
upholds that the Angels and the Spirits (Jinn ) were created
simultaneously. The latter premised their view on the fact that Shaytan
29
who was initially known as Azazil was once a notable member (if not
the leader) of the Angelic world until he deified Allah’s order while he
became an accursed.
The Arabic word for Angel is Malak which has its plural form
Mala’ikah. They are according to Ad-Durusi’l-Awwaliyyah created from
light, they do not drink, and neither do they eat nor sleep. They are
honourable devotees of Allah who never defies His order. In support of
their creation from light (An-Nur), Rasulu’l Lahi (SAW) was credited to
have said: “Jinn were created from Fire (An-Nar) while the Angels were
created from light (An-Nur)” The Glorious Qur’an (35:1) speaks of them
as messengers (Rusul) flying on wings. “All praise is due to Allah, the
Maker of the heavens and the earth, who employs the angels as
messengers, having wings, two, three and four….”
It should be noted that the ‘wings’ mentioned above according to

Adetona in “A Supplementary Note on the Articles of Faith in Islam”
connotes power. In other words, the word appears to be symbolic in
usage. He succinctly writes:
Wing is used in different ways in Arabic

translation. In a bird, wing means what it uses
for flying, i.e its power to fly, while in man, it
means his hand, which also shows an ability to
do works. So in angels, it means the power with
which they carry-out their functions with a high
degree of speeds.
They are another set of creatures of Allah created for specific duties and
purpose. They are His servants and not agents or partners. No one
knows their exact number except Allah (SWT), their Creator.
It should be noted as earlier said that Allah created variety of creatures

of all sorts, with different natures, functions and appearance among
which are some beings possessing intelligence e.g. man, angels, spirits.
In other words, angels are other intelligent beings, which act as Allah’s
agents and serve Him in several ways. However, what differentiates
them from men and spirits (Jinn) aside the fact that they are created
from light is that they lack freewill. This is better analyzed by Avdich
(1979):
Man has a two-dimensional nature: he is

endowed with an immortal spirit, soul, which is
instilled in his nature by God; he has a reason
and an independent will of his own … (p.5.)
30
Suzanne Haneef (1986) therefore, describes them this way:
They are absolutely obedient to God’s

commands and are engaged in worship and
service to Him. They are sent to protect men, to
administer God’s punishments, to carry His
messages and to perform various other
functions.
It should be made clear to you that these angels, by their natures and as a
matter of rule, cannot be seen by human beings except by the command
of Allah either when they are to deliver message to the prophets or
asked to give lessons to human beings in the presence of the prophet as
well. For instance, the conversation between Angel Jibril (ASW) and
Rasulu’-l-Lahi (SAW) in the company of some companions of the
prophet contained in Hadith 2 of An-Nawawi is a point of reference.
The Glorious Qur’an speaks of the angels and their functions in several
places. Suffices it to mention few of them for clarity purpose:
He sent down His angels with inspiration of His

Command, to Such of His servants as He
pleaseth, (saying): “warn (Man) that there is no
god but I: so do your duty unto Me (Qur’an
16:2)
But verily over you (are appointed angels) to

protect you. Kind and honourable, writing down
(your deeds). They know (and understand ) all
you do (Qur’an 82: 10-12)
Thus, from the above, their functions may include bringing down of
Divine revelations or the communication of Divine messages to the
prophets, strengthening the righteous servants of God (Qur’an 2: 87;
253) as well as giving them comfort and tranquility during hard times,
(Qur’an 8: 9; 3:123); executing Divine punishment against the wicked,
(Qur’an 8: 50), complements Allah in showering blessings on men
(Qur’an 33: 43)etc
Similarly, as earlier asserted, the number of the angels is known only to

Allah. However, few of them are mentioned by name in the Qur’an.
These include: Jibril (Gabriel), Izra’il, Israfil and Mika’il (Michael).
31
Jibril (Gabriel)
This is the head of the angelic world and his function/duty was to
communicate Allah’s orders and revelations to the Prophets. He is
otherwise known as Holy spirit (Ruh al-Quds) or faithful spirit (Ruh al-
Amin).
It is important to note that “Holy spirit” here does not connote the “Holy
spirit” of the Christianity concept of Trinity i.e. God, the Father, God –
the Son and God – the Holy Spirit.
Isra’il
This is the angel saddled with the responsibility of taking away the lives
of all the creatures of Allah, be it man, animals or even non-living
things.
Israfil
This is the angel who will blow the trumpet to announce the end of life
on the one hand and the advent of the Day of Judgment (Yawmu’l –
Qiyamah) on the other hands. This is evidenced in the Qur’anic passage
that says:
The Trumpet will be sounded and the compete break-up of the present
order in the physical world will ensue (Qur’an 34:68).
Mika’il (Michael)
He plays the role of the fore-man (supervisor) in the angelic world. His
functions were said to be general, for he is in charge of rain and also
entrusted with the work of the supply of the daily bread to all living
things.
Munkar and Nakir
These angels are the Nobel Scribes (Kiramam Katibun) who are always
with man until his death. They are to record the deeds and actions of
man at all times, minute and seconds. The Glorious Qur’an says of
these angels:
Behold two (guardian angels); one sitting on the

right and one on the left. Not a word does he
(man) utter, but there is a sentinel by him ready
(to register it) (Qur’an 50:17-18).
32
Ridwan
This is the angel in charge of Paradise (al-Jannah). He shall admit the

inmates of al-Jannah into it once they scaled through of Allah’s
interrogation on the Qiyyamah Day
It is important to note that the function of the Noble Scribe is only a

figurative function, for Allah knows and has every record of man
without necessarily recording them.
i. Attempt a catchy description of Angels (Mala’ikah) in Islam

ii. Identify the notable Angels in Islam and their respective
function(s)
3.4 Belief in Holy Books/Revealed Scriptures (al-Iman bi’l-

Kutub)
Almighty Allah is so kind that He does not leave mankind without
guidance, especially after the fall of Adam (ASW) from his celestial
abode. The guidance came to mankind through the Divine Scriptures,
(Kutub pl. Kitab) which literally means “Books” or what Muhammad
‘Ali conceives as “ a writing which is complete in itself”. These books
according to a source are numbered one hundred and twenty four, albeit,
some of them have gone into extinction and unpopular.
It should be clear to you that the guidance revealed to all the prophets
before Muhammad (SAW) was sent to a particular nations or
generations. Indeed, it was not intended to be universal, for humanity
had not yet ripen for the stage of readiness for such a final and
comprehensive code of conduct. For instance, Prophet cIsa (Jesus
Christ) asserts in the Old Testament that “I was sent only to the lost
sheep of the house of Israel” (Matthew 15:24). Therefore, the essence
of the revelation of these Scriptures to the prophet was to remedy the
confusions created in the human society or better still to reform the
mankind. However, it should be made clear to you that not all the
prophets were given the divine scriptures. The following are the famous
books of Allah sent through the following prophets.
The Tawrah (Pentateuch) sent through Musa (Moses).
The Zabur (Psalms) sent through Da’ud (David)
Injil (Gospel) sent through cIsa (Jesus)

Qur’an sent through Muhammad (SAW)
Suhuf sent through Ibrahim.
33
When we say that we believe in all the Holy Books, it presupposes that
we believe in them only in so far as they were preserved in their original
forms. However, it is pretty certain to us that only the Holy Qur’an
retained its original forms, for all other pervious Books during the
course of time have either lost the original text or have passed through
some editing exercise. For instance, Opeloye (2001) advanced reasons
why there are gulfs between the Islamic and Christian precepts. He
writes inter alia:
The reason according to the Muslims is due to

interpolation of the Bible. Based on the
assertion in Qur’an 2:79, the Muslims believe
that the original text of the Bible had been
mixed with the interpretation of the writers in a
way that makes it difficult to determine what
constitutes the word of God…(p.14)
Perhaps, as a result of the above factor or irrelevance of some of these

Scriptures or the fact that Prophet Muhammad (SAW) was sent to the
entire universe accounts for the survival of the Qur’an since 1428 years
ago. Of course, its edge over all other revealed scriptures may not be
unconnected to the fact that it contains messages of the past, present and
speaks of the future. ‘Abdur-Rahman Doi (1981) has this to say about
the Qur’an:
As far as the Qur’an is concerned, not only it confirms earlier scriptures,

but as the final revelation, clears up all uncertainties and is the
repository of perfect Truth.
i. What do the divine Scriptures (al-Kutub) stand for in Islam?

ii. Account for the superemacy of the Qur’an over all other divine
Scriptures.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion, three fundamental issues are discernible.
They are as follows: (i) that Iman is the bedrock and foundation which
holds all other articles of faith. (ii) that the angels are special creatures
of Allah created for both general and specific functions (iii) that each
nation has its own Scripture and Prophet except al-Qur’an which is a
Scripture for the entire nations, both past and present. (iv) that Muslims
must believe in all the articles as a pre-requisite to all actions and deeds
in Islam. Indeed, using them as watch-word as a Muslim guarantees
one’s salvation both here and hereafter.
34
5.0 SUMMARY
In sum, it is obvious that the set of beliefs discussed in this section
constitute partly the belief in the unseen (al-Ghayb) in Islam. Indeed,
these beliefs amongst others gurantee eternal salvation for the practicing
Muslims.
1. Assess the place and function(s) of the angels in Islam.

2. Of what values and essence are the Scriptures to Muslims and
Nigeria as a nation?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS
Abdalati, H. (1975). Islam In Focus. Indiana: Amen can Trust

Publications.
Akintola, I.L. (19980). “An Inquiry into Two of the Natural Phenomenal
Aspects of Ashrat As-Sacah”, in Al-Hadarah: Lasu Journal of
Arabic & Islamic Studies, Lagos State University. Ojo
Doi, A.R.I.; (1981). The Cardinal Principle of Islam, Lagos: Islamic

Publication Bereau.
Khan, M.Z. (1985). Riyadu’s – Salihin of Imam An – Nawawi, Beirut,

11h lit-Tibacah Wa n-Na Shz.
Musavi Lari, S.M. (1992). Resurrection Judgment and the Hereafter:

Lessons on Islamic Doctrines, Iran Foundation of Islamic
Cultural Propagation in the World.
Nadvi, M.A. (1991) Teachings of Islam, India, Darus – Salafiah.
Oseni, Z.I. “ Theodicy, Evolution and Genocide in An African Setting:

An Islamic View” Paper presented at The Science and Religion
Course Program of The Centre For Theology and The Natural
Science (CTNS), Berkeley California Between January 4 & 9,
2002
Yusuf Ali, A (1948). The Holy Qur’an: Translation and Commentary.

35
UNIT 5 THE ARTICLES OF FAITH IN ISLAM (IMAN

BI’R-RUSUL, IMAN BI’L – YAWNU’L-’AKHIR
AND IMAN BI ’L-QADAR)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Belief in Prophets (Iman bi’r-Rusul)
3.2 Belief in Last Day (Iman bi’l – Yawnu’l-’Akhir)
3.3 Belief in Destiny (Iman bi ’l-Qadar)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
So far, we had discussed three of the articles. Here, we intend in this

unit to further our discussion on the other three. In other words, the
rationale behind the beliefs as well as the implication of defying the
beliefs in Islam shall be focused here.
At the end of the discussion, you would be able to reason why man must
be punished by Allah for not adhering to His dictates and vice versa.
The question we may ask ourselves, therefore, is that who has the blame
for whatever consequence (s) that befalls man. God or man?
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• mention some of the notable Prophets of Allah with their Biblical

equivalents.
• explain what the Prophets of Allah stand for and their sterling
qualities
• respond to the philosophical questions “what becomes of a
Muslim after death” and
• shall a Muslim be responsible to somebody for his/her deeds and
actions?
36
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Belief in the Prophets (al-Iman bi’l – Rusul)
In Islam, the word “prophet” (Nabiy pl. Anbiya’/Rasul) denotes one who
is very near to God through the total surrender of his entire being to Him
and who received revelations from Him which constitute a source of
guidance for men. In other words, the Apostles are the pious Servants
of Allah to whom Allah sends His Messengers through revelation and
commands them to preach same. In other words, they served dual
capacities i.e. receive information from Allah and disseminate same to
the world.
The Glorious Qur’an uses the two terms interchangeably; however, there
is a line of demarcation between the two. While the former is narrow in
contextual meaning, the latter is wider in significance. A Nabiy is not a
Rasul, for he is only given oral inspirations, but Rasul combine both i.e
oral inspirations and divine books.
Although, we cannot say with certitude the number of the prophets.

However, 313 and 124,000 have been suggested. Hence, Muslims are
expected to believe in these Apostles as some of them were mentioned
in the Qur’an while some are not mentioned. Qur’an 4 verse 164 says in
this direction:
And We sent some Messengers whom We have

already mentioned to thee and some
Messengers whom We have not mentioned to
thee; and Allah spoke to Moses particularly
( see also Qur’an 40 :78)
Among those ones mentioned in the Qur’an, twenty-five (25) are

notable. These in the Qur’anic chronological order include:
37
S/N ISLAMIC NAME BIBLICAL NAME

1 Ibrahim Abraham
2 Is-haq Isaac
3 Ya‘qub Jacob
4 Nuh Noah
5 Da’ud David
6 Sulayman Solomon
7 Ayyub Job
8 Yusuf Joseph
9 Musa Moses
10 Harun Aaron
11 Zakariyya’ Zacharias
12 Yahya John The Baptist
13 ‘Isa Jesus
14 Ilyas Elias
15 Isma’il Ishmael
16 Il-Yasa’a Elisha
17 Yunus Jonah
18 Lut Lot (Qur’an 6:82-86)
19 Adam Adam
20 Shu‘ayb Jothro
21 Hud Heber
22 Shith Shith
23 Salih Saleh / Methusela
24 Idris Enoch
25 Muhammad Comforter
38
Apparently, aside the above Prophets which are expressly mentioned in

the Qur’an, there are some that are not mentioned as related in Qur’an 4:
164. These are found in some other Islamic literatures such as Qisas al-
Anbiya’, Dala’ilu ’l-Khayrat etc. Such Prophets include: Luqman, Dhul-
Qarnayn, Uzayr, Dhul-kifl, Armiya’, Sha‘ya, Yusha’ to mention only a
few (Dala’ilu’l-Khayrat: 102-3; 133-4) (Von Denfer, 1983)
The Prophets, we must note, must possess certain sterling qualities such
as faithfulness, truthfulness, honesty, intelligence and courage. They
must be free from sins (al-cIsma), come from families of high repute and
standard. They must be mentally and physically fit to execute their
assignments. They should be able to deliver Allah’s message to their
people to the level of understanding. Allah always assists them by
granting them miracles (Karamat) in order to convince those to whom
they are sent.
It should be known to you that Apostleship is a divine appointment.

Hence, it cannot be acquired (Iktisab). However, they are human beings
(Bashar) who are not only liable to err but also face some human
challenges and problems. The Glorious Qur’an says of the Prophets of
Allah:
“Every nation has a Messenger” (Q10:47)
“All of them were true Servants of God and

Islam does not make any difference among
them” (Q.2:285)
It is also important to note that although each nation has its own
Messenger, Prophet ’Muhammad (SAW) on the other hand was affirmed
the seal of all the prophets of Allah (Khatim al-Anbiya’/al-Mursalin)
and was also sent to the entire world. Qur’an affirms “And We have
sent you not but as a mercy for the entire universe” (Qur’an 21:107).
39
i. Differentiate between Rusul and Nabiyy

ii. List some of the Prophets mentioned in the Qur’an with their
Biblical equivalents
iii. Mention some of the qualities of the Prophets of Allah
3.2 Belief in the Last Day (al-Iman bi’l-Yawm al-Akhir)
Belief in the Hereafter constitutes another fundamental article in Islam.

This is the belief in the fact that man is only in this world in passing, he
must definitely return to his base where he accounts for his deed and
actions in this ephemeral world. The day to render this account is
known in several names amongst which are Yawm al – Hisab (Day of
Reckoning), Yawm al – Bacth (Day of Resurrection), Yawm al-Din (the
Day of Religion), Yawm al – Sacah (Day of Last Hour) to mention only
a few.
The belief is so critical in Islam in that the entire philosophy of life is

built upon it. Indeed, without this article, the whole idea of the concepts
of good and evil as well as other ethical teachings in Islam are baseless.
Musavi Lari (1992) in his book “Resurrection Judgment and the
Hereafter: Lessons on Islamic Doctrine” Corroborates:
If we examine the influence of belief in the

hereafter in preserving social security and
preventing the spread of corruption, crime and
the violation of law, we reach the conclusion
that this belief is the only force capable of
taming the rebellious desires of the soul. It is
like a protective shield that guards man from
the assault of his passions, for the one who
holds this belief will obey a series of ethnical
principles without hypocrisy and without being
subject to external pressure … (p.22).
It must be made clear to you that the actual day and date of this Great
Day is unknown to any mortal but only Allah. He, however, guided
man on some of the signs (Ashrat As-Sacah ) that will manifest and/or
Usher in the Day as well as the description of how it will come. In his
paper: “An Inquiry into Two of the Natural Phenomenal Aspects of
Ashrat As-Sacah”, Akintola, (19980) surmises that prognostication made
by Prophet Muhammad some of which tend to have socio-economic
tinges accounts for the difficulty of knowing the exact number of Ashrat
As-Sacah recognized in Islam. He, however, advanced the following as
the likely signs of the Day as suggested by the Qur’an’
40
The Qur’an supplies six, viz: the Messengership

of Prophet ‘Isa (Jesus Christ 43:61); the
appearance of Dabat al-Ard (the earth beast
27:82); the advent of Ya’juj and Ma’juj (Gog
and Magog 18:83-92; 21:95-97); al-Zilzilah (the
earthquake 99:1-4; 22:1-2); al-Kusuf (the lunar
and solar eclipse 54:1; 81:1) and ad-Dukan (the
Smoke 44:10) (p.20)
In an hadith, Abu Hurayrah relates:
The Judgment will not be set up till the

Muslims fight the Jews and a Jew will seek to
hide himself behind a rock or a tree and the
rock or the tree will call out: O Muslim, here is
a Jew hiding behind me. Come and kill him.
But the thornjng (gharqad) will not call out like
this if it is one of the trees of the Jews. (Riyadu
’ s-Salihin, hadith 1826).
Therefore, Muslim must register it at the back of their minds that death
is not the end of man’s journey but that no matter the kind of death that
may have killed him, no matter how long he stays in the grave, he will
definitely ressurect one day and stand before Allah for judgment. Those
who pass or are successful on the Day will go to Paradise (al-Jannah)
while those who could not have satisfactory result will end up in the
Hellfire, (Jahannam) the two, being their final abodes.
i. Recast some of the signs of the Last Day as prognosticated by the

Prophet (SAW)
ii. Mention some of the Qur’anic verses and Ahadith in support of
the Day of Qiyammah
3.3 Belief in Destiny (al-Iman bi ’l-Qadar)

This is the last article of faith in Islam. It is known as Qada’ i.e
measurement of what is ordained by Allah and His ‘Plan’ and/or qadar
i.e. measurement of what is good and evil. It is also sometimes
translated as, ‘fate’, ‘decree’ ‘predestination’ ‘destiny’ etc
Destiny, according to Ahmad Nadvi (1991) is “that knowledge of Allah

according to which He created the entire universe as well as all creatures
therein in correct proportions” Muslims, therefore, must believe in the
fact that all affairs have been inscribed in the Preserved Tablet (al-Lawh
al-Mahfuz).
41
The Holy Qur’an says “Verily, all things have We created in proportion
and measure” (Qur’an 54:49) “No misfortune can happen on earth or in
your souls, but is recorded in a decree before We bring it into existence.
That is truly easy for Allah” (Qur’an 52: 22)
Corroboratively, Abdullah bn. ‘Abbas relates in an hadith thus:
….If you have need to ask, ask from Allah, if

you must seek help, seek help from Allah.
Know that even though the community should
make a united effort to benefit you in any
matter, they would not benefit you in aught save
what Allah has prescribed for you, nor were
they to make a united effort to harm you in any
matter, they would not harm you in aught save
what Allah has prescribed for you. The Pens
have been lifted and the Pages are dry (Hadith
19 of An-Nawawi)
It should be noted, however, that in spite of all said above, Allah does
not leave mankind without guidance, hence, the ability to distinguish
between what is good and what is bad (intellect) at least according to
one’s socio-cultural milieu. The Glorious Qur’an asserts: “Verily, We
showed him the way, whether he be grateful or ungrateful” (Qur’an
76:3) ; “ By the soul and the proportion and order given to it. And its
enlightenment as to its wrong and its right. Truly. And he succeeds that
purifies it and he fails that corrupts it ” (91:7-10).
Therefore, through the reasoning faculty which He (Allah) endows man,
he is able to act rightly or wrongly. Thus, when he acts in accordance to
his whims and caprices (Nafs al-Hawa’), he cannot but blame himself.
This is so as reasoned by Oseni (2002: 9) that Almighty Allah had not
only given him the five senses and intelligence to be able to discern
what is good and what is bad but also assists his sense of goodness by
sending messengers (Anbiya’) to the world from amongst mankind.
Abdur-Rahman Doi (1981), therefore, summarizes when he writes:
In Islam if a man commits theft for example, it

is not because God has destined him to do so,
He has done it on his own accord and free will
and not predestination. (p.46).
Perhaps this can be re-interpreted in line with the Qur’anic passage

which says: “Whoever works righteousness benefits his own soul;
whoever works evil, it is against his own soul, nor is thy Lord ever
unjust (in the least) to His servants” (Qur’an 41:46)
42
In sum, therefore, while certain happenings in the cosmos fall under pre-
measurement e.g. birth, death, falling of rain, rising of sun, alternating
of days and nights etc. others are handworks of mankind.
i. Differentiate between Qada’ and Qadar

ii. Allah cannot be blamed for man’s erring action. Elucidate
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing discussion, it is obvious that a Muslim cannot be

complete in faith if he believes in one part/segment of the articles and
disregards any other segment. Thus, it is tantamount to Shrirk or
heathenism if a Muslim defies any of these articles. It is also made clear
that man shall account for his action(s) on each of the articles which
presupposes that he sleeps on the bed the way he makes it.
5.0 SUMMARY
In sum, the articles of faith in Islam re-invigorate the mind of a Muslim

as he/she fulfils the expectations as well as the ideals of Allah on the set
of beliefs, especially as most of the beliefs are emphasis on the unseen
(al-ghayb) vis-à-vis: Allah, Angels, Prophets, and last Day.
1. Account for the rationale behind the institution of Messengership

in Islam.
2. How would you assess the guidance Allah endowed mankind?
3. Differentiate between Rasul and Nabiy; Qada’ and Qadar.
Abdalati, H. (1975). Islam In Focus, Indiana: Amen Can Trust

Publications.
Akintola, I.L. (19980). “An Inquiry into Two of the Natural Phenomenal
Aspects of Ashrat As-Sacah ”, in Al-Hadarah: Lasu Journal of
Arabic & Islamic Studies, Lagos State University Ojo
Doi, A.R.I.; (1981). The Cardinal Principle of Islam. Lagos: Islamic

Publication Bereau.
43
Khan, M.Z. (1985). Riyadu’s – Salihin of Imam An – Nawawi, Beirut,

11h lit-Tibacah Wa n-Na Shz.
Musavi Lari, S.M. (1992). Resurrection Judgment and the Hereafter:

Lessons on Islamic Doctrines, Iran Foundation of Islamic
Cultural Propagation in the World.
Nadvi, M.A. (1991). Teachings of Islam, India, Darus – Salafiah.
Oseni, Z.I. “ Theodicy, Evolution and Genocide in An African Setting:

An Islamic View” Paper presented at The Science and Religion
Course Program of The Centre For Theology and The Natural
Science (CTNS), Berkeley California Between January 4 & 9,
2002
Opeloye; M.O. (1996). A Dictionary of People and Places in the

Qur’an, Lagos: West African Book Publishers Limited.

44
UNIT 6 THE SIGNIFICANCE, IMPORTANCE AND

IMPLICATION OF KALIMATU’SH-
SSSHAHADAH
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Kalimatu Sh-Shahadah in Islam
3.2 Analysis of Kalimatu ’Sh-Shahadah
3.3 Significance/Importance of Kalimatu ’Sh-Shahadah in
Islam
3.4 Implication of Kalimatu ’Sh-Shahadah in Islam
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Kalimatu ’sh-Shahadah (words of testimony), undoubtedly is the pivot

stand which holds all other activities in Islam. It is the basis for one to
be called a believer (Muslim) and which also distinguishes Muslims
form non-Muslims. Without this proclamation, therefore, whatever
‘rite’ observed in Islam is in vain and worthless. The proclamation of
the ‘words’ on the other hand even without any other religious rite may
grant one salvation in the Hereafter (al-Jannah). We shall attempt in
this unit to discuss the importance and or implication of the ‘words’
hereunder.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Correctly analyze the words of testimony

• Explain the words of testimony
• Highlight the implication/significance of the words.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Kalimatu ’sh – shahadah in Islam
Al-Tawhid literally connotes the unity of Allah but technically its study
is wider than its literal meaning.
45
The study covers the details of the beliefs a Muslim is expected to

uphold, cherish and respect, hence, it is concerned about the faith and/or
creed of a Muslim.
Faith in the unity of Allah (Al-Tawhid) confirms one to be a Muslim,

thus, in becoming a Muslim, the first requirement is that the person
concerned must testify that Allah is one and that Muhammad (SAW) is
Allah’s Messenger. This testimony is otherwise known as Kalimatu
’sh-Shahadah and it is fully expressed thus; “Ashhodu an la ilaha illa
Allah, wahdahu la sharika lahu; wa ashdah anna Muhammadan abdu’u
wa Rasuluhu” Meaning: “I testify that there is none to be worshipped
except Allah. He is alone without any partner and I testify that
Muhammad (SAW) is His Servant and Messenger”.
The belief in Tawhid is not only the cardinal stone of the Islamic faith
but a standing protest against polytheism, dualism, atheism etc. It then
means that Allah is one in His Person (Dhatih), one in His attributes
(Sifatih) as well as His works (afcalih). The Islamic faith, thus, sees
Allah as just only one that has no equal, He is an independent Supreme
Being without any associate and He alone deserves to be worshipped.
It is this belief in the oneness of Allah that is known as al-Tawhid i.e.

faith in the unity of Allah and it has three compulsory parts, namely:
Tawhid al-Rububiyah, Tawhid al-Uluhiyah, Tawhid al-Asma’ wa-al-
Sifat.
(I) Tawhid al-Rububiyah:
This conveys the belief that Allah is the Rabb Who created the entire
Universe ranging from man, the seven heavens and earth, animals, and
plants, indeed, all living things and non living things. All things are
under His control.
(II) Tawhid al-Uluhiyah:
This conveys the belief that Allah is not the Only One worthy to be
worshipped but also to be asked for any assistance
(III) Tawhid al-Asma’ wa-al-Sifat:
This conveys the belief in the beautiful names and attributes of Allah as
contained in the Glorious Qur’an and the Sunnah of Rasulu’l-Lah
without any interpretation (Ta’wil ) or likening (Tashbih ) Few of these
names and attributes are contained in the Qur’anic Verse of Throne
(Ayat al-Kursiyy i.e. Qur’an 2: 255)
46
It is this belief in the Oneness of Allah that is known as al-Tawhid i.e.

faith in the unity of Allah. Its formula, simply, is La ilaha illa Allah,
meaning”There is no deity worthy of veneration except Allah and this is
summed up in the Qur’an chapter that says:
Say, He Allah is one.

Allah is He on whom all depend
He begets not nor is He begotten
And there is non like Him. (Q112:1-4).
The above Surah, by implication, negates all other faiths and beliefs that
either represent God with an object such as Judaism (ark of covenant) or
that profess Trinitarian belief (God-the Father; God-the Son and God-
the Holy Spirit such as Christianity. This, in Islamic concept of faith (al-
Tawhid), is an act of polytheism (Shirk) which is a grievous sin. The
Glorious Qur’an reiterates on this:
Surely, Allah will not forgive that any partner

be associated with Him; but He will forgive
whatever is short of that to whomsoever He
pleases. And who so associates partners with
Allah has indeed devised a very great sin.
(Qur’an 4:48)
In a similar verse, Allah says:
And remember when Luqman said to his son, while exhorting him, O
my dear son! Associate not partner with Allah. Surely, associating
partners with God is a grievous wrong’. (Q31:13)
(See also Qur’an 17:112).
3.2 Analysis of kalimatu ’sh-shahadah
The profession of faith has two parts, namely;
 La ilaha illa Allah and

 Muhammad Rasulu’l-Lahi.
The word ‘La’ is clear indication that pure monotheism connotes the
rejection of belief in any other deity but the Supreme Being.
By oneness of Allah, ordinarily, we understand His uniqueness in

essence, quality and action. It should be noted that all the Prophets of
47
Allah (Anbiya’ Allah) preached this dogma even before the advent of
Prophet Muhammad (SAW).
La ilaha illa Allah, therefore, is central to Islam, for it is the statement

that admits one as a Muslim and its rejection on the other hand confirms
one to be a Kafir. Maulana Muhammad cAli, in his “The Religion of
Islam” asserts thus: “The dividing line between a Muslim and a Kafir,
or between a believer and an unbeliever, is confession of the unity of
God and the Prophethood of Muhammad” (p.124).
It should also be noted that “La ilaha illa Allah” forms a constant theme
in the Holy Qur’an. In fact, the phrase is not peculiar to Islam alone as
same is found in some other scriptural books e.g. the Bible. For the
Holy Bible in Isiah speaks of God as one God. The scriptural Book says
intar alia:
The expression is so powerful that it guarantees one being in the fold of

Islam so far he/she expresses the Kalimah even if he/she does not
practicalize other pillars of Islam (Salat, Zakat, Sawm and Hajj).
Maulana Muhammad cAli corroborates: “But no one has the right to
expel any one from the brotherhood of Islam so long as he confesses the
Unity of God and the prophethood of Muhammad” (p.125).
It should be noted also that the expression “La ilaha illa Allah” does not
only regulate and shape the entire gamut of human life but that its
conceptual meaning be well comprehended by all and sundry.
The other aspect of the expression of faith in Allah is the admittance of

the prophethood of Muhammad as both servant (cAbduhu) and
Messenger/Apostle (Rasul).
It should however be noted that he (Muhammad) (SAW) was not the

only prophet of Allah but that there are many others numbering one
hundred and twenty four thousand (124,000) according to a source (Doi;
1981:44) out of which the Glorious Qur’an mentions twenty-five (25)
(Q16:36).
The emphasis on Muhammad (SAW) amongst all these prophets of Allah

is simply being the seal of them all (Khatam Nabiy wa Imam al-
Mursalin). Thus, the fact that he was chosen as the seal only suggests
that he was only favoured by Allah (SWT).
Muslims are therefore expected to hold him in high esteem as He

(Allah) proclaims him. Qur’an 33 verse 56 says:
48
God and His Angels send blessings on the

Prophet: O ye that believe, send your blessings
on him, and salute him with respect
The object of accepting him as Apostle of Allah is that Muslims should

obey and follow his commands in their totality. In other words, all his
sayings should be considered the Truth. Therefore, Muslims should
worship Allah according to the traditional modes prescribed by the
Messenger of Allah (SAW) (Nadvi; 1991:28).
It should be known that to believe in the Messengership of Muhammad

connotes that after Allah his (Muhammad) sayings and deeds must be
given preference to the sayings and deeds of others. Therefore, in
confirming the high degree of respect and honour required for the
personality of Rasulu Lahi. The Glorious Qur’an directs:
“So take what the Apostle assigns to you, and

deny yourselves that which he forbids
you” (Q59:7).
“But no, by thy Lord, they can have no (real)

faith, save when they make you judge in all
disputes between them, and, find in their souls
no resistance against your decisions, but accept
them with fullest conviction” (Q4:65).
3.3 Significance/Importance of Kalimatu ’sh-Shahadah in

Islam
The Kalimah (testimony of faith) is a creedal formulae identifying the

key Islamic beliefs. The recitation of this formulae with every
conviction, therefore, is the visa for entry into Islam.
It is also said in the daily canonical prayers (Khamsu as-Salawat) as

well as other religions (Islamic) engagements.
If a person male or female with concrete and genuine mind utters this
‘formulae” with the principal aim of becoming a Muslim, he would
automatically become one. Hence, all the rights, privileges, duties and
responsibility to be enjoyed by Muslims naturally fall on him.
The expression is highly important to the extent that a new born baby
has to be initiated by calling the call to prayer formulae (Adhan) into
his/her right ear and readiness of prayer formulae (Iqamah) into the left
ear respectively.
49
The saying of La ilaha illa Allah is an affirmative statement that man

should not engage or work contrary to this expression. In other words,
he should not stop at mere saying or expressing the Kalimah but
compliment it with proper worship of Allah as Qur’an says:
O you who believe! Why do you say that

which you will not do. Grievously odious is it
in the sight of God to say that you will not do
…(Qur’an 61:2-3)
The import of the above Qur’anic verse lies in the fact that when one
pronounces the ‘formulae’ and yet worships another thing is indeed
acting contrary to what he/she professed.
The Kalimah produces in the believer a high degree of self respect and
confidence. He knows that he depends on none but Allah for the
fulfillment of His needs. Qur’an 3 verse 173 reiterates.
Those to whom men said, ‘People have

mustered agaist you, therefore fear them,’ but
this only increased their faith and they said,
‘Sufficient for us is Sllah, and an excellent
Guardian is He
In the same vein, he firmly believes via the Kalimah that Allah alone has
the power of providing all his needs and desires while no one can
obstruct Him when He decides to provide for His devotee. Hadith of
an-Nawawi says:
… If you must seek help, seek help from God.

Know that even though the community should
make a united effort to benefit you in any
matter they would not benefit you in ought save
what God has prescribed for you, nor were they
to make a united effort to harm you in any
matter they would not harm you in ought save
what God had prescribed for you. The pens
have been lifted and the pages are dry …
(Abdul, 1983:90).
The profession of the Kalimah futher makes believers humble and

modest, for he is fully aware that everything in the universe belongs to
Allah while he gains control over it by being subservient to Allah.
The Kalimah, according to Muhammad cAli is the dividing line between

a believer and an unbeliever. A man becomes a Muslim or a believer by
50
making a confession of Kalimat ul Tayyibah so long he does not renege

on his faith, he remains a Muslim. The Kalimah is a great force of
bringing about the unity of the human race which overtly or covertly
translates to the universal brotherhood of all believers. For instance, the
expression of Talbiyah during Hajj affirms this.
The Kalimah does not only enable Muslims to maintain peace among
themselves and even non-Muslims but also purge out of them acts of
jealousness, envy, animosity and hatred. The Holy Qur’an speaks of
two parties of Muslims fighting with each other and yet of both as
Mu’min. Qur’an 49 verse 10 instructs:
“The believers are but brethren, therefore, make

peace between your brethren”.
3.4 Implication of Kalimatu ’sh-Shahadah in Islam
The implication of Kalimatu ’sh-shahadah from the significance

discussed above would connote that one cannot be a member in the fold
of Islam, even nominal one for that matter, without conceiving the
Kalimah in the mind and express it as well. Imam Abu Hanifah in Sharh
al-Wasiyyah says: Iman consists of confessing with the tongue,
believing with the mind and acknowledging with the heart. Confession
alone is not faith for were it to be, all hypocrites would be true believers,
nor is knowledge alone faith, for were it to be, all the people of the Book
(Ahl al-Kitab) would be true believers. A believer in the Kalimah,
therefore, submits him/herself whole heartedly to the dictates of Allah
while he becomes His true servant. When he/she does this, he would
have complied to Qur’an 6 verses 162-3 which says:
Say, “As for me, my Lord has guided me unto a

straight path- a right religion, thee religion of
Abraham, the upright. And he was not of those
who join gods with God. Say, ‘My prayer and
my sacrifice and my life and my death are all
for Allah, the Lord of the worlds.
Allah has created all that contained in the heavens and earth for the
benefit of mankind. (Qur’an 2:164). Thus, when a person submits
himself to Allah’s tenets and dictates, he gains control over all other
creatures of the cosmos. Several Qur’anic verses attest to this fact. (See
Qur’an 31:20; 22:65).
The Kalimah, by implication, guarantees the claimer’s salvation in the

hereafter even if he did not practice any of the acts of worship (cIbadat),
especially if he professes it as the last word. It would be recalled that
51
Prophet Muhammad (SAW) was seriously disturbed and concerned when

he wanted his dying grandfather – (Abdul-Mutallib) who was a
polytheist to just express and profess the word.
The Kalimah creates in man the will of power, for he is not dismayed by
fortune nor despair. He knows that the power of Allah is above all
powers. Those who believe in the Supreme authority of Allah will be
free from greed and envy while they will follow the way of truth in all
their actions because they sure that their Creator knows everything.
The Kalimah, aside the fact that it obliges the claimant to act according
to the laws and orders of Allah also reminds him of acting righteously
for the benefit of all mankind.
The faith in the Divine revelation is one of the essentials of Islam as

earlier discussed in the above units, This revelation has to be
communicated to the people through a man, thus, faith in the
messengership of Muhammad is the vehicle of conveyance. In other
words, the Prophet (Muhammad) is not only the bearer of the Divine
Message, but he also exemplifies the messages in the practical terms.
The Kalimah also affirms the messengership of the holy Prophet

Muhammad as the last and the seal of the prophets, as evidenced in
Qur’an 33 verse 40.
Muhammad is not the father of any of your

men, but (he is) the Apostle of God, and the
seal of the prophets. And God has full
knowledge of all things.
In the same vein, it presupposes that the Messengership of Muhammad

closes the gate of Nabiy, for all prophets (Anbiya’) are not Messengers
(Rasul). In other words, while the former is a divine appointment
bestowed on whoever Allah pleases, it cannot be acquired (Iktisab). It is
also important to note that no matter one’s activities in Islam, be it
physical (jihad) or spiritual (Tasawwuf), he can not be a prophet. Abdu-
Rahman Doi (1981) sums it up:
After Muhammad, there is no more Prophet or Messenger. The position

of prophethood has come to an end while sainthood will last indefinitely
both in this world and the next because God is the friend of the faithful.
(P.45).
52
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, it is crystal clear that the Kalimatu Tayyibah admits
one to the fold of Islam while its non admittance takes one away from it.
It has also been pointed out that, minimally, Islam requires one to
express it even if for any reason(s), one cannot put the expression into
practice. So also, the Apostleship of Muhammad as the seal of all the
prophets is brought to fore.
5.0 SUMMARY
The analysis of the Kalimah showed that it has two segments viz: The
testimony of unity of Allah and the belief in the messengership of
Muhammad. The latter showed that after the demise of Prophet
Muhammad, no prophet would ever emerge but saints (Awliya’ Allah).
What is the importance/implication of La ilaha illa Allah to a Muslim?
Analyze the word of testimony (Kalimatu Tayyibbah) and expatiate on

its significance.
Abdul, M.O.A. (1983). The Prophet of Islam; Life Sayings and Deeds,
Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau,
c
Ali, Mawlana Muhammad (nd). The Religion of Islam: A
Comprehensive Discussion of the Sources, Principles and
Practices of Islam, U.A.R., National Publication and Printing
House.
Ali Nadvi, Abul Hasan (1979). Muhammad Rasula llah; The Life of
Prophet Muhammad, Lucknow (India): Academy of Islamic
Research and publications.
Sixty-Six Branches of the Islamic Faith, Abeokuta, Ogun State Muslim

Pilgrims Welfare Board, n.d.
Tabbarah, Afif A (1978). The Spirit of Islam, n.p..
53
MODULE 2 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

OF ISLAM
Unit 1 The Qur’an

Unit 2 Sunnah of Prophet Muhammad
Unit 3 Ijmac (Concensus) & Qiyas (Analogy)
Unit 4 Ijtihad
UNIT 1 THE QUR’AN
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contnet
3.1 Al-Qur’an and its meaning
3.2 The nature of the Qur’an
3.3 The importance and place of al-Qur’an in Islam
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Islam, being a revealed and divine religion is premised on certain

sources, perhaps, based on the prophet’s conclusion in his farewell
message at the farewell pilgrimage (Hujjat al-Wad‘ah i.e 10th A.H.) that
“I leave behind two mighty things – the Qur’an and my example. If you
hold fast to them, you will never go astray” (Ali Nadwi, 1979: 383).
Hence, these two sources automatically became the primary sources of
guidance in Islam. In other words, the above, is a pointer to the fact that
the religion (al-Islam) is not a baseless religion. It is against this
backdrop that we intend in this unit to shed an enlightenment on al-
Qur’an being the first primary source of information and guidance in
Islam.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define the word al-Qur’an

• Explain the nature of al-Qur’an
• Highlight the uniqueness / importance of Al-Qur’an to Muslims
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
54
3.1 al-Qur’an and Its Meaning
The word “al-Qur’an” is derived from the Arabic root word “qara’a”,
which means ‘to read’, ‘to recite’, ‘to speak’ ‘to proclaim’ ‘to read
aloud’ etc. In the Qur’an, the word qara’a refers usually to
Muhammad’s revelation, but occasionally to the scriptures of other
faiths (Q10:93; Q17:93) Al-Qur’an, as a verbal noun therefore, means
‘reading’ or ’recitation’ or ‘act of moving the tongue to speak’. It is
understood, however, as a title of the revelation to prophet Muhammad
(SAW) while other Scriptures of other Prophets are called Suhuf, Injil
Tawrat Zabur. (Mannac Qatton: 1971).Kamali, (1991: 14) in his
Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, defines the Scripture as “the book
containing the speech of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in
Arabic and transmitted to us by continuous testimony, or tawatur” To
the author of A History of Islamic Theories: An Introduction to Sunni
Usul al-Fiqh, Wael Hallaq (1997: 3), al-Qur’an is primarily not only a
book of religious and moral prescriptions but also encompasses pieces
of legislation.
It should be remarked that al- Qur’an also contains certain meaning

about itself which presupposes that it has some other names aside the
Qur’an. These names include:
al-Kitab – the Book (2:2)
al-Furqan – the Separator, i.e. that which separates truth from

falsehood, right from wrong. (25:1)
al-Dhikr – the Reminder, i.e. that which reminds one of one’s duties to
God and man. (15:9).
al-Huda – the Guidance, i.e. that which guides one to the right way, to
the correct judgement. (2:185).
al-Tanzil – the Revelation, i.e. the messages that came by revelation.

(26:192).
al-Hukm – the Judgment, i.e. that which provides directions to

judgment. (10:1).
al-Hikmah – the Divine words of wisdom. (65:6).
al-Shifah – the Spiritual healer of man. (17:82)
al-Macuzat – the Complete exhortation. (10:57)
55
al-Nur – the Truth and light. (4:4).
3.2 The Nature of al- Qur’an
The Qur’an, is the primary source of guidance and information in Islam.

It is composed of such manifest revelations as were made in the very
words of Allah. It was revealed to Muhammad in Arabic language so
that he may be able to accomplish the Divine task saddled him. Qur’an
aptly says : “ We have revealed the Qur’an in Arabic language so that
you may understand ”. (Q43: 3)
The first revelation came to the Prophet (SAW) in Cave Hira in 17th
Ramadan in 610 C.E. i.e Qur’an 96 verses 1-5 while the piecemeal
revelation covered two periods – Makkah and Madina periods. The
former period had 12 years 5 months while the latter had 9 years 9
months. In other words, fraction wise, the Makkan revelations was
19/30 while that of Madinah was 11/30. However, the Makkan Surahs
differ in character from those revealed in Madina. While the Makkan
Surahs are comparatively small, generally deal with the basic tenets of
Islam and provide guidance to the individual soul, the Madinan Surahs
are rich in laws relating to civil, criminal, social and political problems
of life. (Ahmad Hasan, 1968)
There are one hundred and fourteen (114) Chapters (Suwar) in all,
beginning with the Opening Chapter (Surat’ul-Fatihah) and Chapter of
Mankind (Surat’ul-Nas) as the last Chapter of the Qur’an at least in the
standardized Uthmanic edition.
Muslim jurists and modern scholars are not in agreement on the number
of words, alphabets and even verses contained in the Qur’an. According
to Suyuti, the Glorious Book contains one hundred and ninety-two
thousand (192,000) words, one hundred and sixty-two thousand six
hundred seventy-one (162,671) alphabets (Huruf) and six thousand six
hundred and sixty-six (6,666 )verses (ayat).Abdur-Rahman Doi
(1984:21), on the other hand, quotes eighty-six thousand four hundred
and thirty (86,430) words, three million twenty-three thousand seven
hundred and sixty (3,23,760) alphabets and six thousand six hundred
and sixty-six (6,666) verses. Yet, Kamali (1991: 14) puts the figure of
the verses at six thousand two hundred and thirty-five (6,235). However,
they all agreed that the Book contains some 500 verses with legal
content.
Each Surah was given a name which was taken from an important event
narrated within the chapter, for each of them (both Surahs and Ayat) had
reason for being revealed (Asbab al-Nuzul).
56
It should be noted that many of the verses (ayat) in the Qur’an laid down
rules of law with reference to cases which actually arose. Invariably, the
Divine Scripture can be classified into three: namely: injunctions
dealing with faith (aqacid), injunctions dealing with morals in the
society (Adab), and injunctions dealing with penalties (cUqubat).
The legal injunctions (Ayat al-Ahkam) in the Book (Qur’an) were

mostly derived from questions posed to the Prophet by his companions
(Sahabah). It means that whenever any issue was ambiguous to them,
they used to clarify it with the Prophet (S.A.W.).
According to Professor Doi quoting Al-itqan ficulum al-Qur’a,n these

legal injunctions are said to be 500 verses although some other scholars
uphold different views as regards its numbers. Whatever may be the
case, these Ayat al-Ahkam form the code of conduct for every Muslim
from birth to death while the compliance will bring eternal peace to his
door steps. Hence, the verses could be grouped into four categories:
1. Ahkam al-Mujimal – Concise or Resume injunctions: These are

the precise commandments contained in the Qur’an, of which
comprehensive rule regarding them are not given by the Qur’an
but the Sunnah. Such injunctions include: purification
(Taharah), Salat (Prayers) fasting (Sawm), alm-giving (Zakat)
and Hajj (pilgrimage).
2. Ahkam al-Mujmal wal-Mafsil – The concise-cum detailed
injunctions: These are legal injunctions that are contained in
verses some of which mentioned the commandments in brief but
others mentioned them in detail and further leave them to the
Hadith and Sunnah. Examples of this include: war, peace, Jihad,
Prisoners of war (POW), Booty and Relations with non-Muslims.
3. Ahkam al-Mafsil – The detailed injunctions: These are verses of
the Qur’an which give complete details of the commandments.
For instance, all the Hadd punishments, unintentional homicide,
murder, theft, robbery (Hurabah) Zina (fornication), etc.
4. Injunctions relating to the fundamental principles of guidance:
The Holy Qur’an also mentioned certain fundamental principles
for the guidance of Muslims. But these principles have no clear-
cut definitions either in the Qur’an or the Sunnah except basic
norms. They are to be provided through the due process of
Ijtihad (arriving at one’s own judgment).
It is no gainsaying that the Holy Qur’an is the only Monotheistic

Scripture that was recorded and preserved word for word as it was
revealed. In other words, no change, and neither omission nor addition
57
has ever crept into it since it was received by Prophet Muhammad

(peace be upon him). Allah vouchsafed for it thus:
“Behold, it is we (ourselves) who have

bestowed from on high, step by step, this
reminder, and, behold, it is we who shall truly
guard it (from all corruption) (Q 15:9).
In agreement with the above, Ahmad Von Denfer (1983:21) exonerates

the Glorious Qur’an amongst all other scriptural books from
interpolations, editions and corruption. He succinctly writes:
“The most important distinction between Qur’an

and other words or writings therefore is that the
Qur’an is the speech from Allah, revealed in its
precise meaning and wording through Angel
Gabriel, transmitted by many, inimitable, unique
and protected by Allah Himself against any
corruption
3.3 The Importance of the Holy Qur’an
The importance of the Holy Qur’an cannot be over-emphasized, for it

means everything to the Muslims while the non-Muslims too derive
some philosophies from it. In fact, its uniqueness and values are
encompassing, for they are not limited to the religious and legal needs
but extended to the historical, administrative and literary needs. Thus,
the importance is inexhausive.
(i) The Qur’an is the main source of all religious ideals of Islam. In
it, we find the teachings about God which portrays Him to be
fundamentally one in His essence, works and attributes. In other
words, the idea of sonship or fatherhood is rejected.
(ii) We have from the Qur’an the various legislations in Islam; such
as the legislation which relates to prayer (Salat) vis a vis: its
times and value, the legislations which relates to charity (Zakat)
i.e. its distribution and collection, the legislations which relates to
fasting (Sawm) and pilgrimage (Hajj) i.e. when and how to
perform them, the legislation which relates to drinking and food –
what are forbidden and what are lawful to eat and drink: that
which relates to marriage and usury – that they are forbidden, that
which relates to gambling and usury – that they are forbidden.
The Qur’an also gives a detailed legislation in respect of
inheritance, detailed information that no scripture, not even a
secular constitution, has ever given. In a few words, the Qur’an
contains Gods legislations for the Muslim Community.
58
(iii) The Qur’an is full of administrative guides from which Muslims

of early and later generations derive the various administrative set
up which arose consequent upon the expansion of the Muslim
empire.
(iv) The Glorious Qur’an is a unique book that regulates both the
private and public life of a Muslim
(v) There are other considerations which entitle the Holy Qur’an to a
place of eminence and to which no other book can aspire. It
throws a flood of light on all the fundamentals of religion, the
existence and unity of God, the reward of good and evil, the life
after death, Paradise and Hell etc
(vi) The timeless and continuous relevance of the book has no parallel
amongst all literatures in human history in spite of being unedited
divine material since the time of fist revelation. Maulana
Muhammad Ali corroboratively writes: “For what book is there
in the whole history of the human race that has not only through
thirteen long centuries remained admittedly the standard of the
language in which it is written, but has also originated a world-
wide literature”
(vii) The book offers social justice through its legislations and makes
equality of mankind (genuine brotherhood) a philosophy and
watch-word.
(viii) Finally, the uniqueness of Qur’an lies in the fact that it leaves
nothing unmentioned, hence, a great asset for all emerging issues,
be it social, political, economical, mundane and spiritual
4.0 CONCLUSION
The nature and importance of the book as we have seen above accounts
for why Muslims continues to jealously guide and protect the book
against any blemish. We also brought to fore the spiritual, moral and
social values of the Qur’an which differentiates it from any book.
Indeed, it is not basically a code of law, but a document of spiritual and
moral guidance.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have x-rayed al-Qur’an as a Holy Book which serves as

a first source of information and guidance to the adherents of Islam as
well as non-adherents.
i. Define the word al-Qur’an
59
ii. Of what importance is al-Qur’an to Muslims?
1. Give a concise but detailed meaning of Al-Qur’an

2. Al-Qur’an, a Divine Scripture means everything to Muslims.
Discuss
3. Elucidate on the uniqueness of Al-Qur’an
Ahmad Hasan (1968). “The Sources of Islamic Law” in Islamic Studies

Journal, Pakistan
Ahmad Von Denfer (1983). cUlum al-Qur’an: An Introduction to the

Sciences of the Qur’an, United Kingdom: The Islamic
Foundation
c
Ali, Mawlana Muhammad (1971). The Religion of Islam: A
Comprehensive Discussion of the Sources, Principles and
Practices of Islam, U.A.R: National Publication and Printing
House
Ali Nadwi, S.A.H. (1979). Muhammad Rasulullah, Lucknow (India):

Academy of Islamic Research and Publications
Doi, A.R.I. (1984). Shari‘ah: The Islamic Law, United Kingdom, Ta-Ha
Publishers
Hallaq , Wael B. (1997). A History of Islamic Theories: An Introduction

to Sunni Usul al-Fiqh,, Cambridge, University Press
Kamali, M.H. (1991). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, Cambridge:

Islamic Texts Society
Suyuti Jallalu ’d-Din, Al-itqan ficulum al-Qur’a,n

UNIT 2 SUNNAH OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD
CONTENTS
60
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Sunnah/Hadith
3.2 Basis of Sunnah in Islam
3.3 Classification of Sunnah in Islam
3.4 The place of Sunnah in Islam
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Sequel to our discussion is the preceeding unit, the second source of

guidance and information as earlier said by the Prophet is As-Sunnah. It
is one machinery in the Islamic parlance that comes next to the Qur’an.
Indubitably, therefore, its place as we shall soon unfold cannot be over
emphasized.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• give a concise meaning of Sunnah./Hadith

• explain the basis of Sunnah/Hadith in the Qur’an.
• highlight the classification of Sunnah/Hadith in Islam
• discuss the importance of Sunnah/Hadith as the second source of
Islamic guidance and Information.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Sunnah/Hadith
The terms Sunnah and Hadith, in the contemporary days, literally

convey the same meaning, i.e. the Traditions of the Prophet. However,
in the pre-Islamic period, the two are not identical.
Sunnah, according to Ibn Durayd in his Jamharah implies “to fashion a

thing or produce it as a model. It is derived, in the opinion of Hallaq
(1997) from the perfect verb sannah which means “setting or fashioning
a mode of conduct as an example for others to follow” It is also applied
to behaviour which is considered a model (Fazlur-Rahman; 1962)
Sunnah, literally therefore, means ‘pathway’, ‘behaviour’, ‘practice’
‘manner of acting’ or ‘conduct of life’ (Cowan ; 1960) The term
according to Ahmad Hasan (1968) conveys “the normative practice or
61
model behaviour, whether good or bad, of a particular individual, sect or

community”
The word, Sunnah, predated Islam and referred to the way of life of the
Arabs prior to the advent of Islam. Indeed, the pre-Islamic law of Arabia
was said to be embodied in a system of customary law, comprising legal
and moral principles known as the sunnah. According to Kamali
(1991), pre-Islamic Arabs used the word in reference to the ancient and
continuous practice of the community which they inherited from their
ancestors and the pre-Islamic tribes of Arabia had each their own
sunnah which they considered as a basis of their identity and pride
Labid b.Rabicah used the term in his famous Mucallaqah: “(He) comes
from a tribe for whom their ancestors have left a normative behaviour;
every people has its Sunnah and its originator.”
It should be noted that Sunnah in the Shari‘ah connotes the normative

practice set up by the Prophet as a model, which so long as he was alive,
was his unique privilege and /or the usage of the early Muslims which
was taken to represent the Sunnah of the Prophet. Therefore, Sunnah
whether used in the sense of a people’s practice or an individual’s
behaviour, carries a normative element. Thus, it is this normativeness
that distinguishes it from Hadith
Hadith on the other hand literally means ‘a piece of news’, ‘a story or a

report relating to a present or past event’. Technically, it means the
narration of the words and deeds, and the tacit approval or disapproval
of the holy prophet Muhammad (SAW). (Qadr; 1963:139).In the words
of Doi (1984:44), hadith stands second to the Qur’an as the ‘hidden
revelation’ (wahy khafi). Perhaps, it is this connection between the two
terms that accounts for the strong hold inherent in them. Ahmad Hasan
has this to say: “The Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet are related
rather than interwoven in such a way that they cannot be separated from
each other. (p.50). In the same vein, even though Hadith and Sunnah are
identical, yet they still have some distinctions between the two. For
instance, while the former is the narration of the behaviour of the
prophet, the latter is the law deduced from this narration. It would not be
out of place to pose the question that: Is there any basis for the Sunnah
in the Qur’an?
3.2 Basis of Sunnah/Hadith in the Qur’an
Accordingly, it would be difficult to agree with some Western

writers’view that Muhammad, the most influential person in the nascent
community (Ummah), was not regarded as a source of normative
62
practice. Contrastingly, the Glorious Qur’an re-affirmed the Prophet as

the best model and as such directed that his behaviours and attitudes
should not only be strictly obeyed but also be fully emulated. For
instance, Qur’an 33 verse 21 says:
Ye have indeed in the Apostle of God a beautiful pattern of conduct. For

any one whose hope is in God and the final Day, and who engages much
in the praise of God.
…So take what the Apostle assigns to you, and

deny yourself that which he withholds from
you, and fear God; for God is strict in
punishment (Q 59:7; 4:80; 53:34; 4:65)
3.3 Classification of Sunnah in Islam
Sunnah is classified into three types, namely, verbal(qawli), action (ficli)

and tacitly approved(taqriri). The verbal Sunnah is the expressions of
the Prophet on any subject e.g. his saying that livestock is liable to
zakah. The action Sunnah comprises his deeds as well as his directives
such as the way he prayed, administered zakah, observed fasting,
performed hajj etc. The tacitly approved Sunnah consists of the acts and
sayings of the companions which came to the knowledge of the Prophet
and of which he either kept mute or approved the action. For example,
the report of the two Companions who went on a journey and when they
could not get water to perform ablution before their prayers, used sand
(Tayammum). Later, when they found water, one repeated his salat
while the other did not. When they returned, they related their
experience to the Prophet, who is reported to have approved both
courses of action.
3.4 The Place of Sunnah in Islam
Sunna by meaning is the prophet tradition, how he implemented the

Qur’anic injunctions. It is the traditions of the Holy Prophet that was
passed down through the companions of the Holy Prophet from what
they had witnessed from him. The rest of the details in the Qur’an
which contained only general principles and absolutely necessary
instructions were to be demonstrated and taught by the messenger of
Allah. It is a supplement of the Qur’an as a source of guidance. It
provides apostolic precepts and example covering the whole duty of
man.
The Prophet was not only the transmitter of the Qur’an but also
interpreted and explained it. The only difference between the ordinary
expressions of the prophet and his revelations consists in the fact that
63
while the former are Divine in content alone, the latter are divine in
form. Q.16:44 says:
And we have sent down to you the Reminder

that you may explain to mankind that which has
been sent down to them and that they may
reflect.
The importance of the Sunnah, therefore, lies in the fact that the Prophet
implemented or practicalised instructions, order and directives in the
Qur’an, the understanding which we would have found missing in Islam.
For example, Qur’an only says that “establish prayers and pay your
poor-due” of course, it is not explicit on the way to carry out this divine
obligation. However, the Prophet rescued the ummah when he said
“pray as you see me praying”, or where he directs “take from me the
mode of observing your Hajj rites”. Allah declares in the Qur’an
“whatever the Prophet, brought should be taken and whatever he
forbids, should be shunned”.
There are good things that Allah has made lawful while there are bad
things He made unlawful. He commands that good must be taken and
evil should be left out or avoided. Interpretations on these were left with
Muhammad to expatiate on.
After the demise of the prophet, every case that came up for decision
had to be referred either to the Holy Qur’an or to some judgments or
sayings of the Holy prophet. The question that may be asked is which
judgments or sayings obtained a wide reputation. Numerous cases
abound whereby a right was claimed on the basis of a judgment or
saying of the Holy Prophet, while evidence was demanded as to the
authenticity of such saying.
For instance, Fatimah, the Prophet’s daughter claimed that she was
entitled to an inheritance from the Holy Prophet. But according to
Bukhari, chapter 85, Tradition 2, the Holy prophet was reported to have
said:
We prophets do not inherit nor leave an estate

for an inheritance: whatever we leave is a
charity. (Salih Bukhari 1986).
This saying was cited by Abu Bakr as against the claim of Fatimah. The
veracity of this Hadith was not questioned by any one hence, Fatimah’s
claim was dismissed. Incidents of this type occurred daily and became
the occasion of establishing the truth of many sayings of the Holy
prophet.
64
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the above, it is crystal clear that Sunnah has come to supplement
the Qur’an as a source of guidance. Hence, Muslims can always turn to
the two sources for answers to all problems, be it religious, legal,
spiritual or mundane. Thus, one can neither comprehend the dictates of
Islam nor even put the Din into practice without assimilating the concept
of Sunnah in Islam. Therefore, it is safe to say that no Islam without
Sunnah
5.0 SUMMARY
It is obvious that Sunnah/hadith assumes another meaning at the advent

of Islam while its importance comes next to the Qur’an. In other words,
so many legislations and fatwas are said to have been derived from it.
Indeed, it is indispensable in Islam.
i. Differentiate between Sunnah and Hadith

ii. Sunnah/Hadith plays a vital role in the assimilation of Islam.
Elucidate
1. Highlight the importance of Sunnah/Hadith in Islam.

2. With relevant quotations from the Qur’an, enunciate on the basis
of Sunnah/Hadith in Islam
7.0 REFERENCES /FURTHER READINGS
Ahmad Hasan (1968). “The Sources of Islamic Law” in Islamic Studies

Journal, Pakistan
Amin,S. H. (1985). Middle East Legal Systems, London: Royston Ltd.
Cowan, J.M. (1960). Arabic-English Dictionary: The Hans Wehr

Dictionary of Modern Written, India: Modern Language Services
Doi, A.R.I. (1984). Shari‘ah: The Islamic Law, United Kingdom: Ta-Ha
Publishers
Esposito, J.L. (1976). “Muslim Family Law Reform: Towards An

Islamic Methodology” in Islamic Studies Journal, Vol. 15 No. 1
65
Fazlur-Rahman; (1962). “Concepts Sunnah, Ijtihad, and Ijma’ in the

Early Period” in Islamic Studies Journal, Vol.

to Sunni
Kamali, M.H. (1991). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, Cambridge,

Islamic Texts Society.
Khaduri, Majid (1996). “Nature and Sources of Islamic Law” in Ian

Edge (ed.); Islamic Law and Legal Theory, New York: New York
University Press,
Qadir A.A.(1984): Islamic Jurisprudence in the Modern World, New

Delhi: Taj Company

66
UNIT 3 IJMAC. (CONSENSUS OF OPINIONS) AND

QIYAS (ANALOGICAL DEDUCTION)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Ijma‘
3.2 Basis of Ijma’ in Islam
3.3 Classification of Ijma
3.4 Samples of Ijma‘
3.5 Meaning of Qiyas in Islam
3.6 Basis of Qiyas in Islam
3.7 Classification of Qiyas in Islam
3.8 Samples of Qiyas in Islam
3.9 Importance of Ijmac and Qiyas
3.10 Principles of Ijmac and Qiyas
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The secondary sources of guidance in Islam depicts the timeless

relevance of Islam to the contemporary day, for Qur’an evidently
declares that there is nothing left undiscussed or unmentioned in it
(Q16:89) . Thus, Islam cannot only be dynamic but also pragmatic.
Therefore, while certain newly emerging isues might want to proof the
Glorious Book otherwise, what seems to be unmentioned would become
mentioned through the instrumentality of Ijma‘, Qiyas, Ra’y, Istihsan,
Istidlal ,Ijtihad, Taqlid, Ta cmul e.t.c. We intend in this unit to discuss
Ijma‘ and Qiyas as tools or legal instruments for seeking guidance as
well as sourcing information in Islam.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Trace the meaning and definition of Ijmac and Qiyas.

• Explain the basis of Ijmac and Qiyas.
• Enumerate the importnce of Ijmac and Qiyas.
• Identify the principles of Ijmac and Qiyas.
67
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 M Eaning of Ijmac
Ijmac can be defined as the consensus of opinion of the companions of

the prophet (Sahabah) and the agreement reached on the decisions taken
by the learned “Muftis” of the jurists on various Islamic matters. ( Doi;
1984) It could be seen as the agreement of learned scholars, men of
Ijtihad status, within the circle of the Prophet’s Community (Ummah),
after his death, and anytime in human existence. Ahmad Hasan in his
“Ijma‘ in the Early Schools” gives three definitions of Ijma‘ based on
the classical Fiqh literature. He says: “Ijma‘ is an agreement of the
Islamic Community on a religious point” In another expression, Ijma‘ is
a consensus of opinion of the persons competent for Ijma‘(Ahl al-Ijma‘),
when a religious issue arises, whether rational or legal ” A third
definition says “Ijma‘ is a unanimous agreement of the jurists of the
Community of a particular age on certain issue”. It could be deduced
from the above attempts that one word is common to all the definitions,
i.e. ‘unanimous’, ‘consensus’. This pre-supposes that judicial decision of
one jurist or scholar cannot be binding on the Ummah. Hence, it is
always a natural process of solving problems through the gradual
formation of majority opinion of the Community. Thus, Ijma‘ as a source
translates to a broad vehicle of progress and reconstruction. It is
applicable to any issue of concern in which there has been no direct
mention of it by both the Qur’an and the authentic Sunnah. The jurists
of the four schools of thought see it as the third source after the Qur’an
and the authentic Sunnah, which are regarded as the independent or
original sources of information and guidance.
3.2 Basis of Ijmac in Islam
It is important to note that the idea of Ijma‘ as defined by the jurists was
neither mentioned nor used during the days of the Prophet, for there was
no need for it since revelations (Wahy ) continued to flow. It however
developed according to Faruqi (1992) during the first and second
centuries after Hijrah. It is also pertinent to state the fact that there is no
mention of it in the celebrated hadith of Mu‘adh bn. Jabal when he was
sent to the Yemen as Governor.
Meanwhile, almighty Allah encourages seeking the opinions of others

on religious cum mundane matters as evident in the Qur'anic verses:
“O you who believe! obey Allah and obey the

messenger and those in authority among you. If
you differ in anything amongst yourselves, refer
it to Allah and His Messenger (SAW), if ye do
68
believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is best,

and most suitable for final determination
(Q4:59)
“It is through the mercy of Allah that you are

lenient with them: If you were to be hard –
hearted, they would have deserted you: Pardon
them and seek for the forgiveness for them and
seek their opinion in the matters, whenever you
decide upon something, have belief in Allah
surely Allah loves those that rely on Him.” (Q4:
159)
“Those who answered the call of their Lord,

and establish regular prayer (Salat) and whose
affairs are a matter of counsel and spend out of
what we bestow on them for
sustenance.” (Q42:36).
The traditions of the prophet are also full of injunctions authorising the
consensus of opinion. These Prophetic traditions include:
“My people would never agree on whoever led

them astray” (A. Doi 1981).
“My people will never agree on an error” or

“The hand of God is with the group”. ( Qadr, A.
A. 1984).
“A group of my follower will steadily continue

to be collectively victorious on the truth till the
Day of Resurrection.” (M.G. Haroon 2001).
From the above, it is discernible that healthy consultation (Shura) and

the use of juristic reason (Ijtihad) are normal preliminaries for arriving
at a binding Ijmac. The Khulafa’ur-Rashidun always consulted the
Companions (Sahabah) whenever a novel issue arose. This is why their
administrations were said to have been based and run on the process of
Ijmac of the Sahabah.
3.3 Classification of Ijmac
The Ijmac is classified into two broad categories: Ijmac al-cAzimah (the
regular consensus of opinion) and Ijmac al-Ruksah (the irregular
consensus of opinion).
69
1. Ijmac al-‘Azimah or Ijmac Qawli (Absolute/Verbal Ijmac)
As regards the verbal consensus of opinion, if an issue is raised and all

the jurists assent to it by voicing out their approval, the consensus of
opinion is regular. But if it is raised but none of them says anything, the
consensus of opinion is irregular. Nonetheless, both of them are valid in
Islamic legal system.
2. Ijmac ar –Rukhsah or Ijmac Fi cli or Ijmac as-Sukuti (Silent

Ijmac)
As regards the practical Ijmac, if a jurist does something and none of the
other jurists challenges him, the Ijmac is regular, but if a jurist does
something, and one or more jurist questions him, the Ijmac Ficli is
irregular. Nonetheless, both of them are valid as far as Islamic law is
concerned. (A. Doi 1981).
3.4 Examples of Ijmac on Individual Cases
1. Selection of Amirship in any given Ummah requires the coming

together of scholars of repute. The case of Abu-Bakr is a point
of reference.
2. That no grandmother shall inherit together with the direct mother
of the deceased.
3. That there is no retaliatory penalty on one who mistakenly killed
another person, etc.
3.5 Meaning of Qiyas (Analogical Deduction)
It should be said that Sunni Muslims adopt Qiyas as the fourth source of
Islamic guidance after the Qur’an, Sunnah and Ijma‘. In contrast, the
Zahiris and the Shi‘is regard it as an unwarranted effort of legislation.
( Yusuf; 1981)
Qiyas, therefore, is an Arabic word derived from the verb tense: qasa
which means “to guess,” or to “estimate”, i.e. “to measure” or “to
compare”. However, in the language of the law, it is “the art of bringing
a branch of Sharicah to its root because of the intimate resemblance
between the root and the branch” e.g. originally, Sharicah had prohibited
usurious dealings in the selling of grains. Then, soya beans or rice
appeared alike, because they are measurable, staple food, storable for
future use, etc. (descriptions) like grain. Therefore, soya beans and rice
should not be usurious exchanged as well (M.G. Haroon 2001). The
Hanafis as quoted by Abdur-Rahim (1911) defines it as “an extension of
law from the original text to a certain case by means of an effective
cause (‘illah), which cannot be ascertained merely by the language of
70
the text” (Yusuf p.37). Ahmad Hasan (1994) defines it as a comparison

between two parallel due to their resemblance. (p.136)
It could be summed up from the above that Qiyas is the extension of a

rule in a clear text of revelation (nass) to cases which are not apparently
mentioned in the revelation but perceived through a discipline reasoning
(Ijtihad)
This legal principle was introduced by Imam Abu Hanifah, the founder
of the Hanafi School in Iraq. The reason why he introduced it was not
unconnected with the intention of curbing the excessive thinking and
digressions of the people from the Islamic legal point.
During the period of the Abbasids (750-1258), people engaged

themselves in reading various texts books on logic, philosophy,
etymology, linguistics, literatures of various places, foreign text books,
which to some extent tended to corrupt their minds and lead them astray.
They wanted to apply what they had studied in these foreign text books
to Islamic jurisprudence. Many new Muslims in far away lands had
brought with them their philosophical outlook, their culture and even
some religious and legal notions in the fold of Islam. Consequently,
Imam Abu Hanifah introduced Qiyas as a measure to curb their
excessive thinking and to keep them on check.
3.6 Basis of Qiyas
The Qur’anic support of Qiyas is obtainable in Suratul Hashr where

Allah says:
“It is He Who expelled the unbelievers among

the people of the Book from their homes at the
first gathering (of the forces), little did you
think that they would get out, and they thought
that their fortresses would defend them from
God. But the (wrath of God) came to them from
quarters from which they had not reckoned, and
cast terror into their hearts so that they
destroyed their dwellings by their own hands
and the hands of the believers. So take warning,
o you with eyes.” (Q59:2)
Another portion which supports Qiyas is contained in Qur’an 4 verse 83

which states “Whereas if they referred it to the Messenger and to those
in authority among them, those of them whose task it is to investigate
would have known the matter”
71
Among many traditions that establish validity of Qiyas is the prophet’s

approval to the response given by Mu’adh bn.Jabal when he was
appointed as the Governor of Yemen:
“…… if your judgement is not directly

obtainable in the Sunnah (i.e. after the Qur’an)
with what will you judge? Mu’adh said: “I will
exert my analogical reasoning and hopefully I
would not fail to arrive at the right
judgement.” (Doi 1984).
Hadith also has it that the Prophet sent Abu Musa al Ash‘ari to Yemen
during his life time while he was directed to judge with the use of the
Qur’an, and that if he did not find solution in the Qur’an, he should
make use of the traditions of the prophet, and that if he did not find the
solution in the traditions of the prophet, then he should use his own
judgement.
c
Umar one day asked about a man kissing his wife in fasting. The
Prophet said: “Supposing he rinses his mouth in ablution then”.
The above Prophetic tradition implied that kissing (qublah) is like
rinsing of mouth (Madawwanah).
Similarly, a Khataniyyah lady asked whether one could perform Hajj on

behalf of one’s parent? The prophet replied: “Supposing you paid your
parents debts, is it benefit to them, so also it is beneficial when you
perform pilgrimage on behalf of your parents.” (M.G. Haroon).
3.7 Classification of Qiyas
Thus, the pillars of analogy in the light of the above can be classified
into four; namely: the original subject against which the new subject is
compared, the tributary or the new subject which is the object of
analogy, the rule deduced by analogical deduction, and lastly, the cause
which brings together the original subject. In other words, the original
basis furnished by the earlier textual or consensus sources are termed in
the language of the law as Muqisillah, the subject which is to be solved
is called Muqis while the rule or method of comparison to arrive at the
result desired by way of analogy is called cillah or Effective Cause.
( Qadir, 1984).
For example, intoxication is the connecting ‘cause’ or ‘common

description’ between wine made from the juice or grapes and the palm-
wine drawn from palm-trees or intoxication by hard drug. The forth
element is the established law for the origin or as in wine/palm wine and
hard drugs case.
72
3.8 Samples of Qiyas Application
Wine (Khamr), for example is prohibited in Islam at least based on the

Qur’anic text (Q5:90) due to simple reason (‘illah) that it is intoxicating.
However, the question could be asked regarding other intoxicants such
as Indian hemp, cocaine, heroine, marijuana etc, This is where Qiyas is
applicable, for they all lead to loss of senses.
Similarly, Sayyidina ‘Ali, applied the principle of Qiyas on the

punishment to be meted on a drunkard. Of course, the Qur’anic position
here is eighty strokes of cane. He, however, extends the punishment to
others thus:
“He who drinks get drunk, he who gets drunk,

raves, he who raves, accuses people falsely and
he who accuses people falsely should be given
eighty strokes of cane”. (Doi 1981).
Before reaching an Ijmac on Abubakr’s candidature when problem arose

on the appointment of caliph after the death of the prophet in 10AH, the
prophet’s choice of Abubakr as a spiritual leader to act as an Imam in
congregational prayers was the measure used for his selection as
temporal leader. This was another example of Qiyas in application.
It is the Qur’anic position that all business transactions be suspended

once the last call to service is made on Friday as evidenced in Suratu’l-
Jum‘ah (Q62:9). The rule by a way of Qiyas could be extended to all
other engagements capable of distracting one from attending to Allah’s
Cause outside the realm of businesss.
Adoption of Qiyas and Ijtihad is unfolded in a question posed to the

Prophet by Sayyidina ‘Umar, The question/conversation goes thus:
“Sayyidina ‘Umar, asked the prophet whether a

kiss during the fast vitiates the fast even though
no orgasm is reached. The Prophet posed a
question: “Does rinsing one’s mouth vitiates the
fast?” cUmar replied: No, it was all right to do
so.” So the prophet indicated that the fast is
similarly not vitiated by a kiss if it is not
accompanied by an orgasm.
3.9 The Importance of Ijmac and Qiyas
In modern times, Ijmac and Qiyas play a decisive role in reinvigorating

Islamic law and bringing it back into the practical life of Muslims. The
73
existing Fiqh literature according to Ahmad Hasan (1967) is the result

of the age-long Ijtihad and Ijma‘ process. Furthermore, Ijma‘stands to
unite the divergence opinions on a problem progressively and to
ascertain the truth of Qiyas. This is summed up in the words of Snouck
Hurgronje:
The consensus guarantees the authenticity and

correct interpretation of the Qur’an, the faithful
transmission of the Sunnah of the Prophet, the
legitimate use of analogy and its result; it
covers, in short, every detail of the law,
including the recognized differences of the
several schools
It is necessary in modern times and, in fact, at all times, to legislate. This

means to form new legal norms for new cases which arise in human
society as a result of any new kind of social relations.This legislative
power should not necessarily be left in the hands of certain type of
scholars, but rather be entrusted to the elected representatives of the
people. Thus the entire body of the nation, the people itself, would be
participating indirectly in forming these norms. This would appear to be
in line with the Qur’anic stipulation.
3.10 The Principles of Ijmac and Qiyas
The underlisted are the principles of Ijmac and Qiyas according to some
Schools of thought. They are as follows:
 Toleration and the lifting of restrictions should be the aim of

legislation.
 All things are fundamentally permissible unless specifically
prohibited by the Islamic law.
 Eradication of mischief is the aim of administration.
 Necessity permits benefiting by things not otherwise permissible.
 Necessity is given due appreciation.
 Preventing mischief has priority over bringing about welfare.
 Commit the lesser of two evils.
 Mischief is not removed by mischief.
 One should suffer private damages to avert general disaster.
i. Define the terms Ijma‘ and Qiyas

ii. Critically assess the place of Ijma‘ and Qiyas in sourcing
information in Islam
74
iii. Give three (3) examples each of Ijma‘ and Qiyas different from
examples given above
4.0 CONCLUSION
There is no gainsaying that Islam can neither be well understoond nor

appreciated save with the adequate application of the subsidiary sources
of guidance which have been partly elucidated above.
5.0 SUMMARY
In sum, we have in fair detail discussed the concepts of Ijmac and Qiyas
as the secondary sources of guidance and information in Islam. It is
clear from the above that the two come next to the Qur’an and Sunnah.
Furthermore, it is evidently clear as well that through the two sources,
several emerging issues since the demise of the Prophet have been taken
care of. Indeed, this shows the elasticity of Islamic religion.
1. Using the Qur’anic verse that “…And We have sent down to you
the Book as an exposition of everything…” present a logical
essay on the timeless relevance of Islam to all challenges of life.
2. Apply the principles of Ijma‘and Qiyas to the contemporary
happenings in your environment
Abdul-Rahim (1911). The Principle of Muhammadan Jurisprudence,

London, Luzac and Co
Publishers
Faruqi, M.Y. (1992). “The Development of Ijma‘:The Practices of the

Khulafa’ al-Rashidun and Views of the Classical Fuqaha’ “ in
The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences, Herndon, The
International Institute of Islamic Thought, Vol.9 No.2 Summer
1992
Haroon, M. G. (2001). An Introductory Note on Shari‘ah Law; Lagos:

Jayl-Qur’an (Qur’anic People) Enterprises,.
Qadir A.A.(1984). Islamic Jurisprudence in the Modern World, New

Delhi: Taj Company
75
UNIT 4 IJTIHAD (EXTENSION OF RULE)
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Ijtihad
3.2 Genesis and normative basis for the validity of Ijtihad
3.3 Qualification of Mujtahid
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
All the Sunnis place high premium on Ijtihad in Islamic legislation

through Ijma‘and other sources. When the Book or the Sunnah provides
the legal solution to a particular problem, no inference is necessary.
However, when there are newly emerging issues and for which neither
the Book nor the Sunnah provides an equivocal answers, then Ijtihad
becomes inevitable. In other words, Ijtihad continues to be the main
instrument of interpreting the divine message as well as relating it to the
changing conditions of the Ummah in its aspirations to attain fair-play,
justice, salvation and truth.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define Ijtihad
• Trace the origin of the Ijtihad
• Enunciate on the basis or validity in Islam,
• Highlight on the qualification of Mujtahid in Islam.
3.0 MAIN CONTNET
3.1 Definition of Ijtihad
Al-Ijtihad which is derived from the root word ‘jahada’and a verb tense
Ijtahada, literally means ‘effort’, ‘self-exertion’, ‘endeavour’, ‘pains’,
‘trouble’, ‘application’, etc”(Cowan). Bernard Weiss (1996) in his
understanding of the term opines that Ijtihad connotes an endeavour of a
jurist to formulate a rule on the basis of evidence (dalil) found in the
sources. In a wider perspective, it means the use of human reason in the
76
elaboration and explanation of the Sharicah law. It covers a variety of

mental processes, ranging from the interpretation of texts of the Qur’an
and the assessment of the authenticity of Ahadith. Thus, it is not only a
process of interpreting texts but exclusively text-oriented.
Technically, therefore, it is simply “a process by which legal rules are

deducted from various recognized sources of law by Islamic jurists,
lawyers and doctors. These deductions are usually based on the jurist
independent reasoning which should not be distanced from the
interpretation of the primary sources of Sharicah. It is the maximum
effort expended by the jurist to master and apply the principles and rules
of Usul al-fiqh (legal theory) for the purpose of discovering God’s law.
(Hallaq, 1999: 286) It could also imply personal legal reasoning which
should be exercised by applying analogy (Qiyas) to an authoritative text
such as the Qur’an or tradition (Khudduri; 1961:68). Haroon gives it a
wider and logical perspective when he sees it as “the act of exhausting
one’s intellectual capacity in studying various relevant judicial decrees
to be able to reach a clear-cut judgment or at least reach a probable and
imaginable judgment to a case not specifically adjudjed by the Qur’an
or the Sunnah. (Haroon, 2001: 37)
Qiyas (analogical reasoning), therefore, is a particular form of Ijtihad,

the method by which the principles established by the Qur’an, Sunnah,
and Ijmac are to be extended and applied to the solution of new problems
(nawazil) not expressly regulated before.
In sum, it is an involvement of mental or human reason (cAql) in re-

interpreting, elaborating and explaining the Sharicah to solve new
problems in Islamdom.
3.2 Genesis and Normative Basis for the Validity of Ijtihad

in Islam
The origin of Ijtihad according to all sources cannot be unconnected to

the period when the Prophet sent Mu‘adh b. Jabal to Yemen as
governor. Hallaq sums up this way:
The inferred ratio legis finds its justification,

inter alia, in the Prophetic report concerning
one of the Prophet’s lieutenants, Mu‘adh
b.Jabal. When he deployed Mu‘adh to Yemen
to govern and to act as a judge among the
Yemenis, the Prophet is said to have asked him
about the basis for his decisions when he could
find no relevant revealed text, where upon
Mu‘adh is reported to have replied: “ I exercise
77
my own legal reasoning” (Ijtihad ). The Prophet

is said to have found the answer highly
satisfactory. The clear implication of his report
is that reasoning by inference, involving the
derivation of the ratio legis, has been ratified by
the Prophetic Sunnah (Hallaq,1997:86)
Ajetunmobi (2000:72), however, in his paper “Intellectual Perspective

on the Practice of Islamic Law Among the Yoruba Muslims of Nigeria”
advances the rationale behind the place of Ijtihad in Islamic Law. He
says inter alia”
with the expansion of Islam to other parts of

Africa …. When Islam spread beyond Arabia,
early Muslims came in contact with divergent
cultures which required interpretation of the
primary sources of the law on the one hand,
collective opinion and even personal opinion of
judges on the other hands. Hence, the
development of Qiyas within the first century of
Islam. That was when al-Ijtihad bi’l -Ra’y
began to expand further.
Having established the genesis of this subsidiary source of law, what

then are the bases of the legal instrument? Kamali (1991) viewed the
bases on four premise, this include: evidence which is decisive both in
respect of authenticity and meaning, evidence which is authentic but
speculative in meaning, that which is of doubtful authenticity, but
definite in meaning and evidence which is speculative in respect both of
anthenticity and meaning.
Owing to the above, therefore, it is imperative to first of all establish the

basis for it in the Qur’an and Sunnah before attempting to logicalize it
on any other basis, for all Ulama‘ are in agreement that ijtihad might be
collective obligation (fard Kifayyah) and as well be personal obligation
(wajib or fard ‘ayn) depending on the situation in which a qualified
jurists (Fuqaha’) finds himself. The strong basis, legalizing Ijtihad,,
resulting in it being indispensable in any Muslim society is traceable to
Suratul Tawbah,.
Let a contigent from each division of them

devote themselves to the study of religion and
warn their people…. ( Q 9:122)
78
“Devotion to the study of religion” according to Kamali (1999: 373) is

the essence of Ijtihad , which should be a continuous feature of the life
of the community
In annother chapter, Allah says: “And those who strive in Our cause,
We will certainly guide them on Our paths” (Q29:69)
Impliedly, the use of ‘Our paths’ in the above Qur’anic verse, which is
in the plural form suggests that there several paths towards the truth, and
which are all open to those who make extra effort (intellectual) to attain
the truth.
Another Qur’anic verse which suggests basis for Ijtihad is the verse that
says: “Whereever you go, face the mosque of Haram, and wherever you
are, turn your face towards it.” (Q42:38). It is argued by Imam Shafi‘I
that one can only locatethe Sacred Mosque through an intellectual
exercise, otherwise, he/ she wil continue to face wrong place.
Sunnatically, the prophet is recalled to have said of a Mujtahid:
When a judge exerts his intellectual effort and

reached the correct conclusion, then his reward
would be double”.(Sunnan Abu Da’ud, Vol.III,
1013, hadith no. 3567)
In another hadith, the Prophet is reported to nhave said: “Strive and

endeavour (Ijtahidu), for everyone is ordained to accomplish tht which
he is created for (Sahih Bukhari, Vol.VI, 84 cited by Kamali; 1999: 373)
3.3 Qualification of Mujtahid
Before one can be a Mujtahid, one has to be knowledgeable about the

religion of Islam, the Sunnah, fiqh and Usul al-fiqh. He should possess
the following quanlities:
(a) He must be well versed in the study of Qur’an including the

rationale behind the revelation of each Qur’anic verse and chapter
(Asbab al-Nuzul).
(b) He must possess an adequate understanding of the nearly 500
legal verses in the Qur’an i.e. he must know how to retrieve them
efficiently and quickly when necessary
(c) He must be well versed in the study of the traditions of the
prophet (SAW) especially those ones relevant to law i.e. he must
be proficient in the techniques of hadith criticism. In other words,
he should be able to distinguish between authentic hadith and the
scruplous hadith. (weak traditions) e.t.c.
79
(d) He must know the principles of Ijmac very well.

(e) He must know the injunctions of Qiyas and the conditions
governing it.
(f) He must have the knowledge of the Abrogating and Abrogated
injunctions (an Naskh wal-Mansukh).
(g) He must be well versed in Arabic language and literature so as to
assimilate the grammatical expressions in the basic sources of
Sharicah materias.
The Mujtahid, on the other hand, must possess good character apart
from academic prowess and excellence. Among the moral qualities he
must possess include:
(a) He must be a good Muslim. That is he must not be a nominal

Muslim, rather, a practising one.
(b) He must be very pious and law-abiding to all the injunctions of
the Holy Qur’an.
(c) He must not be influenced by an heretical influences.
(d) He must be just, reliable, trustworthy and freed from iniquitous
practices.
i. What is al-Ijtihad?
ii. What is the basis for the validity of Ijtihad in Islam?
iii. What are the qualities expected in a Mujtahid?
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, it is discernible that what we have done here under
the secondary sources of Islamic guidance is only selective and not
exhaustive, for there are other secondary or subsidiary sources
mentioned above but not discussed due to obvious reason. It is also
crystal clear that Islam, being a Divine religion, has sufficient
machineries to cope with newly arising issues and matters through the
legal instruments discussed above.
5.0 SUMMARY
It is obvious that al-Ijtihad is an indispensable ingredient in Islam, for it

is primarily by virtue of the Ijtihad of jurists that Islamic law thrives as a
body of positive rules. Indeed, jurists of the fifth/eleventh century such
as ‘Abd al-Jabbar (d.415/1024) and his disciple, Abu Husayn al-Basri
submits that Qiyas is not only in itself a method of Ijtihad but also an
element without which law would be incapable of growth.
80
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. The essence of Ijtihad in Islamic law is for a qualified jurist to

extract rulings (Ahkam) for novel cases. Elucidate
2. Critically assess the role of Ijtihad in developing legal system in
Islam
Ajetunmobi, M.A. (2000). “Intellectual Perspective on the Practices of

Islamic Law Among The Yoruba Muslims Of Nigeria”. In
Journal of the Nigerian Association of Teachers of Arabic And
Islamic Studies (NATAIS), Ijebu – Ode: Shebiotimo Publications,
Vol 5 No. 1
Bernard Weiss: “Interpretation in Islamic Law: The Theory of Ijtihad”

in Ian Edge (ed. 1996). Islamic Law and Legal Theory; New
York: New York University Press,
Cowan, J.M. (1960). Arabic-English Dictionary: The Hans Wehr

Dictionary of Modern Written, India: Modern Language Services
Publishers

to Sunni
Haroon, M. G. (2001). An Introductory Note on Shari‘ah Law; Lagos:

Jayl-Qur’an (Qur’anic People) Enterprises.
Kamali, M.H. (1991). Principles of Islamic Jurisprudence, Cambridge:

Islamic Texts Society.

81
MODULE 3 ISLAM CIVILIZATION AND SCIENCES
Unit 1 Islam and Western Civilization

Unit 2 Contributions of Islam to Science
Unit 3 Various Sciences Associated to Islam
UNIT 1 ISLAM AND WESTERN CIVILIZATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Defition of West
3.2 Impact of the west in the Muslim societies.
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Several attempts have been made by scholars both medieval and

contemporary on the impact of Islam on science or simply put, scientific
discovery via Islam. Less attention, however, is always accorded the
historical antecedents of the earlier Muslim scholars, who made franktic
efforts towards the discoveries. The question that is germane here is that
“Were the West (Europeans) the initiator of the so called civilization? ”
Koshul (1995) reasoned this way: “ It is entirely possible that even
though the Europeans made the noted discoveries many centuries after
the Muslims, they did so without having any knowledge of earlier
Islamic works” Owing to the above, therefore, it is imperative to
browze through the impact of Islam on Western Civilization with a view
to extricating the unprecedented efforts of these earlier Muslim scholars
on the one hand and enormosity of the influence on the European
develoment on the other hand .
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Enumerate the impact of the Muslim civilization on the Euro-

Christian (West) civilization.
82
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of West
Islam according to Lewis (1997) was the first to create a civilisation that
was multiracial, multicultural and intercontinental. He sums up this
supposition thus: Islam was the first to make significant progress
towards what it perceived as its universal mission while western
civilization is accorded the first to embrace the whole planet.” The west,
therefore, as a concept, characterizes the dominant factor, if not the
character of the contemporary international relations. The nature of the
international system is such that the world is divided between the
‘developed’ and the ‘underdeveloped’, the North and the South, the East
and the West. In all these, it is the west that dictates this pace.
West, therefore, describes the inhabitants of Western Europe and which

later metamorphosed to a political term connoting those who share
political, economical and cultural view of the Western Europe. In the
same vein, Omotosho quoting Wilfred Smith’s Islam in Modern History
posits that the term ‘West’ may signal a religious interest e.g.
Christianity, being the predominant faith in the West against the Eastern
Europe where for many years religion is officially discourged. Thus, the
West sees Christianity as part of its cultural heritage and therefore
defends and promotes it along with its political and economic interests.
(Omotosho; 2006:9)
The world of Islam today finds itself in the orbit of the western
domination of the world. But giving its antecedents, Islam is not just
like the rest of the world, it had once led the world, it had conquered
parts of the west, it had and continues to convert from Christianity.
Above all, in today’s world, the world of Islam has under its soil, a large
proportion of the greatest source of energy for industry. Arab oil is an
important factor in the advancement of the world economy. And lastly,
Islam remains one ideology that is eminently qualified to rival the
ideology of the west, the liberal democracy that is the political wing of
capitalism. Thus, just like in the past, Islam remains the West’s
albatross, says Oluwatoki (2006). Having said this, it is apposite to
assess the impact of Islam (early Muslims) on Western civilization with
a view to discerning the former’s indispensability.
3.2 Impact of the Muslim Civilization on the Euro-Christian

(West) Civilization
Indeed, it is incomprehensible to the non-Muslims that the Arabs who

were so backward and ignorant in the centuries preceding the advent pf
Islam could have become so enlightened and scholarly in such a short
83
time after adopting the new faith. One of the greatest exponents of this
line of thought is Moritz Cantor who has written an encyclopaedic
history of mathematics in the German Language. Florian Cajori, the
author of the History of Mathematial Notation equally says of the Arabs:
“The Arabs present an extraordinary spectacle in the history of
civilization” (Shariff; 1966: 1277)
The channel of the diffusion of Muslim knowledge to the West has been
mainly through the sacking of the Islamicempire in Spain. King Phillip
II (1556-1598) seized all books in the libraries of the Spanish Muslim
cities. Under Phillip III a ship load of books belonging to Sharif Zaydan,
the ruler of Morocco who was shifting his base at the beginning of the
Seventeen Century was seized by the Spanish pirates and which
eventually were confiscated by the king of the Spaniards.( Abubakre;
2003:31)
An objective attitude was alone met with in a quite different sphere,

which was only loosely connected with the Islamic religion. I am
referring to science in the widest sense of the word. From the very
beginning of the tenth century, small groups of men had attempted to
increase the store of theoretical knowledge about the world and man that
was contained in the few Latin books that had been salvaged from the
wreck of ancient civilization.
Men in those few groups had learnt that the Muslims possessed Arabic
translations of the basic works of the ancient World, and had access to
complete manuals of the sciences that were considered essentials.
( Schacht & Bosworth; 1974:.14)
Gradually, Latin translations of these works appeared, and the wealth of

Arab science spread to England, to Lorraine, to Salerno, and above all to
Spain, where contact was more easily made. The work of translation
grew and became organized in that country after the fall in 1085 of the
great city of Toledo, one of several centres of intellectual activity there.
Indeed, what was being sought in the Arab manuscripts was in no way
an image of Islam or of the Muslim world, but rather the objective
knowledge of nature.
All the same, something inevitable became known about the Muslim
provider of this knowledge; and there was also established a close
contact with the translators whose services were used, and who were
Mozarabs or Jews or in some cases Muslim with a wide first-hand
knowledge of the Muslim world.
84
It is important to note that one Pedro de Alfonso, a Spanish Jew, who

was baptized at Huesca in 1106 and became physician to Henry I
England translated works on astronomy, and also wrote the first book
containing information of some objective value about Muhammad and
Islam (Ibid. p.15)
There was another field where several interest converged, and where the
Latins discovered yet another image of Islam which was strikingly at
variance with their religious pre-conceptions, that is, philosophy. At
first, philosophy and the natural sciences were in need of
supplementation from works of what we would call scientific
methodology, (works on logic and on theory of Man and Cosmos). The
same encyclopedic writers had dealt with all Aristotle and the Avicenna.
The Lati West only gradually became aware of Aristotle. In the twelfth
century, his brief Categories and his De Interpretative were already
known through old Latin translations by Boethius, while the rest of the
Aristotelian corpus was slowly becoming known, but only to a handful
of people, through new translations made directly from the original
Greek. (Ibid. p.18)
Briffault, in his “The Making of Humanity” did not mince words in

linking the European growth to Muslim civilization when he writes:
It is highly probable that but for the Arabs

modern European civilization would never
arisen at all; it is absolutely certain that but for
them it would have assumed that character
which has enabled it to transcend all previous
phases of evolution. For although there is not a
single aspect of European growth in which the
decisive influence of Islamic culture is not
traceable,…(Cited in Koshul; 1995:37)
Okunu (1999) in a paper entitled “Educating the Muslim Child:

Triumphs and Problems” quoting same person (Robert Briffault) says
further:
The influence of the Muslim civilization over

Western culture was so great and diverse that it is
visible even today in many of the names of things
and articles of ordinary use. The debt of our
science to that of the Arabs does not consist in
startling discoveries or revolutionary theories,
Science owes a great deal more to Arab culture; it
owes its existence… What we call science arose in
Europe as a result of a new spirit of inquiry, of
85
new methods of investigation, of the method of

experiment, observation, and measurement, of the
development of mathematics in a form unknown
to the Greeks. That spirit and those methods were
introduced into European world by the Arabs.
(Okunu; 1999)
Human history, according to Sarton’s Introduction to the History of

Sciences published in Baltimore in 1927 could be divided into periods
of fifty years. Each period was identified with the most influential
scientist of the time and named the period as that scientist’s epoch. For
instance, 400-350BC is regarded as the age of Plato (C.347BC),
followed by the epochs of Aristotle (C. 322 BC), Euclid and
Archimedes etc. From the fifth century BC, Jabir b. Hayyan (d.
200AH/815AD Geber in Medieval Europe) was said to be the first
Muslim Scientist to appear between 750-800 periods, followed by al-
Khwarizmi (d.850, Khiva among the West), ar-Razi (d.925, Rhazes),
Mas’ud (d.957) Abu al-Wafa’ (d.997) al-Biruni (d.1050) and ‘Umar al-
Khayyam (d.1124). Impliedly, the above Muslim
Philosophers/Scientists appear to be in full control of the world stage of
science for about three hundred and fifty years i.e. three centuries or
thereabout (750-1100 CE). This period, he contends, could not be
interrupted until 1100CE when Gregory of Cremona and Roger Bacon
interrupted the chain. Yet, Muslims reappeared for another two hundred
and fifty years i.e. two centuries beginning with the epoch of Ibn Rusd,
Nasir ud-Din al-Tusi and Ibn Nafia. Perhaps, this historical chronology
informs Sarton’s further assertion about Muslim civilization when he
says: “The main task of mankind was accomplished by
Muslims…” (Elegba; 1993)
The period of Muslim preeminence in the scientific fields parallels

directly the Dark Ages in Europe. The wide gap between the western
and Islamic cultures during this period is better illustrated by these
suppositions:
al-Hakim (d.975), a vizier in the Muslim government in Spain, had a

private library collection of four hundred thousand books while the
famous libraryChristian Spain at this time was in the Repoll Monastery,
which contained a mere one hundred and ninety-two books.
In the same vein, Ibn Fadlan, a Muslim trader obseves a crude

civilization on the hygienic practices of Scandinavian traders who he
had contact with at the lower Volga River in one of his trading tours into
the area. He writes:
86
Every morning a girl comes and brings a tub of

water, and places it before her master. In this he
proceeds to wash his face and hands, and then
his hair, combing it out over the vessel.
Thereupon, he blows his nose, and spits into the
tub, leaving no dirt behind, conveys it all into
this water. When he has finished, the girl carries
the tub to the man next him (sic), who does the
same. Thus, she continues carrying the tub from
one to another, till each of those who are in the
house has blown his nose and spit into the tub,
and washed his face and hair
The point being made in the above explanation is that while the former
compares the two private libraries (Hakim and Repoll Monastery) and
fathom out which one, probably, is likely to have influenced the other,
the latter shows the backwardness of the Scandinavian traders, for as
argued by Koshul, Muslims in Cairo, Baghdad, Toledo, Granada and
other major cities were already used to public baths which were
constructed by the government and private citizens. In other words, it
implies that as at then when the west seems to be barbaric in their ways
of life, Muslims were already civilized and advanced.
It is on record that in an attempt to enrich Western philosophy, Gerard

of Ceroma made an intellectual tour to Toledo in search of Arabic
versions of Greek texts which he would translate. Around the same time,
translation of Avicenna’s great philosophical compendium (Kitab al-
Shifa’) had commenced and by 1180, the first corpus of the work was
completed and began to circulate in Europe.(Ibid. p.18 )
It is worthy of note also that the Western historian of science’s notion in

attempting to relegate the Islamic civilization to the role of a mere
transmitter of the Greek (Western ) tradition aims at denying Islam an
important role in the history of science, one that perhaps generated and
contributed to modern science in a unique way. The phrase “transmitter
of knowledge” according to Fakhr, conveys a passive role, one of
translation and preservation; as if by this very statement the element of
creativity and innovation within the Islamic community had no
existence of its own in the rich evolution of science. He therefore,
cautions that the contribution of Islamic civilization towards the
plurality of civilizations should not at any point in time be dismissed or
forgotten. ( Fakhr;1992)
Aasi in his paper “Muslim Contributions to the History of Religions”

provides us with an insight into the enormous role Muslims played in
the history of religions during the Middle Ages. Indeed, al-Shahrastani,
87
according to him was said to be the pioneer scholar to write on the

history of religions. In quoting the author of Comparative Religions: A
History, he surmises:
The honour of writing the first history of

religion, in world literature, seems in fact to
belong to the Muslim Shahrastani (d.1153)
whose Religious Parties and Schools of
Philosophy describes and systematizes all the
religions of the then-known world, as far as the
boundaries of China. This outstanding outstrips
anything which Christian writers were capable
of producing at the same period (Ghulam-
Haider; 1991)
Frank Rosenthal, the famous translator of some of the medieval works

such as Ibn Khaldun’s al-Muqaddimah strongly upholds that one of the
great contributions of Muslim civilizations to mankind’s intellectual
progress is the comparative study of religion. (Ibid. p.416).
What accounted for the backwardness of the Muslims after reaching the
zenith according to Aasi might not be unconnected to either due to the
onslaught of colonialism or due to the downfall of the Muslim empire;
hence, they became more concentrated on the preservation of the
tradition and more rigid and defensive, rather than open and analytical in
their points of view (Ibid. p.420).
The impact of the Islamic civilization on the European West featured

more in the realm of institutions of higher learning. It is on record that
after the closure of the Academy of Athens by imperial decree in 529,
the first institutions of higher learning in Christian Europe were
established by the Muslims in the 12th century. Indeed, the first college
to be located in the Latin West, known as “College des Dix-Huit”
according to Koshul was established in Paris in 1180. The founder, John
of London, founded the College when he returned from his Jerusalem
tour or visit. Koshul notes in this regard:
Before John of London established this college

for “eighteen poor students, the founding of
educational institutions for poor students by
pious individual had no precedents in Christian
Europe. The concept of establishing such
charitable trusts is almost certainly based on the
Islamic waqf system.….The fact that such an
institution was first established by an individual
who had just returned rom a pilgrimage to
88
Jerusalem in a place where no such institution

existed before points strongly to the influence
of Islamic civilization in the founding of the
first Parisian college. (Koshul; 1995)
It has further been posited that the nascent intellectual tradition in the
West was deepend and or enhanced by the pocket of individuals who
had passed through the Muslim Universities of Spain or Sicily.
Prominent among these are Grosseteste who studied in Spain and taught
at Oxford, Raymond Lully who studied in Spain and taught at Vienna,
Fibionacci who studied mathematics when he was in Algeria and
Muslim Spain and returned to Italy, Daniel de Morlay who studied in
Cordova and taught at Oxford etc.
Europe had not one university or cultural centre to show for itself in
those centuries when Islamic lands had large numbers staffed by experts
and specialist in all branches of knowledge. These Islamic centres were
beginning to radiate waves of brilliant new thinking to the world at the
very moment when the crusades were launched. In fact, it could be said
without any fear of contradiction that it was the new learning fostered by
Islam which itself furnished the Europeans with some of their new
thinking that made possible whatever powers they achieved in those
NONS and fired the passion of jealousy and cupidity which made the
west wish to seize for itself the treasures which they saw Islam bringing
to the nations under its sway.
Dr. Gustave says in his book that:
“In those days when books and libraries meant

nothing to Europeans. Many Islamic lands had
books and libraries in plenty. Indeed, in
Baghdad’s ‘House of wisdom’ there were four
million volumes, and Cairo’s Sultanic library
one million, and in the library of Syrian,
Tripoli, three million volumes, while in Spain
alone under Muslim rule there was an annual
publication of between seventy and eighty
thousand volumes.” (Gustave, n.d. p.329).
The indispensability of Arabic language forms another onus of the

impact of Muslim civilization on western civilization. Without fear of
any contradiction, prior to the 16th century, no scholar of repute in the
entire Europe was without a ground knowledge of Arabic, for almost all
the classical works in Greek civilization cum the most up-to-date
discoveries in various fields, were available only in Arabic. Sarton sums
up this indelible position of Arabic language thus: “When the West
89
sufficiently matured to feel the need of deeper knowledge, when it

finally wanted to renew its contact with ancient thought, it turned first of
all, not to Greek sources, but to the Arabs”
i. Give a vivid description of Muslim Civilization

ii. Highlight and expatiate on the impact of Muslim Civilization on
the Euro-Christian Civilization.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, it is incontrovertible fact that Islam contributed

immensely to the Euro-Christian civilization. Perhaps, this account for
why Lewis unequivocally submits that Islam was not only the first to
create a civilisation that was multiracial, multicultural and
intercontinental but also the first to make an indelible advancement
towards what it perceived as its universal mission while modern western
civilization is the first to embrace the whole planet.These impacts from
all indications is all-embracing ranging from intellectual tradition,
establishment of higher institutions of learning, history of religions,
Arabic language etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
It is obvious from the above treatise that Islam will continue to have its
landmark on the Western Civilization, albeit, modern scholars might
want to veil this indubitable fact through their pretence and hypocricy.
1. The impact of the Muslim Civilization on Euro-Christian

Civilization is multi-faceted. Discuss.
2. To what extent would you agree or disagree that Westen
Civilization would for ever be indebted to the earlier Muslims.
Aasi, Ghulam-Haider (1991). “Muslim Contributions to the History of

Religions” in The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences,
Vol.8, No. 3
Abubakre, R.D. (2003); “Survival of Arabic Terms in Modern Science”

in P.Ade Dopamu & E. Ade Odumuyiwa (eds.); Religion,
Science and Culture, Ikenne-Remo: Nigerian Association for the
Study of Religions (NASR).
90
Elegba, S.B. (1993). “Science and Technology for Africa: The Nigerian
Paradigm” in Nura alkali, Adamu Adamu, Awwal yadudu,
Rashid Motem and Haruna Salihi (eds.): Islam in Africa,:
Proceedings of tha Islam in Africa Comference, Ibadan:
Spectrum Books Limited.
Fakhr, M.S. (1992). “Towards an Externalist History of Islamic

Science” in The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences,
Vol.9, No. 2
Joseph Schacht & C.E. Bosworth (ed. 1974). The Legacy of Islam,
Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Koshul, B.B (1995). “The Impact on Western Civilization

Reconsidered” in The American Journal of Islamic Social
Sciences, Vol.12, No. 1
Lewis, Bernard (1997); The West and the Middle East in Foreign
Affairs, n.p.
Okunu, Femi (1999). “Educating the Muslim Child: Triumphs and

Problems” cited by Salisu, T.M. (2001): “Ibn Rushd; A Medieval
Islamic Philosopher and Intellectual: An Assessment” in African
Journal of Information Technology and Educational Media, Vol.
1 No.1)
Oluwatoki, J.O. (2006). “Islam, the West and Globalization: Attitude,

Effect and the Call.” in Muhibbu-Din, M.A.; Globalization and
Terrorism: The Response of Islamic Scholarship; Ijebu-Ode: The
Nigeria Association of Teachers of Arabic and Islamic Studies
(NATAIS)
Omotosho, A.O. (2006). “The West and Islamic Law in the Age of
Globalization” in Muhibbu-Din, M.A.; Globalization and
Terrorism: The Response of Islamic Scholarship; Ijebu-Ode: The
Nigeria Association of Teachers of Arabic and Islamic Studies
(NATAIS)
Sharif, M.M. (1966). A History of Muslim Philosophy, Wiesbaden: Otto

Harassowitz.
91
UNIT 2 CONTRIBUTIONS OF ISLAM TO SCIENCE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Islam and science.
3.2 The relationship between Islam and science
3.3 Early Muslims and their contributions to science
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit discusses the contributions of Islam to science, for acquisition

of knowledge is the key to successful living. One of the early Surahs of
the Holy Qur’an speaks of reading which is the primary source of
knowledge. Islam considers knowledge as a comprehensive whole,
which covers both spiritual and material aspects of human life. Indeed,
what distinguishes the Muslim scholars from the Christian priests,
according to Oloyede, is the unique place of knowledge. Knowledge to
the former is what leads to discovery in any field. Muslims are therefore
required to seek knowledge in all fields, and from even the most distant
places. In Hadith, the Holy prophet says: “Seek for knowledge even if it
is China”.
This is why there are a good number of famous Muslim scientists, artists
and scholars who contribute a great deal to scientific knowledge.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Define the word science and Islam.

• Highlight on the rapport between Islam and science.
• Identify and assess the unique contributions of the early Muslim
scholars/scientists to science.
92
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Definition of the Word Islam and Science
It is considered not worthwhile to attempt any definition for Islam again

here as we had extensively dealt with it earlier. However, we shall try to
delve into the other word i.e. science.
The word ‘Science’ which is known as cUlum in Arabic is from the

Latin word ‘Scientia’ which connotes ‘knowledge’ or “to know”. It
implies that, science generally, conveys knowledge as a whole but later
it specifically refers to “knowledge of nature.” It involves a pursuit of
knowledge covering general truths or the operation of fundamental laws.
It has been defined as “any branch of study related to observation and
classification of facts” (Gove; 1981) Sarton George (1985) in the
Encyclopaedia Americana defines science as “positive knowledge” The
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1988) calls it “any intellectual activity
concerned with the physical world and “entailing unbiased observations
and systematic experimentation”. (p.552). The Encyclopaedia of science
cited by Akintola (1992) defines it as “an organised body of knowledge
and opinion which is systematically supported by formal proofs or by
observational evidence …”.
It could be inferred from the above, therefore, that science is a body of

knowledge obtained or acquired through systematic observation and
experiment which allows us to deduce laws and principles. Thus,
Kennedy would regard any knowledge acquired by means of scientific
method as science. (Kennedy, 1959:12)
3.2 The Relationship between Islam and Science
There is no relationship existing between the two terms save what the
Qur’an says about them. The former, being a divine religion emphasizes
the latter (knowledge).Several verses abound in the Qur’an which make
allusion to learning or knowledge. Indeed, the first Qur’anic verse
revealed to Prophet Muhammad (saw) which charges him to
“read”shows a good rapport between the two terms. Other Qur’anic
verses include: “…Are those who know equal to those who know not ?”
(Q39:10). “…And none knows its right interpretation except Allah and
those who are firmly grounded in knowledge (Q3:7)”
Further evidence of the passion of Islam for science (knowledge) could

be inferred from the words of the prophet at the close of battle of Badr
in 622 CE/1O AH when he declares:
93
…… after the battle of Badr and Muslim

victory, to the huge crowds whom they had
taken prisoner, that any polytheist who trained
ten Muslims to read and write should win
freedom. (Sayd Mujtaba 1977:73).
The prophet (saw) pronouncement was put into practice, and it was thus
that a large number of his original adherents were put on the track of
education.
Imam cAli (R.T.A.) the third rightly guided caliph, declared that the
spreading of science and knowledge and culture and intellectual ability
was one of the merits to be covered and achieved by every Muslim
government. In the record of his words it is reported that he said:
O people! I have rights over you and you have

rights over me. Your right over me is to insist
that I shall always give you guidance and
counsel, and seek your welfare, and improve the
public funds and all your livelihoods, and help
raise you from ignorance and illiteracy to
heights of knowledge, learning, culture, social
manners and good conduct. (Sayyid Mujtaba,
1977:73).
The Abbasid Caliph Macmum founded a “House of Wisdom” Bayt al –

Hikinah in Baghdad to be a centre of science. He was a great scholar
and a lover of scholarship. He gave liberal patronage to men of learning
and encouraged scholarly discussions in his court. Thus, his court
became the resort of philosophers, astronomers, physicians, scientists,
poets, and other men of letters. He created an academy which he called
bayt al-hikmah in which there were various departments of learning.
Many Greek and ancient works were translated here into Arabic for the
accessibility of the common man. Their efforts were not confined only
to the reproduction of Greek and ancient works, but in some directions,
they extended also to original research. There were adequate provisions
for scholars and students to remain in this academy for study and
students came from various parts of the world to this academy.
Specifically, if the definition mentioned above “any intellectual activity

concerned with the physical world and “entailing unbiased observations
and systematic experimentation” is anything to go by, then it means that
Islam without question approves any knowledge, investigation,
experiments and or intellectual efforts that would either be beneficial to
humankind or enhances his better lot. The Glorious Qur’an tasks man in
this regard: “O company of Jinn and men! If you have power to go
94
beyond the confines of the heavens and the earth, then do so. But you
cannot go save with authority” (Q55:33) Thus, Islam through its
Scripture, leaves nothing undiscussed as Abubakre (2003:30) rightly
observes: “The Qur’an is not a book of general knowledge but it is one
that can be considered as a mine of information on nearly every aspect
of life”. In other words, it deals with all subject matters, science
inclusive. Browsing through the Qur’an, therefore, would unveil
discussions on scientific thoughts and subjects. Perhaps quoting
Abubakre again might bring our position more clearer:
Hence there are discussions on biological

sciences such as those relating to modern
biology, botany, zoology, chemistry, physics,
dealing with electricity, heat light, scales, and
measurements, sound, and weight. Other issues
raised in the Holy Book include agricultural
sciences to consist farming, horticulture, and
irrigation. Among other considerations in the
realm of science in the Holy Book is health
science which include physiology, psychiatry-
psycho-analysis, dietry regulations and
medicine (oral and non-oral). The Holy Book
also calls for general reflections on other
branches of natural science concerning the sky,
water cycle and seas, the earths atmosphere and
its relief, geology and mineralogy and of course
geography and anthropology.(p.30)
Akintola (1992) in his Scientific Discoveries Through Islam further

provides us with what he calls “scientific facts in the Qur’an”. These
facts include: oceanography, layers of darkness in the Qur’an, the
estuarine system in the Qur’an,, embryology in the Qur’an, the gaseous
mass, the two theories of science on end of the world i.e. bubble and
heat death to mention only a few.
The points in the above Qur’anic facts, to our mind, is that all what the
modern scientists arrogate to themselves as new inventions have been
overtly or covertly mentioned some one thousand four hundred and
twenty-eight years before the advent of the so called scientists nor their
so called discoveries and inventions. Perhaps, these “scientific facts in
the Qur’an” spurs Oloyede (1987) in a paper titled “Secularism and
Religion: Conflict and Compromise (An Islamic Perspectice) to posit:
It was only in 1961 that astronauts discovered

the possibility of the conquest, of space which
the Qur’an has alluded to over one thousand
95
four hundred years ago. The Qur’an also

predicted the possibility, with God’s command
of exploration of the earth and it came to pass.
The Holy Qur’an in chapter 50 verses 9-11 has
also treated water cycle in a manner that science
later came to agree with. The nature of attitude
in space was also indicated in the Qur’an in
chapter 6, verse 123. It states that “The Sun and
the Moon follow courses prescribed by special
accounting”. (p.28-9)
3.3 Early Muslims and Their Contributions to Science
Al-Harith b. Kaladah of Ta’if (d.634CE/ 14AH) otherwise known as

‘Doctor of the Arabs’ has been regarded as the pioneer of Arab
knowledge of science, for he was said to be the first scientifically
trained man in the Arabian peninsular. Robert Briffault earlier quoted
opines that it was the Arabs and early Muslim scientists who injected the
spirit of inquiry into Europeans. In his words, “…New method of
investigation, of experiment, of observation, of measurement, of the
development of mathematics in a form unknown to the Greeks” (p.190)
Abu cUbaydah, a Muslim geographer who lived in the 10th century was
among the early Muslim geographers who popularized the Indian belief
that the world had four cardinal points of equi-distance from each other
called Arin theory. Muslim scholars invented the numerical systems and
algebra. Muhammad b. Musa, in the realm of Physics invented
pendulum while the Muslim mathematicians such as al-Khwarzimi,
Muhammad b.Zakariya’ e.t.c. did not only pioneer the theory of
alegorism but also were the first to use decimal notion.
During the reign of Ma’mun of ‘Abbasid period, Abu yusuf Ya’qub al-
Kindi otherwise known as the “Philosopher of the Arabs” and one of the
greatest minds in world history according to Cardano began his literary
acumen, which was not only to transmit to his countrymen a knowledge
of Aristotelian and Neo-Platonic philosophy in translation and
adaptation, but also to extend their intellectual horizon by studies in
natural history and meteorology made in spirit of that philosophy. Al-
Kindi according to History of the Islamic Peoples showed himself a
child of his time in his cultivation of astrology, and even the study of the
future from shoulder bones , as entirely serious sciences.
Some chemicals, according to Akintola elsewhere (1990) were

discovered by Muslim scholars. These chemicals include: sulphuric
acid, nitric acid, potassium, ammonia salt, alcohol,preparation of
mercury e.t.c. Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar 1091-1192) of Andalusia (cordova)
96
introduced surgery as well as pharmacology in the 12th century. Abu cAli

Husayn ibn Zina otherwise known as Avicenna among the Latin scholar
as was regarded as the Great Physician. Indeed, his Magnum Opus
(Canon) served as a veritable material for several centuries world
over,especially in the European Universities. Perhaps, this outstanding
achievements of the scholar accounts for why his portrait along with Ar-
Razi adorn the great hall of the school of Medicine in Paris. Abu Bakr
Muhammad Ar-Razi made his indelible print in the field of medicine.
The Muslims also developed original concepts in physics and chemistry.
For instance, al-Hazim had a pioneering work on optics.
In sum, therefore, Akintola’s Scientific Discoveries Through Islam is

repelete with about twenty-one scientific discoveries invented by the
early Muslim scientists (p.14) while Abubakre provides us with various
Arabic terms still in use in the modern and contemporary science. These
terms range from astronomy, botany, chemistry, Medicine and
mathematics. (p.33-4)
i. What is the relationship between Islam and Science?

ii. Write a concise essay on the early Muslims and their
contributions to the modern science
4.0 CONCLUSION
The foregoing also has re-emphasized the timeless relevance of the

Muslim Great Book, alQur’an because all the indexes pointing to
science in the Scripture do not only remain unchallengeable but also
incontrovertible. Indeed, the challenge thrown by the Qur’an as well as
its encouragement of scientific experiment and/ or researches had led to
scientific advancement in the modern world.
5.0 SUMMARY
It has become obvious from the foregoing discussion that modern day
scientists would for ever be indebted to the early Muslim scientists, for
the latter have been the great mentors of learning and sciences.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENTS
1. Assess the contributions of Ibn Zina and Fakhru’d-Din Ar-Razi

to the modern and contemporary science.
2. To what extent would you agree that Islam and science are
inseparable?
97
Akintola, I.L. (1990). “The Qur’an on Science and Technology” a

seminar paper presented at WAMY Conference organized bythe
Department of Religions, Islamic Studies Unit, Lagos State
University
Akintola, I.L. (1992). Scientific Discoveries Through Islam, Lagos:

NTA Channel 10
Briffault, Robert (1928). The Making of Humanity, London: George

Allen and Unwin Ltd.
Brockelmann, Carl (1964). History of the Islamic Peoples, London:

Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, London, Encyclopaedia Britannica

Incorporated ,Vol.10 1988
George, S. (1985). “History of Science” in Encyclopaedia Americana,

Vol.24, U.S.A: Grolier Incorporated.
Gove; P.B. (1981). Webster’sThird New International Dictionary of the

English Language, U.S.A: Merrian Webster Incorporated.
Kennedy, J.G. A Phiiosopher Looks At Science, London, Van Nostrand

Reinhold Company
Oloyede, I.O. (1987). “Secularism and Religion: Conflict and

Compromise (An Islamic Perspectice)
Sayyid Mujtaba, R.M.L. (1977). Western Civilization Through Muslim

Eye, tr. F.J. Goulding, n.p.
98
UNIT 3 VARIOUS SCIENCES ASSOCIATED TO ISLAM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Conent
3.1 The Development of Arts and Sciences by the Muslims
3.2 The Branches of Science/Culture Enhanced by Islam or
the Early Muslim Scientists
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit attempt is made to understand the different sciences

associated with Islam. The great impact of Muslim scholars on western
scholars and their students, when the nations of Europe began to awake
from their condition of intellectual backwardness and set out to learn
from the Muslims in various scientific discoveries and innovation which
the Islamic background has engendered.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• Trace the development of Arts and sciences by the Muslims;

• Explain the scientific achievements of various scholars in Islam;
• Highlight the branches of science or culture enhanced by Muslim
scientists.
3.0 MAIN CONTNET
3.1 The Development of Arts and Sciences by the Muslims
The latest researches of Muslims and non-Muslims scholars are bringing

to bear on the work of Muslims in the various branches of knowledge
throughout the Middle Ages. Of special note among the works are the
Encyclopaedia of Islam and Sarton’s Introduction to the History of
Science. On a thorough study of information available on the subject,
M.M. Sherif asserts that one is struck by the magnitude as well as
importance of the contributions made by Muslims to the various
branches of science, especially to mathematics and astronomy.
99
From the 9th to the 13th centuries, Muslims were acknowledged as the
world leaders in the development of the Arts and Sciences. Among the
arts, poetry, calligraphy and architecture were highly prized while
Mosques and other buildings remain which express the Islamic ideas of
beauty and harmony. The love of beauty also found expression in
artefacts for daily use and decoration; ceramics, metalware, glassware
and in production of fine fabrics and decorated carpet.
The design of cities developed distinctive Islamic features, including

mosque, schools, markets, bath houses, hospitals, caravans and private
houses based around central courtyards with gardens, tree and fountains.
Visitors from Europe and other lands at this period used to marvel at the
comforts and luxuries available in the Muslim world, and at the general
state of cleanliness and development, which owed much to the
encouragement given by Islamic teachings both to hygiene and to
technological improvements.
Philosophy and science sprang to life again as the Muslim scholars

translated, commented on and developed almost every field of study:
Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Zoology, astronomy,
Geography, Medicine, animal husbandry, mechanics, sociology and
political disciplines, philosophy of history, law, ethics, jurisprudence,
grammar and theology.
According to the Enclopaedia Britannica:
Muslim scholars calculated the angle of the

ecliptic, measures the size of the Earth,
calculated the possession of the Equinoxes,
invented the pendulum clock, explained in the
field of optics and physics, such phenomena as
refraction of light, gravity, capillary attraction
and tuilight. Used the globe in teaching the
geography of a round earth, and developed
observations for the empirical study of the
heavenly bodies. (Enclopaedia Britannica)
They made advances in the uses of drugs, herbs and foods for
medication, established hospitals, with a system of interns and externs,
discovered the causes of certain diseases and developed correct
diagnoses of them, proposed new concepts of hygiene, made use of
anaesthetics in surgery with newly innovated surgical tools, and
introduced the science of dissection in Anatomy. They furthered the
scientific breeding of horses and cattle, found new ways of grafting to
produce new types of flowers and fruits, introduced new concepts of
100
irrigation, fertilization and soil cultivation, and improved on the science

of navigation.
In the area of chemistry, Muslim scholarship led to the discovery of

such substances as potash, alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid, sulphuric
acid and mercury chloride. It also developed to a high degree of
perfection the arts of textiles, ceramics and metallurgy.
In mathematics the Arabs adopted the concept of zero from the Indians,
which enabled them to develop new areas of mathematics. Some
mathematics processes retain their Arabic names today, such as al-Jabr
(Algebra). Similarly, in chemistry, words like “alcohol” and “al kali”
derive from their Arabic names al-kahl and al-qaliy respectively.
3.2 Branches of Science or Culture Enhanced By Muslims
3.2.1 Medical Science
According to the word of Dr. Meyerhof:
Muslim doctors laughed at the crusaders

medical attendants for their clumsy and
elementary efforts. The Europeans had not the
advantage of the books of Avicenna, Jaber,
Hassan bin Haythan, Rhazes. However, they
finally had them translated into Latin. These
translations exist still, without the translators
names. In the 16th century the book of Averroes
(Ibn Rushd) and Avicenna (Ibn Sina) were put
out in Latin translation in Italy and used as the
basis of instruction in the Italian and French
Universities. (Meyerhof:132).
The works of Avicenna were taken up after the death of Rhazes. His
influence on thought and philosophy and general science was profound,
and his medical works (based on the works of Galen which he had found
in the Samarqand library in Arabic translation) had a sensational
outreach. Andalusia, Abbas the Irani, Ali Ibn Rezvan of Egypt, Ibn
Butlan of Baqhdad, Abu Mansur Muwaffaq, Ibn Wafeed of Spain,
Masooya of Baghdad, Ali Ibn Issa of Baghdad, Ammar of Mosul, Ibn
Rushd (Averroes) of Andalusia, whose works translated to Latin were
used in European universities. Europe knew nothing of the cholera
bacterium when Islam entered Spain, and the people there regarded the
disease as a punishment sent from heaven to exact the penalty of sins,
but Muslim physicians had already proved that even the bubonic plaque
was a contagious disease and nothing else.
101
One of the most progressive physicians of Islam called Muhammad Ibn

Zakariah Razi (Rhazes), was the author of 200 treatises and books which
worth studying today especially his:
1. “Smallpox and measles” (published in Latin and other European

tongues in 40 editions between 1497 and 1866 and
2. “The Great Encylopaedia” known as the most authoritative work

on the eye and its ailments and treatment for centuries, one of the
nine basic works on which Paris University composed its medical
course in 1394 A.D.
Sugery made similar progress in the hands of Islamic practitioners, who

even used anesthetics, though these are assumed to be a modern origin.
They employed a henbane base.
Among Rhazes innovations was the use of cold water to treat persistent
fever, of dry – cupping for apoplexy, of mercury ointment and animal
qut for wound sutures, and many others. The greatest of Islamic
surgeons was Abu’l-Qasem of Andahisia, affectionately called Abul-
Qays, and sometimes Abul-Qasees, floruit 11th century A.D. inventor of
very many surgical instruments and author of books. His books were
translated and printed in innumerable editions in Latin and used all over
Europe, the last such edition being in 1816. (Sayid Mujta, n.d. pp.
76-77).
3.2.2 Pharmacology
Modern European pharmacologist who have studied the history of their

profession find that Muslim doctors launched many of the modern
beneficial specifics centuries ago, made as science of pharmacology and
compound cures, and set up the first pharmacies on the modern model.
Baghdad alone had 60 Chemists shops dispensing prescriptions
regularly at the changes of the caliph. Evidence of this fact can be seen
in the names given in Europe to quite a number of medicines and herbs
which betray their Arabic, Indian or Persian origin “such are “alcohol,
alkali, alkaner, apricot, arisenic,” to mention but a few.
Muslim doctors invented the art of mixing chemical medicaments in

pills and solutions, many of which are in use to this day, though some of
them are claimed as wholly new inventions of our present century by
chemists unaware of their distinguished history. Islam had dispensaries
which filled prescriptions for patients graits, and in parts of countries
where no hospitals existed, physicians paid regular visits with all the
tools of their trade to look after public health.
102
3.2.3 Mathematics
The Arabs started work on arithmetic in the second/eight century. Their

first task in this field was to systematize the use of the Hindus minerals
which are now permanently associated with their names. Obviously, this
was an immense advance on the method of depicting numbers by the
letters of the alphabet which was universal up to that time and which
prevailed in Europe even during the Middle Ages. The rapid
development in mathematics in the subsequent ages could not have
taken place without the use of numerals, particularly zero without which
all but the simplest calculations become too cumbersome and
unmanageable. The zero was mentioned for the first time in the
arithmetical work of al-khawarizini written early in the third/ninth
century. The Arabs did not confine their arithmetic to integers only, but
also contributed a great deal to the rational numbers consisting of
fractions. This was the first extension of the domain of numbers, which,
in its logical development, led to the real, complex and hyper complex
numbers constituting a great part of modern analysis and algebra. They
also developed the principle of error which is employed in solving
algebraic problems arithmetically.
Al – Biruni (363 – 432/973-1040), Ibn Sina (370-428/980-1037), Ibn al

– Samh d 427/1035), Muhammad Ibn Hussain al-Karkhi (d.410/1019 or
420/1029), abu sa‘id al-Sijzi (c.340-c.415/c951-1024) are some of the
arithmeticians who worked on the higher theory of numbers and
developed the various types of numbers.
The Arabs also solved the famous problem of finding a square which, on
the addition and subtraction of a given number, yields other squares.
3.2.4 Chemistry
Jabir bn Hayyan (721-815 A.C.) a disciple of the sixth Iman al Jafar al-
Sadiq, became known worldwide as “the father of Chemistry” and of
Arab alchemy. His influence on western chemistry and alchemy was
profound and long lasting. Some of his famous books on alchemy are
the Book of Mercy, the Book of Concentration, the Book of Kingdom
and the Book of Balances. “We find in them remarkably sound views
on method of chemical research” says George Sarton. Among Jabir’s
studies were the geological formation of metals, refinement of metals,
preparation of steel, dying of cloth and leather, varnishes to waterproof
cloth and protect iron, the use of manganese dioxide in making glass,
the use of iron pyrites for writing in gold, distillation of vinegar to
concentrate acetic acid, and the magnetic force. He also did work on
calcination, reduction, evaporation, sulbimation, distillation, meeting
103
and crystallization. He was familiar with the preparation of a number of

basic substances and their compounds.
More than 500 of his works have been put into print and for the most
part are to be found among the treasures of the national libraries of Paris
and Berlin, while the servants of Europe nicknamed him affectionately
as ‘Wisdom’s professor’ and attributed to him the discovery of 19 of the
elements with their specific weights, etc. Jabir says all can be traced
back to a simple basic particle composed of a charge of lightning
(electricity) and fire, the atom, or smallest indivisible unit of matter,
very close to modern atomic science. In this way jabir exerted strong
influence in the development of modern Chemistry.
3.2.5 Astronomy
The astronomical observation recorded in Ma’mun’s time in connection

with the equinoxes, the eclipses, the apparitios of the comets and other
celestial phenomena were unprecedented. The size of the earth was
calculated from the measurement of a degree on the shores of the Red
sea. Apparently, this was the time when Christian Europe was asserting
the flatness of the earth.
Abu’l Hassan invented the telescope, of which he speaks “a tube to the

extremities of which were attached diopters.” These “tubes” were
improved and used afterwards in the observatories of Maragha and
Cairo with huge success.
Innumerable works on arithmetic, geometry, philosophy, astronomy,

meteorology, optics, mechanics, medicine, etc were compiled and made
available to the public. Indeed, the first observatory in Islam was
established by Ma’mun at Shamassia on the plains of Tadmor while
several others were created afterwards at Wasit, Apamea, etc. Sharif’s
History of Muslim Philosophy is replete with a number of observatories
erected by Muslims all over their vast empire. (See Sharif; 1966: 1284)
3.2.6 Mechanical Engineering
Ibn firnas (died 883) was an aggressive builder of engines. Many other
Muslim engineers left their footprints on the sands of time.
3.3 Survived Arabic Terms in the Modern Science
Abubakre (2003:33) provides us with a list of some Arabic terms which

still survive in the modern day science so as to proof beyond any
reasonable doubt that science owes a lot to the early Muslims
scholarship. The terms include:
104
S/N ARABIC MODERN SCIENTIFIC

USE
ASTRONOMY
1. An-Nazir Nazir
2. As-Samt Zenith
3. Al-Faras Alfaras
4. At-Tair Altair
5. Al-Qaid Alkaid
6. Al-khur Algol
7. Banatu ’n-Na’sh Benatnatnasch
8. Al-yad Alioth
9. As-Sadr Alshedir
10. Baffu’l-khadib Caph
11. Nayru’l-fakkah Alphecca
12. Dhanabu’d-Dajajah Aaneb
13. As-Sumut Azimuth
BOTANY, CHEMISTRY AND
MEDICINE
14. Al-Imbig Alembic
15 Al-Khul Alcohol
16. Al-Gali Alkali
17. Ithmid Antimony
18. Al-‘Uthal Aludel
19. Al-Tutiya’ Tutty
20. Al-Iksir Elixir
21. Julab Julep
22. Rubb Rob
23. Sharab Syrup
24. Sudac Soda/ Sodanum
25. Kafur Camphor
MATHEMATICS
26. Jaybg Sinus
27. Jadhr asamm Surb
28. Shin X
29. Al-Jabr Algebra
30. Sifr Cipher/Zero
31. Al-Jabr wa’l Mugabalah Algorism/Algerism
SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCICES
i. Mention the various sciences that are associated with Islam

ii. Account for how Islamic Civilization comes next to the Greek
Civilization.
105
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the foregoing, efforts have been geared tewards unraveling the
unprecedented role of Islam in placing science on a crucial orbit. It is
evidently clear that after the Greek civilization comes next the Islamic
civilization, for the challenges thrown by the Qur’an as well as its
encouragement of scientific experiment and researches had led to
scientific advancement. Thus, Muslim scientists were able to make their
own contributions to scientific progress world over.
5.0 SUMMARY
The above treatise does not only elucidate on the scientific achievements
of various scholars in Islambut also shed light on the branches of science
or culture enhanced by Muslim scientist.

Identify three major sciences associated with Islam and wite an essay on
the pioneers.

Abubakre, R.D. (2003). “Survival of Arabic Terms in Modern Science”
in P.Ade Dopamu & E. Ade Odumuyiwa (eds.); Religion,
Science and Culture, Ikenne-Remo, Nigerian Association for the
Study of Religions (NASR).
Akintola, I.L. (1990). “The Qur’an on Science and Technology” a

seminar paper presented at WAMY Conference organized bythe
Department of Religions, Islamic Studies Unit, Lagos State
University.
Akintola, I.L. (1992). Scientific Discoveries Through Islam, Lagos:

NTA Channel 10
Ali Sayyed Amir (1979). A Short History of the Saracens, Delhi: Kutub
Khana Ishayat-ul-Islam
Brockelmann, Carl (1964). History of the Islamic Peoples, London:

Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.
Sarton, George, (1985). “Introduction to the History of Science” in

Encyclopaedia Americana, Vol.24, U.S.A: Grolier Incorporated.
Sharif, M.M. (1966). A History of Muslim Philosophy, Wiesbaden: Otto

Harassowitz.
106

Isl 101

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Isl 101

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Isl 101

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ISL 101 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Course Code ISL101

Course Title General Introduction to Islam

Course Developer Mr. T.M. Salisu

Course Editor Dr. Asif Ahmad

Programme Leader Dr. O. A. Adewale

Course Coordinator Dr. Asif Ahmad

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

First Printed 2008

All Rights Reserved

Module 1 The Basic Principles Of Islam………… 1

Unit 1 Definition and Meaning of Islam………… 1-11

Module 2 The Primary and Secondary Sources of Islam 53

Unit 1 The Qur’an……………………………… 53-59

Module 3 Islam, Civilization and Science………... 81

Unit 1 Islam and Western Civilization………….. 81-90

MODULE 1 THE BASIC PRINCIPLES OF ISLAM

Unit 1 Definition and Meaning of Islam

UNIT 1 DEFINITION AND MEANING OF ISLAM

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• trace the origin of the word Islam

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Derivative/Technical Meaning of Islam

Literally, Islam is an Arabic word derived from three syllables: s-l-m

Apparently, the word Islam connotes the idea of submission which in

Technically, therefore, Islam means a religion of peace, for it was

Surely, the true religion with Allah is Islam…

The above-cited Qur’anic verses amongst numerous others corroborate

The religion (al-Islam), however, is not Mohammadanism as portrayed

The same did Abraham enjoin upon his sons-

Were you present when death came to Jacob,

And who believe in that which has been

before thee, and they have firm faith in what is

Say ye: We believe in Allah and what has been

This Messenger of Ours believes in that which

3.2 Peaceful teachings of Islam in Practice

As earlier established, Islam connotes peace in all ramifications, for one

To make peace with Allah, one has to submit whole-heartedly to His

As per peaceful, harmonious co-existence between man and his fellow

When a (courteous) greeting is offered you,

Another reflection of the peaceful nature of Islam is its attitude towards

In another Qur’anic verse, Allah (SWT) further declares as follows.

There is no compulsion in religion, the right is

Sayyid Qutb (1967:425) in his Tafsir work, Fi Zilalu’l-Qur’an therefore

However, rather than compelling anyone to accept it, the

Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and

As already mentioned above, the basic principle taught by Islam with

Do not abuse those whom they call upon

Should anyone of the idolaters seek your

It should be noted that during the early days of Islam, the

In this connection, an incident in the life of the Prophet Muhammad

So the Islamic State which was established by

Fight in the way of God against those who fight

And if they incline to peace, you should also

Say: ‘People of the Book, come to an

The purpose of this invitation, it should be noted, was to find a common

That Caliph ‘Umar granted them (People of